ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

HANDLING OF CONCRETE MAKING MATERIALS IN THE

ETHIOPIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

A thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Addis Ababa University

in Partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in
Civil Engineering (Construction Technology and Management)

By
Denamo Addissie

Advisors: Abebe Dinku, Dr. –Ing.

Christoph Motzko, Prof. Dr. –Ing.

October 2005
Addis Ababa
 ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

HANDLING OF CONCRETE MAKING MATERIALS IN THE

ETHIOPIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

By
Denamo Addissie

October 2005

Approved by Board of Examiners

Dr.-Ing. Abebe Dinku___ _____________________ _________________

Advisor Signature Date

Prof. Gurdeep Singh______ _____________________ __________________

External Examiner Signature Date

Dr.-Ing. Adil Zekaria____ _____________________ _________________

Internal Examiner Signature Date

Dr.-Ing. Gashaw Yayehyirad _____________________ __________________

Chairman Signature Date
DEDICATION

To my beloved family: My father Ato Addissie Nuramo, my mother

Woizero Aster Gitchamo, my elder brother Dr. Adamu, my younger sister Helen and
my two younger brothers Yishak and Thomas. Thank you for all your support.

ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I owe a debt of gratitude to my advisor, Dr. – Ing. Abebe Dinku, for his valuable advice,
invaluable suggestions, timely comments, and thorough guidance throughout the work of this
thesis.

I would profoundly like to thank Prof. Dr.– Ing. Christop Motzko for his technical advice,
supervision and also for providing me with space and all other facilities to conduct part of my
thesis carried out in Germany. I would also like to extend my gratitude to
Dr. –Ing. Detlef Heck for giving adivce and making all the necessarsy arrangements to the
visits I made to construction sites and material production plants in Germany.

Inaddtion, I exend my heart felt appreciation to DAAD for financing my stay in Germany, the
Technical University of Darmstadt for making my research in Germany possible and
Prof. Dr. –Ing Manfred W. Ostrowski for facilitating my research and stay in Germany and
for all his support of all kind.

I wish to thank Dr.– Ing. Dereje Hailu, Head of the Civil Engineering Department, for his
cooperation in the course of my research and study. I also extend my gratitude to the Graduate
School of Addis Ababa University for the financial support.

I want to express my sicere gratitude to the following persons who helped me in one way or
the other while I was collecting data for my research: Mr. Mathias Jacob – Waibel Ready Mix
Concrete Producing Company, Germany; Ato Mesfin Beneberu- Midroc construction; Ato
Tesfaye Legesse, Ato Shiferaw Ketema and Ato Wubiye Mariye – Addis Ababa City Roads
Authority Department of Construction Materials Production; Ato Meftuh Ibrahim and W/o
Genet G/Medhin – Quality and Standards Authority of Ethiopia; Dr. Tenalem Ayalew –
Department of Geology and Geophysics, AAU; Ato Hailu Tsegaye –Environmental
Protection Authority of Addis Ababa; Ato Alem Tesfahugnegn and Ato Girma Mekonen –
Construction Design Share Company and Ato Getu – Blue Nile Construction Materials
Production Plant.

iii
I would also like to use this opportunity to convey my gratitude to the academic staff of the
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Addis Ababa University and to my
friends. Without their support and encouragement I couldn’t have this opportunity to complete
my study. I also gratefully acknowledge the contributions of all those individuals who had
contributed in one way or the other in the realization of this paper.

Finally, I would like to thank my parents and other members of my family for their
unconditional support, encouragement and love.

Denamo Addissie
October 2005

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION.............................................................................................................. ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................ iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................. v
LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................... xii
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................. xiv
LIST OF ANNEXES .................................................................................................. xv
LIST OF ABBREVATIONS...................................................................................... xvi
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................ xvii

1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 1
1.1 General ......................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Construction Materials Management in Construction Projects...................... 1
1.3 Importance of Construction Materials Management Systems
in Construction Projects ................................................................................ 2
1.4 Functions of Construction Materials Management Systems ......................... 3
in Construction Projects ................................................................................ 3
1.5 Benefits of Effective Construction Materials Management Systems ............. 3
1.6 Handling of Concrete Making Materials ........................................................ 4
1.7 Objectives ..................................................................................................... 6
1.8 Methods ........................................................................................................ 6
1.9 Application of Results ................................................................................... 7

2. HANDLING OF CONCRETE MAKING MATERIALS IN CONSTRUCTION

PROJECTS................................................................................................. 8
2.1 General ......................................................................................................... 8
2.2 Handling of Concrete Making Materials ........................................................ 8
2.2.1 General ......................................................................................................... 8
2.3 Water ............................................................................................................ 9
2.3.1 Testing of Water for Concrete Production ..................................................... 9
2.4 Cement ....................................................................................................... 10
2.4.1 Cement Production in Ethiopia ................................................................... 11
2.4.2 Types of Portland Cements ........................................................................ 13

v
2.4.3 Tests on the Properties of Portland Cement ............................................. 14
2.4.3.1 Chemical Tests ......................................................................................... 14
2.4.3.2 Physical Tests........................................................................................... 15
2.4.4 Typical Properties of Portland Cements Produced in Ethiopia.................. 15
2.5 Aggregates................................................................................................ 16
2.5.1 Functions of the Aggregates ..................................................................... 17
2.5.2 Properties of Aggregates .......................................................................... 18
2.5.3 Classification of Aggregates...................................................................... 18
2.5.3.1 Mineralogy and Petrography ..................................................................... 19
2.5.3.2 Chemical Composition .............................................................................. 20
2.5.3.3 Weight....................................................................................................... 20
2.5.3.4 Source ...................................................................................................... 21
2.5.3.5 Particle Shape and Texture ...................................................................... 23
2.5.4 Researches on Local Aggregates in Ethiopia ........................................... 24
2.5.5 Aggregate Type Selection......................................................................... 25
2.5.6 Determination of Aggregate Requirement................................................. 26
2.5.7 Properties of Concrete Making Aggregates .............................................. 26
2.5.7.1 Specific Gravity ......................................................................................... 27
2.5.7.2 Unit Weights and Voids............................................................................. 27
2.5.7.3 Surface Moisture, Porosity And Absorption .............................................. 28
2.5.7.4 Gradation .................................................................................................. 30
2.5.7.5 Physical Properties ................................................................................... 34
2.5.7.6 Shape ....................................................................................................... 35
2.5.7.7 Texture...................................................................................................... 35
2.5.7.8 Strength .................................................................................................... 36
2.5.7.9 Aggregate Impact Value ........................................................................... 36
2.5.7.10 Modulus of Elasticity ................................................................................. 37
2.5.8 Durability of Aggregates............................................................................ 37
2.5.8.1 Chemical Reactions .................................................................................. 38
2.5.8.2 Soundness................................................................................................ 39
2.5.8.3 Deleterious Substances/Cleanliness......................................................... 39
2.5.9 Thermal Properties.................................................................................... 41
2.5.10 Aggregate Beneficiation ............................................................................ 42
2.5.11 Effects of Concrete Making Materials on the Properties of Concrete........ 42

