AXLE

METALLURGY
AND
SPECIFICATION
 AXLE
METALLURGY
 MANUFACTURING OF
AXLES
• STEEL MAKING
• AXLE FORGING
• HEAT TREATMENT
• MACHINING
 STEEL MAKING
FURNACE - ELECTRIC, BASIC OXYGEN
KILLED QUALITY (MAXIMUM FATIGUE STRENGTH UNDER CONDITION OF
DYNAMIC LOADING)
NITROGEN =0.007% MAX
HYDROGEN = 3 ppm MAX (IRS: 16/95), 2 ppm MAX (IRS: 43/92),
(THIS ELEMENT HAS THE TENDENCY TO DEVELOP CRACKS/
BRITTLENESS DURING SUBSIQUENT MANUFACTERING OPERATIONS OR
SERVICE)
S & P =0.04% MAX (IRS: 16/95)
(FREEDOM FROM HOT SHORTNESS & COLD SHOTNESS)
STEEL SO PRODUCED IS IN FORM OF INGOT
SUFFICENT DISCARD IS NECESSARY TO AVOID PIPING AND HARMFUL
SEGGRIGATION
-
 AXLE FORGING
REDUCTION RATIO FROM INGOT TO AXLE
SHOULD NOT BE LESS THAN 4:1

USING CONCAST BLOOMS- REDUCTION RATIO 3:1

Min.

FORGED AXLE ARE ALLOWED TO COOL SLOWLY IN

FURNACE AFTER FORGING
 HEAT TREATMENT

THE FORGED AXLES ARE THEREAFTER

SUITABLY HEAT TREATED
(NORMALISED OR OIL HARDENED &
TEMPERED) TO OBTAIN DESIRED
MICROSTRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
 MACHINING
FORGED AND HEAT TREATED BLANKS ARE MACHINED TO
DRAWING DIMENSIONS

SPECIFIED SURFACE FINISH ESPECIALLY ON THE JOURNALS

AND WHEEL SEAT AREAS

THE FILLET RADIA AT EACH CHANGE OF SECTION HAS TO BE

GRADUAL TRANSISTION AND OF CORRECT DIMENSIONS

SHARP CHANGES IN SECTION , TOOL MARK, DENT MARK ,

MACHINING MARK ON THE SURFACE OF AXLES ARE
UNDESIRABLE (FATIGUE PROPERTY IS HIGHLY SENSITIVE TO
THESE SURFACE IMPERFECTIONS
 BRANDING
Hot stamped on both ends (not on the body) of the axle. All the details
are stamped cold in 4 to 6 mm letters on the ends after the same are
machine faced:

Manufacturer’s code name (in 3 digits)

Year of manufacture (in last two digits)
Cast no. (in 5 digits, first digit being an alphabet)
Individual serial no. (in 5 digits)
Drawing Number
Inspector’s approval stamp
‘UT’ for Ultrasonic Testing

Cast number, individual serial number and drawing number shall be

separated by a ‘/’.
 SPECIFICATION
IRS R-16/95
STEEL AXLE FOR CARRIAGES AND WAGONS

IRS R-43/92
AXLE FOR DIESEL AND ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES, EMU MOTOR
COACHES AND POWERED AXLES OF RAIL CARS
 Category – A : motor driven axles of Diesel and Electric Locomotives,
EMU Motor Coaches and Rail Cars.

 Category – B : Carbon shaft driven axles of Diesel and Hydraulic

Locomotives and Rail cars.
 IRS: R-16/95

STEEL AXLE
FOR
CARRIAGES AND WAGONS
 IRS R-16/95 FOR C&W AXLES
TESTING
Chemical composition
Mechanical Test
 Tensile test
 Impact test
Macro examination
Metallographic analysis
 Micro examination
 Grain size
Ultrasonic test
Magnetic Particle Test
 CHEMICAL TEST
 Ladle analysis of steel
 WET ANALYSIS
Testing done from drilling as per IS:228.

 Product Analysis
 WET ANALYSIS
Testing done from drilling as per IS:228.