vi
2.5.11.1 Shrinkage of Concrete .............................................................................. 42
2.5.11.2 Strength of Concrete................................................................................. 44
2.5.12 Handling of Concrete Making Materials in Construction Sites................... 44
2.5.12.1 Source ...................................................................................................... 44
2.5.12.2 Delivery of Cement and Aggregates ......................................................... 47
2.5.12.3 Receiving .................................................................................................. 48
2.5.12.4 Storage ..................................................................................................... 49
2.5.12.5 Materials Control on Site........................................................................... 50
2.5.12.6 Stockpile Arrangements ............................................................................ 51
2.5.12.7 General Preparation.................................................................................. 52
2.5.12.8 Protection.................................................................................................. 52
2.5.12.9 Waste in Handling..................................................................................... 53
2.5.12.10 Batching .................................................................................................... 54
2.5.13 Sampling of Aggregates............................................................................ 55
2.5.13.1 Samples and Sampling Methods .............................................................. 55
2.5.13.2 Securing Samples..................................................................................... 55
2.5.13.3 Shipping Samples ..................................................................................... 56
2.6 Production Processes of Concrete Making Aggregates ............................ 57
2.6.1 Fine Aggregate Production ....................................................................... 57
2.6.2 Production Methods of Coarse Aggregates .............................................. 57
2.6.2.1 Stripping.................................................................................................... 57
2.6.2.2 Drilling and Blasting .................................................................................. 58
2.6.2.3 Crushing ................................................................................................... 58
2.6.2.4 Screening.................................................................................................. 59
2.6.2.5 Handling in Aggregate Production ............................................................ 59
2.6.2.6 Retrival...................................................................................................... 60
2.6.2.7 Precautions in Handling and Storing Coarse Aggregates ......................... 61
2.7 Standardization in Aggregate Production.................................................. 61
2.7.1 General ..................................................................................................... 61
2.7.2 Benefits of Standardization ....................................................................... 61
2.8 Concrete Aggregate Production and its Environmental Impacts ............... 62
2.8.1 Impacts of Quarry Sites on the Environment............................................. 62
2.8.2 Mitigation................................................................................................... 63
2.9 Summary................................................................................................... 63

vii
3. AGGREGATE PRODUCTION IN THE ETHIOPIAN
CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY .................................................................. 69
3.1 General ...................................................................................................... 69
3.2 Aggregate Production in the Ethiopian Construction Industry.................... 70
3.2.1 Construction Materials Production in Addis Ababa .................................... 70
3.2.2 Aggregate Production Methods in the Ethiopian Construction Industry ..... 73
3.2.2.1 Fine Aggregates......................................................................................... 73
3.2.2.2 Coarse Aggregates .................................................................................... 76
3.3 Environmental Impacts of Aggregate Production Plants in
the Ethiopian Construction Industry ........................................................... 81
3.4 Construction Materials Handling in Construction Projects ......................... 84
3.5 Coarse Aggregate Demand in Addis Ababa .............................................. 85

4. RESULTS ................................................................................................. 87
4.1 General ...................................................................................................... 87
4.2 Fine Aggregates......................................................................................... 87
4.2.1 Gradation of The Samples ......................................................................... 87
4.2.2 Fineness Modulus...................................................................................... 88
4.2.3 Organic Impurity......................................................................................... 88
4.2.4 Loose Unit Weight...................................................................................... 89
4.2.5 Compacted Unit Weight ............................................................................. 89
4.2.6 Silt and Clay Content ................................................................................. 90
4.2.7 Specific Gravity .......................................................................................... 90
4.2.8 Water Absorption ....................................................................................... 91
4.2.9 Clay Lumps Content .................................................................................. 92
4.2.10 Chloride Content........................................................................................ 92
4.2.11 Soundness ................................................................................................. 92
4.3 Coarse Aggregates .................................................................................... 92
4.3.1 General ...................................................................................................... 92
4.3.2 Fineness Modulus...................................................................................... 93
4.3.3 Gradation of the Samples .......................................................................... 93
4.3.4 Specific Gravity .......................................................................................... 94
4.3.5 Loose Unit Weight...................................................................................... 94
4.3.6 Compacted Unit Weight ............................................................................. 95

viii
4.3.7 Los Angeles Abrasion ................................................................................. 95
4.3.8 Water Absorption ........................................................................................ 96
4.3.9 Aggregate Crushing Value.......................................................................... 96
4.3.10 Flakiness Index........................................................................................... 97
4.3.11 Potential Alkaline Aggregate Reaction........................................................ 97
4.3.12 Dust Content............................................................................................... 97
4.3.13 Clay Lumps Content ................................................................................... 98
4.3.14 Silt & Clay Content...................................................................................... 98
4.3.15 10% Fines Value......................................................................................... 98
4.4 Rock Samples............................................................................................. 98
4.4.1 Loose Unit Weight ...................................................................................... 98
4.4.2 Compacted Unit Weight .............................................................................. 99
4.4.3 Water Absorption ........................................................................................ 99
4.4.4 Specific Gravity......................................................................................... 100
4.4.4 Los Angeles Abrasion ............................................................................... 100
4.4.6 Soundness................................................................................................ 101
4.4.7 Sulphate And Chloride Contents............................................................... 101
4.4.8 Potential Alkaline Aggregate Reaction...................................................... 101
4.4.9 Flakiness Index......................................................................................... 101

5. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION .............................................................. 102

5.1 Tests on Aggregates................................................................................. 102
5.1.1 Coarse Aggregates ................................................................................... 102
5.1.2 Fine Aggregates ....................................................................................... 104
5.1.3 Rock Samples........................................................................................... 107
5.1.4 Comparison b/n the Fine and Coarse Aggregate Sample Results............ 109
5.2 Mix Design ................................................................................................ 109
5.2.1 Properties of Aggregates Used in the Analysis......................................... 110
5.2.2 Trial Mix Design for the Analysis............................................................... 110
5.2.3 Sample Trial Mix Design Procedure Used in this Research ...................... 111
5.3 Aggregate Production ............................................................................... 114
5.4 Supply and Demand ................................................................................. 116
5.5 Standardization......................................................................................... 116
5.6 Application of Ready Mixed Concrete in the Construction Industry .......... 117

ix
6. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................... 120

7. RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................ 123

8. SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK................................................... 123

REFERENCES........................................................................................................ 125

ANNEXES…. .......................................................................................................... 129

x
LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Cement Production Trend in Ethiopia from 1996 to 2003 . .................... 11
Table 2.2 Comparative Cement Consumption in Different Countries. ................... 12
Table 2.3 Main Types of Portland Cements and their Uses................................... 12
Table 2.4 Chemical Compositions of Cements Produced in Ethiopia ................... 16
Table 2.5 Physical Properties of Cements Produced in Ethiopia .......................... 16
Table 2.6 Classification of Rocks According to their Mode of Formation ............... 20
Table 2.7 Classification of Rocks According to their Chemical Composition ......... 20
Table 2.8 Aggregate Classification With Respect to their Source.......................... 22
Table 2.9 Shape and Texture of Aggregates ........................................................ 23
Table 2.10 Test Results of Rock Samples Taken from Quarry sites around Mekele24
Table 2.11 Chemical Analysis Data for Rocks of the Study Area ............................ 27
Table 2.12 Aggregate Test Result for the Rhyolite Sample from Kika Ridge........... 27
Table 2.13 General Range in Unit Weight of Some Natural Aggregates ................. 27
Table 2.14 Approximate Absorption Capacities of Some Types of Stones Used for
Aggregate .............................................................................................. 28
Table 2.15 Standard Sieves and Square Openings ................................................ 30
Table 2.16 Grading Requirement for Fine Aggregate . ............................................ 32
Table 2.17 Grading Requirement for Coarse Aggregate. ........................................ 32
Table 2.18 Grading Requirement for All- In Aggregate ........................................... 32
Table 2.19 Shape of Particles ................................................................................. 35
Table 2.20 Influence of Texture on Strength ........................................................... 36
Table 2.21 Specified Abrasive Change ................................................................... 36
Table 2.22 Abrasion and Crushing Value Percentage Limits .................................. 37
Table 2.23 Average Test Values for Rocks of Different Groups . ............................ 37
Table 2.24 Limits of Deleterious Materials. .............................................................. 40
Table 2.25 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of 1:6 Concretes Made With Different
Aggregates . .......................................................................................... 41
Table 2.26 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Concrete at High Temperatures. .. 42
Table 2.27 Influence of Aggregate Content on the Coefficient of Thermal
Expansion…...……………………………………………………………......42
Table 2.28 Summary of Proper Control of Materials at every Stage of operations . 51
Table 2.29 Size of Aggregate Samples ................................................................... 56

xi
Table 3.1 Yearly Production and Sale of Coarse Aggregate Produced by
Aggregate Producers Registered in Addis Ababa from 1995 - 2000 .... 71
Table 3.2 Number and Locations of Licensed Quarries in Addis Ababa................ 71
Table 3.3 Trend of Aggregate Production in the Germany Construction Industry... 72
Table 3.4 Projected Supply and Demand Condition of Addis Ababa ….. .............. 86
Table 4.1 Number And Distribution In Percentage of Test Sample Results from .
and out of Addis Ababa.......................................................................... 87
Table 4.2 Distribution in number and percentage of Fine Aggregate Samples
with respect to the gradation requirements of the Ethiopian Standard .. 88
Table 4.3 Distribution in number and in percentage of Fineness Modulus of the
Collected Fine aggregate samples......................................................... 88
Table 4.4 Distribution in number and percentage of the Organic Impurity of the
Fine Aggregate Samples with respect to the requirement of ASTM....... 89
Table 4.5 Distribution in number and percentage of the Loose Unit Weight of the
Fine Aggregate Samples........................................................................ 89
Table 4.6 Distribution in number and percentage of the Compacted Unit Weight of
the Fine Aggregate Samples.................................................................. 90
Table 4.7 Distribution in number and percentage of the silt and clay contents of the
Fine Aggregate Samples........................................................................ 90
Table 4.8 Specific Gravity of the Fine Aggregate Samples with respect to
requirement of the Ethiopian Standard................................................... 91
Table 4.9 Water Absorption Capacity of the Fine Aggregate Samples with respect
to the requirement of ASTM. ................................................................. 91
Table 4.10 Distribution of Coarse Aggregate Types Used in the Analysis............... 92
Table 4.11 Distribution in number and percentage of Coarse Aggregate Samples . 93
Table 4.12 Distribution in number and percentage of Coarse Aggregate Samples
with respect to gradation requirements of the Ethiopian Standard . ....... 93
Table 4.13 Specific Gravity of the Coarse Aggregate Samples with respect to
requirement of the Ethiopian Standard .................................................. 94
Table 4.14 Loose Unit Weight of the Coarse Aggregate Samples with respect to the
requirement of the ASTM ....................................................................... 95
Table 4.15 Compacted Unit Weight of the Coarse Aggregate Samples with respect
to the requirement of ASTM. .................................................................. 95

xii
Table 4.16 Los Angeles Abrasion (%) wear of the Coarse Aggregate Samples with
respect to the requirement of the Ethiopian Standard. ........................... 96
Table 4.17 Water Absorption Capacity of the Coarse Aggregate Samples with
respect to the requirement of ASTM. ................................................... 96
Table 4.18 Aggregate Crushing Values of the Coarse Aggregate Samples. .......... 97
Table 4.19 Flakiness Index Values of the Coarse Aggregate Samples with respect
to the requirement of the British Standard ............................................ 97
Table 4.20 Distribution in number and percent of the Loose Unit Weights
of the Rock Samples used in the research........................................... 98
Table 4.21 Compacted Unit Weight of the Rock Samples. ..................................... 99
Table 4.22 Water Absorption Capacity of the Rock Samples with respect to the
requirement of the Ethiopian Standard. ................................................ 99
Table 4.23 Specific Gravity of the Rock Samples with respect to ES. .................. 100
Table 4.24 Los Angeles Abrasion (%) wear of the Rock Samples with respect to the
requirement of the Ethiopian Standard. .............................................. 101
Table 5.1 Summary of the percentage of coarse aggrregate samples failing to
satisfy requirements. ........................................................................... 103
Table 5.2 Summary of the number of tests carried out on the collected coarse
aggregate samples.............................................................................. 104
Table 5.3 Summary of the percentage of fine aggrregate samples failing to satisfy
requirements. ..................................................................................... 106
Table 5.4 Summary of the number of tests carried out on the collected fine
aggregate samples.............................................................................. 107
Table 5.5 Summary of the percentage of the rock samples failing to satisfy
requirements. ...................................................................................... 108
Table 5.6 Summary of the number of tests carried out on the collected coarse
aggregate samples.............................................................................. 108
Table 5.7 Properties of the fine aggregate samples used for the mix design ..... 110
Table 5.8 Properties of the coarse aggregate samples used for the mix design 110
Table 5.9 Summary of Proportions of Constituents of the resulting Concrete .... 112
Table 5.10 Cost of Different Mixes of Concretes ................................................. 112
Table 5.11 Summary of the mixdesign result of the samples used
in the research .. ………………………………………….………………. 112
Table 5.12 Ready-mixed concrete production figures in different countries ......... 117