 SPECTROGRAPHY
Testing done by spectrometer.
 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (C&W)
(LADLE ANALYSIS)
IRS R-16/95
% Carbon 0.37 max.
% Manganese 1.12 max.
% Silicon 0.15 – 0.46
% Phosphorus 0.04 max.
% Sulphur 0.04 max.
% Chromium 0.30 max.
% Nickel 0.05 max.
% Molybdenum 0.30 max.
% Copper 0.30 max.
% Vanadium 0.05 max.
% P+S 0.07 max.
 PRODUCT ANALYSIS
CARRIED OUT ON FINISHED PRODUCT
(Permissible variation from ladle analysis)

ELEMENT VARIATION PERCENT

Carbon +0.03, -0.00
Manganese +0.06, -0.00
Silicon +0.04, -0.00
Sulphur & Phosphorus +0.005, -0.000
Chromium & Nickel +0.05, -0.00
Copper & Vanadium +0.02, -0.00
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
R-16/95
PROPERTIES NORMALISED QUENCHED & TEMPERED

Ultimate Tensile Strength (N/ 550 – 650 550 – 700

mm2, min.)

Yield Strength (N/mm2, min.) 320 350

Elongation Percentage (min.) 22 24

Impact U – notch at 20deg.C (J 25 40

min. lengthwise)
 TENSILE TEST
Selection of sample – One axle per batch. Each batch should
contain axle from only one cast.
Location of Sample – sample shall be taken longitudinally from
the wheel seat of the axle. The axis of test piece shall be half way
along the radius of the wheel seat.
Tensile test is done as per IS : 1608 on standard test piece.
It determines following properties:
 ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH
 PERCENT ELONGATION
 YIELD STRESS
 IMPACT TEST (U – NOTCH)

 Location of Sample –The axis of test piece shall

be half way along the radius of the wheel seat.

 Impact test is done as per IS : 1499 on standard

test piece.
 MACRO EXAMINATION
Sampling Frequency – One test per cast per heat treatment
batch.

Macro Examination shall be conducted on the radial

surface of the wheel seat area.

After polishing surface is examined with a magnification

factor 5 or less.

Macro Examination must not reveal any discontinuities.

 METALLOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS
MICROEXAMINATION
 Location – Test piece shall be taken from tensile test specimen.
 Sampling Frequency - One test per cast per heat treatment batch.
 Microstructure
 Normalised – Normalised ferrite pearlite structure.
 Quenched & Tempered – Tempered martensite structure.

Grain Size
 Location – Test piece shall be taken from tensile test specimen.
 Sampling Frequency - One test per cast per heat treatment batch.
 Grain Size is determined as per IS : 2853.
 Grain size may not be coarser than ASTM No. 5.
 ULTRSONIC TEST

All the axles conforming to all the aforesaid tests

shall be subjected to ultrasonic test.

Only those passing this test shall be accepted.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TEST
(AS PER CORRIGENDUM NO. 1 OF MAY, 1997)
All axles (in rough machined condition or fully
machined and heat treated condition) shall be tested
by magnetic particle method both in longitudinal
and circular magnetization.
Shall not reveal any harmful surface defects.
Any axle revealing harmful surface defects shall be
rejected.
All axles shall be demagnetized after the magnetic
particle test.
 AS PER CORRIGENDUM NO. 2 OF
SEPTEMBER, 1999
Imperfections not acceptable:
 Transverse/circumferential seams, cracks or laps of any depth on axle
surface.
 Longitudinal discontinuity (hairlines, stringer, fine seam) in machined
fillets.

Imperfections considered acceptable:

 Journels:

Fine longitudinal discontinuity (hairlines, stringer, fine seam) on surface if

(i) Not extended on fillets.
(ii) Less than 19 mm individually.
(iii) Total length of discontinuity (6.5mm or more) less than 51 mm.
Continued…..
 Wheel seats

Longitudinal seams if
(i) Not extended on fillets.
(ii) Individually not more than 51 mm long.
(iii) Total length of imperfection (6.5 mm to 51 mm) not to exceed 105 mm.
 Body

Longitudinal discontinuities if
(i) Not extended to fillets of wheels/gear seats.
(ii) Individually not more than 38 mm long.
(iii) Total length of discontinuity not to exceed 38.2 mm in any 305 mm.
 IRS : 43/92
AXLE FOR DIESEL AND ELECTRIC
LOCOMOTIVES, EMU MOTOR
COACHES AND POWERED AXLES
OF RAIL CARS
 IRS : 43/92
TESTING
Chemical composition
Mechanical Test
 Tensile test
 Cold Bend Test
 Charpy Impact test
Macro examination
Microscopic Examination
 Micro examination
 Grain size
Ultrasonic test
Magnetic Particle Test
 CHEMICAL TEST
 Ladle analysis of steel
 WET ANALYSIS
Testing done from drilling as per IS:228.

 Product Analysis
 WET ANALYSIS
Testing done from drilling as per IS:228.

 SPECTROGRAPHY
Testing done by spectrometer.
 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (Loco)
(LADLE ANALYSIS)
IRS R-43/92
CONTENTS CATEGORY – A CATEGORY - B
% Carbon 0.40 – 0.55 0.22 – 0.29
% Manganese 0.60 – 0.90 0.60 – 0.90
% Sulphur 0.050 max. 0.030 max.
% Phosphorus 0.045 max. 0.035 max.
% Silicon 0.15 min. 0.15 – 0.40
% Chromium - 0.90 – 1.20
% Molybdenum - 0.15 – 0.30
 CHECK ANALYSIS
PERMISSIBLE VARIATION
CONTENTS CATEGORY – A CATEGORY - B
% Carbon ± 0.03 ± 0.02
% Manganese ± 0.03 ± 0.04
% Sulphur +0.005 +0.005
% Phosphorus +0.005 +0.005
% Silicon - 0.02 +0.03
% Chromium - - 0.06
% Molybdenum - ± 0.03
 TENSILE TEST
The manufacturer shall leave an extra length of the same diameter as
that of forged end of the axle on 50 % of the axle so as to enable to
select and cut one such coupon for tensile test, cold bend test, charpy
impact test and macro examination.
Selection of sample – One axle per batch. Each batch should contain
axle from only one cast.
Tensile test is done as per IS : 1608 on standard test piece.
It determines following properties:
 ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH
 PERCENT ELONGATION
 % REDUCTION IN AREA
 YIELD STRESS
 LOCATION OF SAMPLE
FOR
TENSILE TEST PIECE, CHARPY IMPACT TEST PIECE AND
COLD BEND TEST PIECE
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
(R-43/92)
PROPERTIES CATEGORY – A CATEGORY - B
Ultimate Tensile Strength 570 (N/mm2, min.) 650 (N/mm2, min.)
685 (N/mm2, max.) 800 (N/mm2, max.)
Yield Strength Not less than 50 % of tensile 400 (N/mm2, min.)
strength
Elongation Percentage Min. of 21 % and 17 % 18 % min.
corresponding to 570 & 685
N/mm2 tensile strength
respectively
Reduction in Area after ----- 60%
fracture (% min.)
 COLD BEND TEST
The cold bend test piece 250 mm x 32 mm sq. with corners rounded off with 1.6 mm
radius, shall be machined from positions adjacent to tensile test piece.

Cold bend test piece shall be bend cold by direct pressure from a tool 50 mm wide
and having 50 mm dia. at the thrust end, until the sides of the test piece are parallel.
The test piece shall not show any sign of fracture.

IMPACT TEST (U – NOTCH)

 Charpy Impact (U-notch) Test can be carried out in lieu of cold bend test as per
IS : 1499 on standard test piece.

 Charpy Impact Test piece shall be of square section 10mm x10 mm with 5 mm
deep ‘U’ notch.
 MACRO EXAMINATION
Sampling Frequency – One test per cast per heat treatment batch.

Macro Examination shall be conducted on the transverse cross section

of the representative sample cut from the extra length of the axle by
deep etching in 50 % HCl.

If section of the sample if taken from the axle shall be from the
thickest portion.

After polishing surface is examined with a magnification factor 5 or

less.