xiii
LIST OF FIGURES

Fig 2.1 Cement Consumption Per Capita of Different Countries in the World…...…13
Fig 2.2 Shrinkage of Concretes of Fixed Mix Proportions Made With Different
Aggregates ............................................................................................... 43
Fig 2.3 Effect of Workability and Aggregate/Cement Ratio on Strength. ................ 44
Fig 2.4 Sand Processing......................................................................................... 45
Fig 2.5 Methods of Aggregate Handling. ................................................................ 46
Fig 2.5 Cont. Methods of Aggregate Handling. ...................................................... 47
Fig 2.6 Aggregate for Concrete Stored in a Mixing Area . ...................................... 48
Fig 3.1 Potential Construction Raw Materials in Addis Ababa and its Surrounding 73
Fig 3.2 Sand Being Collected from River Bed Manually Around Koka.................... 75
Fig 3.3 Sand Being Collected by Human Labor . .................................................... 75
Fig 3.4 Boulders for Coarse Aggregate Preparation Being Crushed by Human
Labor……. .................................................................................................. 77
Fig 3.5 Low Scaled Coarse Aggregate Crushing Plant Around Nazreth................. 78
Fig 3.6 Large Scaled Coarse Aggregate Production Plant (Blue Nile )................... 80
Fig 3.7 Dust Produced by a Process of Coarse Aggregate Production ................. 81
Fig 3.8 Locations of Abandoned Quarries in Addis Ababa ..................................... 82
Fig 3.9 Impact of Coarse Aaggregate Pproduction on the Environment………..…. 83
Fig 3.10 Coarse Aggregate Crushing Plants Have Environmental Impact on the
Nearby Inhabitants,Schools, etc………………............................................ 83

xiv
LIST OF ANNEXES
ANNEX A…………………………………………………………………………………..129
A1 Source and Designation of Fine Aggregate Samples ............................... 129
A2 Sources and Designation of Ccoarse Aggregate Samples ....................... 130
A3 Sources and Designation of the Rrock Samples....................................... 130
ANNEX B………………………………..…………………………………………………131
B1 Sieve Analysis Result of Fine Aaggregate Samples ................................. 131
B2 Sieve Analysis Result of the Coarse Aggregate Samples
with Maximum Aggregate Size of 37-5………………………………………132
B3 Sieve Analysis Result of the Coarse Aggregate Samples
with Maximum Aggregate Size of 19-5………………………………………132
B4 Sieve Analysis Result of the Coarse Aggregate Samples
with Maximum Aggregate Size of 13-5………………………………………132
ANNEX C Gradation Charts of the collected samples .................................. 133
C1 Fine Aggregates ....................................................................................... 133
C2 Coarse Aggregates .................................................................................. 148
Samples with nominal maximum aggregate size of 37.5 mm ................... 148
Samples with nominal maximum aggregate size of 19.5 mm ................... 155
Samples with nominal maximum aggregate size of 13.5 mm ................... 158
ANNEX D………………………………..…………………………………………………160
D1 Organic Impurities & silt and clay contents of the fine aggregates…..……160
D2 Organic Impurities & silt and caly contents of the coarseaggregates….161
ANNEX E. ............................................................................................................... 162
E1 Unit weights of the tested fine aggregate samples ................................... 162
E2 Unit Weights of the tested coarse aggregate samples.............................. 162
E3 Unit Weights of the rock samples ............................................................. 162
ANNEX F. ............................................................................................................... 163
F1 Specific Gravity and Water Absorption of the fine aggregate samples ..... 163
F2 Specific Gravity and Water Absorption of the coarse aggregate samples 163
F3 Specific gravities and water absorption values of the rock samples ........ 163
ANNEX G................................................................................................................ 164
G1 Los Angeles Abrasion and Crushing Values of the Coarse Samples ....... 164
G2 Los Angeles Abrasion values of the tested rock samples ......................... 164
Annex H Construction Activity In Germany (1995- 2005) ................................ 164

xv
LIST OF ABBREVATIONS

A.A. Addis Ababa

ACI American Concrete Institute
AD Air Dry
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BS British Standard
DIN Deutsche Industrie Norm
ES Ethiopian Standard
OPC Ordinary Portland Cement
PPC Portland Pozzolana Cement
Fig. Figure
F.M. Fineness Modulus
ft. feet
gm gram
hr hour
IS Indian Standard
in. inch
Kg Kilo Gram
KN Kilo Newton
lb Pound
lt liter
m meter
mg milligram
ml milliliter
mm millimeter
Max. Maximum
MPa Mega Pascal
NO. Number
SSD Saturated Surface Dry
t ton
U.K. United Kingdom
U.S. United States
Wt. Weight

xvi
ABSTRACT

Construction materials management is an important element in the management of

construction projects. One of the construction materials widely used in construction projects is
concrete. Concrete being one of the important constituents of many of the construction
projects, in addition to its subjectivity to variability, requires a close and thorough care and
handling in construction projects. The constituents of concrete, which majority of them occur
naturally, are subjected to a wide range of variability and quality problems. Therefore, with
this respect a research was carried out to assess the situation of handling of concrete making
materials in the Ethiopian construction industry with a special emphasis given to the concrete
making aggregates. The objective of the research was to assess the current situation of the
handling of concrete making materials in the Ethiopian construction industry in general and to
give recommendation inline with the outcome of the results of the research. There fore, in the
research test results of fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and rock samples were collected and
analyzed. According to the result, 44%of the coarse aggregate samples considered and 77% of
the fine aggregate samples considered couldn’t satisfy requirements set by different standards.
In addition, it has been found out that more than about 60% of the tests that the samples failed
to satisfy don’t attribute to the natural quality of the materials. Further, researches carried out
in different parts of Ethiopia had also shown that the naturally available material have quite
acceptable quality to be used as a concrete making material. The research also indicates that
the reason why concrete making materials fail to comply with requirements attributes to the
handling of the materials in the construction industry but not to the unavailability of materials
satisfying requirements in Ethiopia. Further, from the observations made in construction sites
and aggregate production plants in addition to the interviews made with relevant personnel, it
was concluded in the research that the aggregate production in Ethiopia is not up to the
standard with respect to quality, quantity and production process. Another conclusion drawn
from the research was that the aggregate production process and handling of concrete making
materials in the Ethiopian construction industry should be upgraded in all aspects including
expert training, utilization of improved production process and introduction of
standardization both for the quality of the materials and the production processes. Finally,
from observations made in Germany the study concluded that introduction of a ready-mixed
concrete production system to the Ethiopian construction industry could improve the current
situation with respect to better handling and production of good quality concrete.
Key words: concrete, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, cement, handling, quality, production

xvii
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL
The construction activity accounts for 6-9% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of many
countries. In addition, the total annual value of construction works in the world ranges
from 1-1.5 trillion dollars. It is also believed that construction accelerates the economic
growth of a nation. However, there is a vast scope for improving performance through
knowledge in the construction industry, where men, materials, machinery, money and
management work together to build a facility [1].

It is a known fact that, resource planning and management is one of the most important
parameters for competitiveness and profitability in today’s construction technology. One
important aspect of resources management is management of construction materials in
construction projects [2].

Good project management in construction must vigorously pursue the efficient utilization of
labor, material and equipment. Improvement of labor productivity should be a major and
continual concern of those who are responsible for cost control of constructed facilities.
Material handling, which includes procurement, inventory, shop fabrication and field
servicing, requires special attention for cost reduction with acceptable standard quality [1].

1.2 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS MANAGEMENT IN CONSTRUCTION

PROJECTS
Materials management is defined as the management system for planning and controlling all
the necessary efforts to ensure that the right quality and quantity of materials and installed
equipments are appropriately specified in a timely manner, and obtained at a reasonable cost,
and are available when needed. Especially, management of construction materials is generally
recognized to be the integrated coordination of materials takeoff, purchasing, expediting,
receiving, ware housing, proper utilization and disposal. When these functions are not
properly managed, materials shortages, surpluses, and cash flow problems are likely to occur.
Costly labor delays result when the required quantity and quality of construction materials are
not available when needed [3].

Materials management is an important element in project planning and control. In

construction projects, materials account for more than 40% of the project cost. A small saving

1
in materials cost, say even 5%, through efficient management of materials, can result in a
large contribution specially, when competitive bidding is for small profit margins, varying
from 3.5% to 10% of the project cost [1]. A research carried out in Ethiopia had shown that
construction materials constitute 57% of the total budget allocated for construction works [4].

Broadly, the term 'materials' denotes all purchased items utilized at the project site including
construction materials, supporting plant and equipment, and administrative facilities and
stores. Construction materials cover all types of materials used in construction including
electrical and mechanical fittings, fixtures, devices and instruments that are incorporated
during the construction of permanent works and temporary supporting works at site [1].

The materials for delivery to and from a construction site may be broadly classified as:
(1) bulk materials, (2) standard off-the-shelf materials, and (3) fabricated members or units.
Bulk materials refer to materials in their natural or semi-processed state, such as earthwork to
be excavated, wet concrete mix, gravel, sand etc. that are usually encountered in large
quantities in construction. Standard piping and valves are typical examples of standard off-
the-shelf materials. Fabricated members such as steel beams and columns for buildings are
pre-processed in a shop to simplify the field erection procedures [1].

1.3 IMPORTANCE OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS MANAGEMENT

SYSTEMS IN CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
Two formal researches were conducted by a task force established by the American
Construction Industry Institute jointly with Auburn University and Texas AM University. The
findings of the research conducted in the real world construction project execution,
established several basic premises [3]. The findings of the researches are summarized as
follows.
1. Materials management is a clearly defined task that, when properly planned and
executed, provides project management with an invaluable tool to optimize schedules and
improve labor productivity.
2. Substantial savings have accrued to both the owner and the contractor. An estimate of
6% savings on the projects craft labor costs appeared conservative for most applications.
3. As with any management system, it requires top management support.
4. Training is an essential element in the successful application of the materials
management concept.

2
A research carried out in Nigeria to find out the causes of high construction costs in the
country has depicted shortage of construction materials as the first and most important cause.
In this same research, the following points were put as reasons of materials shortage in the
construction industry [5]:
1. absence of adequate statistics on the material availability;
2. fluctuation in the availability of some construction materials;
3. very long average waiting time and uncertainty in the delivery of ordered materials;
and
4. Shortage of funds to procure materials and inadequacy of transportation.

1.4 FUNCTIONS OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

IN CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
Efficient construction materials management in project environment calls for an integrated
approach covering numerous functions such as materials planning and programming,
materials purchasing, inventory control, store-keeping and ware housing, materials
transportation and handling at site, materials codification and standardization, and the disposal
of surpluses.

One important aspect in materials management is expedition. The purpose of expediting is to

provide timely information regarding anticipated materials deliveries to all concerned project
personnel. When material is received, it is inspected and formal material-receiving report is
completed. Once goods are purchased, they represent an inventory used during the
construction process. The general objective of inventory control is to minimize the total cost
of keeping the inventory while making tradeoffs among the major categories of costs.

1.5 Benefits of Effective Construction Materials Management Systems

Improved Craft Labor Productivity
The benefits associated with improved labor productivity on projects that use integrated
materials management systems are believed to be due to two interrelated factors: Materials are
more likely available when needed, and craft supervision can plan the work around material
availability [6].

Reduced Bulk Materials Surplus

A surplus of materials is more likely to occur on projects in which the take off function is
being performed before final design drawings are available. Two factors affect the potential

3
materials surplus: the timing of the initial orders, and the volume or percentage of materials
actually purchased in the early buys [6].

Reduced Materials Management Manpower

When an effective materials management system is placed in place, experienced materials
professionals will be assigned to perform the field control and warehousing functions that are
traditionally performed by craft personnel. The fact that these tasks are performed by persons
trained specifically in the materials discipline tends to reduce field manpower requirements
[6].

1.6 HANDLING OF CONCRETE MAKING MATERIALS

Construction materials can be readily available naturally or pass through a manufacturing
process to be used directly for construction purposes. It is usually easy to control the quality
of construction materials that pass through a manufacturing process. However, it is very
difficult to control the uniformity and quality of construction materials that are available
naturally and used directly for construction purposes. This is usually true for concrete making
materials especially for the aggregates.

Concrete is one of the oldest construction materials in the construction industry and it is
widely used through out the world. It is suitable to almost all types of constructions starting
from foundations, road pavements, dams, buildings of various types etc. However, the process
involved in the production of concrete requires due care and attention. The care starts from
the selection and estimation of the amounts of constituents of the concrete. The materials used
for concrete production should satisfy certain requirements in order to get the concrete of the
desired strength and durability with a reasonable economy.

Concrete is produced from different construction raw materials that can be both manufactured
and naturally available. Cement is one of the constituents of concrete and is a result of a
factory manufacturing process. The rest constituents that are aggregates and water are
naturally available and are usually used directly for construction purposes. Hence, due
consideration should be given in selecting and using theses materials for concrete production.
The purpose of careful handling and control, in proper sequence, of these concrete making
materials is to produce satisfactorily a selected batch assembly for the continuous production
of homogeneous concrete.

4
In keeping the quality of concrete in line with acceptable standards, one should concentrate in
the properties of the concrete making materials. In the Ethiopian construction industry there is
always a problem of producing concrete which satisfies standard requirements. It is a normal
practice in and around Addis Ababa to see concrete produced using 400kg of cement per
cubic meter of concrete failing to achieve a C-25 grade [13]. One reason for this is the failure
of concrete producers to use proper concrete making materials for the concrete production.

Research carried in Addis Ababa has shown that over 50% increase in compressive strength
can be obtained simply by using aggregates that have different physical properties, but having
similar grading limit and silt content. The different aggregate types (fine and coarse) do not
have appreciable cost differences but the magnitude of strength variation resulted is highly
significant. Thus, the result depicts the economic advantage in concrete production by saving
cement, which is the most expensive construction material in concrete production by selecting
better quality aggregate, grading and keeping the silt content within the allowable limit [14].

In the same research , with the addition of superplasticizer, it was possible to produce
concrete with a mean compressive strength of 91 MPa (C80) using the available concrete
making materials in the country [14]. This shows how the construction industry benefits from
an effective and efficient handling of concrete making materials.