Macro Examination must not reveal any harmful defects such as

remnant of piping, harmful segregation and non – metallic inclusions.
 MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
MICROEXAMINATION & Grain Size
 Location – Test piece shall be taken from transverse section of the gripping portion tensile test
specimen.
 Sampling Frequency - One test per cast per heat treatment batch.
 Grain Size is determined as per IS : 2853.
 Microstructure
 Category – A
 Normalised – Uniform fine grained structure comparable with ASTM grain size no.8 and shall not be
coarser than ASTM grain size no.6.
 Hardened & Tempered – Fine tempered martensite structure without any undesirable ferrite patches.
 Category – B
 Hardened & Tempered – Fine tempered martensite structure without any undesirable ferrite patches.
 ULTRSONIC TEST

All the axles conforming to all the aforesaid tests

shall be subjected to ultrasonic test.

Only those passing this test shall be accepted.

 MAGNETIC PARTICLE TEST
All axles (in proof machined condition or fully
machined and heat treated condition) shall be
tested by magnetic particle method both in
longitudinal and circular magnetization.
Shall not reveal any harmful surface defects.
Any axle revealing harmful surface defects shall
be rejected.
All axles shall be demagnetized after the
magnetic particle test.
 AS PER CORRIGENDUM NO. 1 OF JANUARY, 2000
Imperfections not acceptable:
a) On any part of axle:
Transverse/circumferential seams, cracks or laps of any depth (intermediate) on axle surface.

b) On machined fillets:
Besides above, Longitudinal discontinuity (hairlines, stringer, fine seam) in machined fillets.

Acceptable limits of other discontinuities:

 Journels:

Fine longitudinal discontinuity (hairlines, stringer, fine seam) on surface if

(i) Not extended on fillets.
(ii) Less than 12 mm individually.
(iii) Total length of imperfection of 6-12 mm size not exceeding 40 mm.
(iv) Not more than two defects of 6-12 mm within 75 mm.
Continued…..
 Wheel & gear seats

Longitudinal discontinuity (hairlines, stringer, fine seam, tight seams) if

(i) Not present within 40 mm of wheel/gear seat ends.
(ii) Individually not more than 12 mm.
(iii) Total length of discontinuities (6-12 mm) not more than 75 mm.
 Body

Longitudinal discontinuities (hairlines, stringer, fine seam) if

(i) Not extended to fillets of wheels/gear seats.
(ii) Individually not more than 12 mm.
(iii) Total length of discontinuity not to exceed 40 mm in any any 300 mm.
(iv) Discontinuity more than as indicated in (ii) & (iii) above to be reconditioned.
 DEFECTS IN AXLES
Defects in axles can be broadly divided into
three categories
 INHERENT DEFECTS

 DEFECTS DUE TO MACHINING, FABRICATION &

HANDLING

 DEFECTS DEVELOPED IN SERVICE

 INHERENT DEFECTS
 Pipe
 Unsatisfactory microstructure
• Banded Structure
• Overheated and burnt structures
• Internal Fissure/burst

 Inclusion
 Flakes as hair line cracks
 Seams
 Flakes
 Laps
PIPE
Due to contraction of molten steel on solidification, an
axial cavity is formed usually towards the top portion
of the ingot. The pipe cavity is often contaminated
with inclusions and oxidized products.

Failure of the axle due to the presence of pipe is

therefore not common. But if piping is in a severe form,
progressive fracture may be initiated from it.
 UNSATISFACTORY MICROSTRUCTURE
Best mechanical properties can be achieved in any component if the
microstructure in the axle are not banded structure, overheated and burnt
structures etc. These are imparted in a material due to unsatisfactory
heat-treatment and/or faulty process of manufactures.

 Banded Structure
Segregated structure of nearly parallel bands running in the direction of
rolling which is revealed by etching the polished surface. In axle steels,
this structure usually consists of alternate bands of ferrite and pearlite.
Fatigue strength adversely affected by banded structure.
 Overheated and burnt structures
Overheated structure is an undesirable coarse grained
structure resulting from heating steel to a high temp. It is
possible to rectify over-heated structures by suitable heat-
treatment.