It is a known fact that, construction materials management in construction projects in Ethiopia

is done usually by experience and using traditional methods. It is also viable that lack of
proper construction materials management system in the country contributes to the high
construction cost and poor quality of construction products in Ethiopia. Researches have
indicated that lack of proper materials management is one of the causes of claims in Ethiopia.
Therefore, the mentioned issues signify the need to develop an effective constructions
materials management system in construction projects in Ethiopia in general and handling of
concrete making materials in the construction industry in particular with an ultimate result of
a completed project with good quality and within the schedule.

5
1.7 OBJECTIVES

General Objective
Assessment of the current situation of handling of concrete making materials in the Ethiopian
construction industry in general and formulate and give recommendations with respect to
handling of concrete making materials in accordance with the outcome of the research.

Specific Objectives
1. Assessment of the supply of concrete making aggregates with respect to consistency,
uniformity and quality.
2. Assessment of the supply and demand situation of concrete making materials in the
Ethiopian construction industry.
3. Assessment of the quality and availability of natural sources of concrete making materials
in Ethiopia.
4. Analysis of the effect of aggregate failing to meet the requirement, on the quality of the
resulting concrete and its ultimate financial consequences on Contractors or concrete
producers.
5. Comparing the situation of handling of concrete making materials in Ethiopia with one
developed country, Germany.

1.8 METHODS
Sources and Collection of Data
1. Literature survey
2. Survey at selected active (under construction) projects and construction materials
production plants in and around Addis Ababa and in Germany. The survey includes
observation, on site data collection and conducting interviews.
3. Collecting results of different tests done on concrete making materials that are collected
from different parts of Ethiopia.
4. Collecting relevant data from governmental institutions and large construction materials
suppliers and producers in Ethiopia and in Germany.
5. Use of internet web sites to find relevant information

6
Processing of Data
1. Simple statistical analysis of test results.
2. Comparing the practice of the Ethiopian construction industry with the German
construction industry with respect to handling of concrete making materials.

Conclusion
Formulation of recommendation from the results obtained.

1.9 APPLICATION OF RESULTS

The results will be applicable to the Ethiopian construction industry towards an effective
construction management system in general and handling of concrete making materials in
particular.

Possible Beneficiaries of the Results

• Contractors
• Consultants
• Project owners
• The general public
• Educational Institutions
• Professional Associations (Ethiopian Civil Engineers Association, Ethiopian
Contractors Association, Architects Association)
• Future studies in construction management and related topics

7
2. HANDLING OF CONCRETE MAKING MATERIALS IN
CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS

2.1 GENERAL
It is generally accepted that the initial selection of materials plays major part in achieving a
satisfactory construction product. Unfortunately, it is not always so easily recognized that the
methods adopted on site for handling and storing these materials are equally important. In
addition, the production method followed by material producers and the means of selecting
material sources is not usually given the attention it requires. Further, manufacturers and
suppliers might go to great lengths to provide products that comply with recognized
standards, but much of their effort can be eroded if the same importance is not attached to the
product when it is transferred to the care of the construction team [7].

2.2 HANDLING OF CONCRETE MAKING MATERIALS

2.2.1 GENERAL
Concrete is a composite material that consists essentially of binding medium with in which
are embedded particles or fragments of a relatively inert mineral filler [8]. In some cases,
admixtures may be added to give the concrete special properties [9]. The usual concrete in use
in Ethiopia and throughout the world is Portland cement concrete. In Portland cement
concrete the binder or matrix, either in the plastic or in the hardened state, is a combination of
Portland cement and water. The filler material, called "aggregate," is generally graded in size
from a fine sand to pebbles or fragments of stone which, in some concretes, may be several
inches in diameter [8].

When these materials are mixed and placed in forms and allowed to cure, the chemical
reaction between the water and cement forms a hardened binding medium or cement paste
which surrounds and holds the aggregates together[9].

There are three different ways of producing concrete :

1. On site mixing – concrete ingredients batched and mixed on site
2. Ready-mixed concrete – concrete is delivered for placing from a central plant
3. Precast concrete – both mixing and placing is done in a central plant

8
For practical concrete mixes, the cement, water and aggregates should be so proportioned that
the resulting concrete has the following properties [9]:
A. When freshly mixed it is workable enough for economical and easy uniform
placement, but not excessively fluid,
B. When hardened it posses strength and durability adequate to the purpose for which it
is intended.
C. It involves minimum cost consistent with acceptable quality.

2.3 WATER
The function of the water, other than enabling the chemical reactions that cause setting and
hardening to proceed, is to lubricate the mixture of aggregates and cement in order to
facilitate placing. Some standards stipulate that water fit for drinking is generally suitable for
making concrete [9]. Water quality is the most consistent of the constituents of concrete but
water quantity, as it affects the free/water cement ratio, is most important for control of
consistence, strength and durability.

Water used for concrete mixtures should contain no substance which can have an appreciably
harmful effect on strength or upon durability of the concrete in service [8]. Substances in
water which, if present in large amounts, may be harmful are: salt, oil, industrial wastes,
alkalis, sulphates, organic matter, silt, sewage etc. Tests by the sense of smell, sight or taste
would reveal such impurities; however water of doubtful quality should be submitted for
laboratory analysis and tests [9]. Water should be avoided if it contains large quantities of
suspended solids, excessive amounts of dissolved solids, or appreciable amounts of organic
materials [10]. In addition, the amount of water used should be the minimum necessary to
ensure thorough compaction of the concrete [11]. Since this research is maily focused on
concrete making aggregates, the discussion made concerning water is not detailed.

2.3.1 TESTING OF WATER FOR CONCRETE PRODUCTION

There are no specifications and standard tests for water quality in the ASTM. However,
BS 3148 specifies two methods of assessing the suitability of water for concrete making.
These involve comparing both the setting time and the compressive strengths of specimens
made with the appropriate cement and both the water in question and distilled water. The
water is considered to be suitable if it neither changes the setting time by more than 30 min,
nor reduces the strength by more than 20% compared to the specimen made with distilled
water.

9
Other specifications often used in United States require that the 7 & 28 day strengths should
be at least 90% of those obtained on comparable specimens made with potable water. If there
is doubt as to the suitability of a particular water sources, an alternative supply should be
sought [10].

2.4 CEMENT
Nowadays, after several important technical improvements, concrete made with Portland
Cement is probably the most used manmade material in the world. In a concrete mixture the
function of the cement is to react with the water forming a plastic mass when the concrete is
fresh and a solid mass when the concrete is hard. Since the most widely used cement is
Portland cement, the discussion made in this paper is primarily on this cement type only.
Portland cement is a finely powdered substance, usually gray or brownish grey, composed
largely of artificial crystalline minerals, the most important of which are calcium and
aluminum silicates [8].

Portland cement, by definition (ES. C. D5. 201. 1990), is a cementing material that is obtained
by
thoroughly mixing together calcareous or other lime bearing materials with, if
required, argillaceous and/or other silica, alumina or iron oxide bearing materials,
burning them at a clinkering temperature and grinding the resulting clinker.

In addition, the Ethiopian Standard (ES. C. D5. 201. 1990) states that Portland cement shall
contain no additions after burning except as provided below:

Water or calcium sulphate, or both, may be added in optimum amounts such that the
requirements for chemical composition shall not be exceeded.

Processing additions such as grinding aid may be used in the manufacture of the
cement, provided that such materials shall not be harmful in the amounts used and
shall comply with the requirements 5.11.

Traces, of metallic substances which may result from grinding process shall not be
regarded as additions.

1
Quality requirements which include chemical composition.

10
2.4.1 CEMENT PRODUCTION IN ETHIOPIA
Ethiopia had four cement production plants with a combined production capacity of nearly
1.52 million metric tons per year (Mt/yr) of cement and 1.36 Mt/yr of clinker in 2003.
Currently there are still four cement factories in the country with a total production capacity
of more than 1.67 million metric tons per year.

According to forecasts by the International Cement Review (2003), national cement

consumption was predicted to rise to 1.1 million t in 2003 from 1 million t in 2002 and
900,000 t in 2001. Though, the produced amount was higher than it is predicted to reach in
2003, a shortage in cement was experienced in Ethiopia in that year. This shows that the
consumption of cement in Ethiopia was above that predicted to reach in 2003 by the
International Cement Review. Higher consumption of cement was attributable to the
construction of new roads and hydroelectric dams. Currently, Mugher Cement Enterprise is
planning to build two new cement factories at Dire Dawa in eastern Ethiopia and Mugher near
Addis Ababa at a cost of about $350 million .

The cement production trend in Ethiopia is shown in Table 2.1. As the trend shows there is an
increase in production and selling price of cement in Ethiopia in all the years from 1996 to
2002. In addition, when the production and consumption of cement in Ethiopia is considered,
statistical figures show that it is far below even some underdeveloped countries in the world
as shown in Table 2.2 and Fig 2.1.

Table 2.1 Cement production trend in Ethiopia from 1996 to 2003 [35].
Year Quantity Produced Avg. Producers Price
(Tons) (Birr)
1996/97 774669 473.18
1997/98 469548 549.04
1998/99 815632 527.96
1999/00 919169 527.82
2000/01 819047 582.62
2001/02 - -
2002/03 890181 826.83

Germany has been experiencing a recession in the construction industry for the last ten years.
During that period total construction investment has declined by about 20%. Although limited
during that period there was a downturn of 2.6% of cement production in 2004.

11
One of the important indices that indicate the activity of the construction industry is cement
consumption of countries [12]. Accordingly, though the German construction industry is not
as active as it was before, it has a comparatively good cement consumption index, which is
347. This has to be seen in line with the fact that Germany has already a strong infrastructure
facility.

It is believed that infrastructure is a key aspect towards the economic development of

countries. Further, it is a known fact that it is impossible to think of infrastructure
development with out the development of the construction industry. In addition, cement
consumption index can be used as an indicator of the development of the construction
industry of countries. However, the situation in Ethiopia is quite different. As shown in Table
2.2 and Figure 2.1 the cement consumption index of Germany is 23 times that of Ethiopia.
Further, the cement consumption index of Ethiopia is even lower than a number of developing
African countries. This indicates that the construction industry in Ethiopia is not as active as it
should be.

Table 2.2 A Comparative Cement Consumption in different countries [12].

Country Yearly Production2 Consumption per
(Million Tonnes) capita3 (Kg/person)
Luxembourg 0.55 1227
Spain 48.01 1087
Portugal 09.11 1041
Italy 45.77 709
Austria 4.62 570
Switzerland 4.19 554
China 704.724 548
Germany 28.84 347
France 20.00 339
United States 91.27 318
Egypt 23.00 315
U.K. 13.05 205
South Africa 8.53 194
India 100.00 96
Kenya 1.23 39
Ethiopia 1.67 15
Eritrea 0.045 11
Sudan 0.19 5

2
2004
3
2002
4
Source: U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Census Bureau

12
 Cement Consumption of Countries in 2002.

1400

Consumption kg/person
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0

n
Po in

hA .
d

a
Sw s tri a
ly

a
Ge a
g

y
l

ce

ea
.K

ca
s

pia
yp

da
lan

di
ga

in
ur

an

ny
a

ate
I ta

i tr
Un r an

fri
Sp

In
U

Su
Ch

Eg
bo

rtu

rm

hio
Ke
er
Au

St

Er
F
m

itz

Et
d
xe

i te

ut
Lu

So
Countries

Fig 2.1 Cement consumption per capita of different countries in the world [12].

2.4.2 TYPES OF PORTLAND CEMENTS

There is wide variety of cements that are used in the construction and building industries, or
to solve special engineering problems. The chemical compositions of these cements can be
quite diverse, but by far the greatest amount of concrete used today is made with Portland
Cements. The main types of cements can be classified as shown in Table 2.3 below [9].
Table 2.3 Main Types of Portland cement and their Uses [9].
European Description A.S.T.M. Use

Ordinary Portland Type I For general concrete construction where

special properties are not required.
Modified Cement Type II For general concrete construction exposed
to moderate sulphate action or where it is
required that the heat of hydration be
somewhat lower than for normal cement.
Rapid Hardening Portland Type III For use when rapid hardening is required.
Low Heat Portland Type IV For use where it is required that the heat
of hydration be a practicable minimum.
Sulphate Resisting Portland Type V For use where a high resistance to the
action of sulphate is required.
Portland Pozzolana Type IP For use especially in mass construction
because of low rate of heat development
resulting from low hydration.
White Portland - For use in architectural concrete or where
a pastel colour paint finish is required
such as in tropical countries. It is also
used in making highway lane, stainless
mortar, stucco & building blocks
Portland Blast Furnace Type IS -

13
The name Portland originates as a trade name and thus applies to a family of closely related
cements that have an overall similarity of properties. Different Portland cements can be made
for particular applications by multiplying certain properties [10]. So far the types of cements
produced in Ethiopia are Ordinary Portland, Portland Pozzolana and white cement
respectively.

2.4.3 TESTS ON THE PROPERTIES OF PORTLAND CEMENT

Standards such as ES.C.D5.201.90 and ES.C.D8.490.90 specify requirements for the
composition and manufacture of Portland cement, methods of sampling, testing for chemical
composition and physical requirements. The standards are specified: 1) in recognition of the
fact that Portland cement is industrially manufactured from naturally occurring raw materials
and hence its mineral composition could vary depending on the proportions of the raw
materials, their mineral compositions, and the methods applied in the manufacturing process,
and 2) in order to detect inferior products that deviate from the standards [9].