 Internal Fissure / Burst

These are produced by internal stresses in an ingot
arising during cooling, heating or hot working. This will
weld completely if sufficiently hot worked and if the
defects do not extend to the surface.
INCLUSIONS
Inclusions are non-metallic particles found in steel. They are
most undesirable when they occur as continuous films or long
rows. They produce discontinuities and inhomogeneities in the
metallic structure, it can impart brittleness and impair ductility
and strength of the metal.

FLAKES AS HAIR LINE CRACKS

These are fine internal cracks usually of small lengths due to
presence of hydrogen. They are confined to interior and are
therefore difficult to detect. An axle with such hairline cracks
may fail in service within a short period.
SEAMS
Seams are longitudinal surface defects found in
finished or semi-finished products. They appear in
the form of shallow grooves.

LAPS
It is caused by folding over of hot steel in the form of
fines, sharp corners etc. on the surface. Laps may
also arise from defective grooves in rolls.
 DEFECTS DUE TO MACHINING,
FABRICATION, HANDLING
 Insufficient Fillet Radius
The radius of the fillet is calculated taking into consideration the
stresses liable to act at these particular locations in service so as to
avoid concentration of stresses and consequent initiation of fatigue
cracks.

 Tool Marks
Careless machining sometimes imparts deep tool marks and metal
tear on finished axles which give rise to notch effect in service. These
defects have marked adverse effect if present on the fillet radius
location.
 DEFECTS DEVELOPED IN SERVICE

The following defects are developed during

service
 Hot Box
 Corrosion Fatigue
 Fretting Corrosion
 Interference fit causing progressive failure
 Hot Box
Hot box is a condition in which an unusual increase in axle box
temp. sufficient to cause bearing failure occurs unless given
prompt attention. The hot box may be caused due to failure of
lubrication or misalignment. The factors giving rise to such a
condition are described below :

Improper journal surface

Improper fitting of bearing and wedge
Defective journal boxes
Hard spots or improper mixture in white metal lining
Insufficient lateral play
Overloading or unequal distribution of loads
CONTINUED…..
Glazed packing
Un-matched Wheels
Improper bond between shell and lining

Hot box may lead to

o Heat Check
o Copper penetration
o Thermal cracks on the journal
 Heat Checks
A pattern of cracks are formed when the conditions are such that after
heating due to hot box, rapid cooling occur, owing to contraction during
cooling occurring both longitudinally and circumferentially. These cracks
are sometimes termed as checker board, crazy or crocodile skin pattern of
cracking. These cracks act as stress raisers and progressive fracture can
initiate from the roots of these cracks in service.

Copper Penetration
Due to the failure of lubrication, frictional heat is generated in axle fitted
with bronze bearings. Under the interference of pressure and elevated
temp., copper base material diffuses along the grain boundaries of the
journal metal.
 Thermal Cracks
In the event of axle journal having run hot and having been
drastically cooled either by agents like water, or rapid
conduction of heat to the cold mass of the journal, thermal
cracking takes place. This is due to development of a steep
temp. gradient and accompanying high stresses within the
structure.

Corrosion Fatigue
The effect of application of repeated or fluctuating stresses in a
corrosive environment characterized by shorted life. Steel have
practically no endurance limit under corrosive conditions.
Corrosion fatigue cracks originate from the surface. An axle
fails due to corrosion fatigue with evidence of corrosion pits
having formed on the surface of the axle.
 .Fretting Corrosion
Clamping stresses in a press fit are severe stress raiser.
An extremely small amounts of play between press fit
surfaces gives rise to falling and leaving off tiny
metallic particles often described as debris, which shift
out and immediately become oxidized. The failure of
axles due to fretting corrosion occurs at the locations
where these are press fitted in the wheel hub.
 Interference Fit
This is due to the excessive stress concentration at that
location due to

• The geometry of the wheel axle assembly amounting to a

sharp change in section.
• Biting.

The fracture exhibits a typical concavity characteristic of

such failures due to nature of stresses coming into play
CONTINUED…..

These failures can be reduced :

 By improving the geometry of the wheel axle assembly

at the location for minimized stress concentration.

 By providing a circumferential relieving groove on the

axle close to inner edge of the wheel seats.
Thank
you