2.4.3.1 Chemical Tests

Chemical tests are normally conducted by the manufacturer on regular basis in order to check
the quality of the product. They may also be conducted in research laboratories in order to
determine the compound composition of cement used in a particular research. However, they
have little importance to the ordinary consumer [9]. The Ethiopian Standard, ES. C. D6. 201
1990, sets quality requirements of Portland cement as follows:

• Lime Saturation Factor (L. S. F.)

The lime saturation factor shall not be less than 0.66 or more than 1.02 when calculated by the
following formula:
CaO − 0.7( S 0 3 )
L.S .F = (2.1)
2.8( SiO2 ) + 1.2( Al 2 O3 ) + 0.65( Fe 2 O 3 )

• Alumina-iron Oxide Ratio (Al2O3 : Fe2O3)

The ratio of the percentage of alumina (aluminum oxide) to the percentage of iron oxide shall
not be less than 0.66.

Magnesia (MgO)
The mass of magnesia (MgO) contained in Portland cement shall not exceed 5.0 percent.

14

Sulphur trioxide (SO3)
The mass of sulphur trioxide contained in Portland cement shall not exceed 3 percent if the
tricalcium aluminate (C3A) is 8 percent or less, and shall not exceed 3.5 percent if the
tricalcium aluminate exceeds 8 percent.

Loss in Mass on Ignition

The total loss in mass when Portland cement is heated to a temperature of 925 ± 250c shall not
exceed 4 percent.

Insoluble Residue
The mass of insoluble residue shall not exceed 1.5 percent.

2.4.3.2 Physical Tests

In addition to chemical composition, ES. C. D5. 201 1990 requires that Portland cement
conforms to the relevant physical requirements for fineness, setting time, soundness and
strength.

Fineness
According to the standard, Portland cement when tested for fineness must have a specific
surface of not less than 2250 cm2/g when ordinary and not less than 3250 cm2/g when rapid-
hardening.

Setting Time
The minimum initial setting time specified by the standard is 45 minutes.

Soundness
Portland cement when tested for soundness must not have an expansion of more than 10mm.
If the cement fails to comply with this requirement, an additional test, to comply with this
requirement, is called for using aerated portion of the same sample. The maximum expansion
of such an aerated sub-sample must not exceed 5mm.

2.4.4 TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF PORTLAND CEMENTS PRODUCED IN

ETHIOPIA
Chemical compositions and physical properties of different cements produced in Ethiopia is
shown in Table 2.4 and Table 2.5 respectively. The compositions given in the tables signify

15
the fact that cements produced in Ethiopia satisfy quality requirements of the Ethiopian
Standard.

Table 2.4 Chemical Compositions of Cements Produced in Ethiopia [13,14]

No Oxide Percentage ES. D5. 201/202

composition Messobo Mugher Mugher
OPC OPC PPC For OPC For PPC
1 Calcium oxide 64.15 61.60 46.21 - -
2 Silicate oxide 21.23 20.59 34.21 - -
3 Aluminum trioxide 5.24 5.34 6.71 - -
4 Ferric oxide 3.87 3.6 4.12 - -
5 Magnesium oxide 1.72 0.87 0.71 Max.5.0% Max.5.0%

Table 2.5 Physical Properties of Cements Produced in Ethiopia [13, 14]

Messobo Mugher ES. D5. 201/202
No Specification OPC OPC PPC For OPC For PPC
1 Fineness [cm2/g] 3,000 - 4480 Min. 2250 Min. 2600
2 Chemical composition (%)
Lime saturation factor 0.94 Min. 0.66
Max. 1.02
Insoluble residue 0.50 0.35 24.48 Max 1.5 -
Magnesia 1.49
Loss on ignition 0.96 2.36 2.95 Max 4.0 Max 4.0
Sulphuric anhydride (SO3) 2.50 2.4 2.59 Max 3.5 Max 3.0
3 Compressive strength (MPa)
(average of 3 mortar cubes):
3 days 33.50 13.65 Min. 10
7 days 46.02 23.6 Min. 16
28 days 56.97 38.5 Min. 25
4 Setting time (min.)
Initial 187 174 Min. 45 Min. 45
Final 298 234 Max.10hrs.
5 Soundness (mm) 1.86 1.0 10 10

2.5 AGGREGATES
In a concrete mixture the aggregates which are generally graded in size from fine to pebbles
or crushed stones, form the inert mineral filler material which the cement paste binds together.
These aggregates generally occupy 65 to 75 percent of the volume of concrete. In choosing
aggregate for use in a particular concrete attention should be given, among other things, to
three important requirements [9]:

5
This is value of the compressive strength at the 2nd day.

16

Workability when fresh for which the size and gradation of the aggregate should be such
that undue labor in mixing and placing will not be required.

Strength and durability when hardened- for which the aggregate should
1) be stronger than the required concrete strength
2) not contain impurities which adversely affect strength and durability of the concrete
3) not go into undesirable reaction with the components of cement
4) be resistant to weathering action

Economy of the mixture- meaning to say that the aggregate should be
1) available from local and easily accessible deposit or quarry
2) well graded in order to minimize paste, hence cement requirement

Cement is the most expensive of the materials used to make concrete. For this reason and
because the aggregates provide a relatively cheap filler, it is advisable to use as much
aggregates as a given amount of paste will bind together. In addition to being a relatively
cheap filler, the aggregates reduce the volume changes resulting from the setting and
hardening process and from moisture change in the paste [9].

In order to provide a dense packing, or arrangement of particles in place, in a concrete mass,

the aggregate must be suitably graded from fine to coarse. In general, the more aggregate that
can be crowded into a given volume of concrete, the more economical is the resulting product.
On the other hand, with the given amount of aggregate per unit volume of concrete, the more
workable a mix is as the result of suitable gradation - the lower the water requirement and the
greater the strength [8].

2.5.1 FUNCTIONS OF THE AGGREGATES

The aggregates have three principal functions: (1) to provide a relatively cheap filler for the
cementing material; (2) to provide a mass of particles which are suitable for resisting the
action of applied loads, abrasion, the percolation of moisture, and the action of weather; and
(3) to reduce the volume changes resulting from the setting and hardening process and from
moisture changes in the cement-water paste [9].

The properties of concretes resulting from the use of particular aggregates depends upon (1)
the mineral character of the aggregate particles, particularly as related to strength, elasticity,
and durability; (2) the surface characteristics of the particles, particularly as related to the

17
workability, density, and economy of the mix; and (3) the amount of aggregate in unit volume
of concrete, particularly as related to cost and to volume changes due to drying [8].

Aggregate particles that have an angular shape or a rough texture, such as crushed stone, give
greater strength for a given free water/cement ratio but need more water than smooth and
rounded particles to produce concrete of the same consistence. With smaller sized aggregates,
the amount of sand needed to fill the voids increases in water demand. To maintain the free
water/cement ratio necessary for strength and durability, at the specified consistence, more
cement and /or admixture is necessary [11].

The sand and coarse aggregates need to be proportioned to produce a stable and cohesive mix
at the required consistence with the minimum amount of water. Badly proportioned
constituents require an excessive amount of water to achieve the required slump and this will
result in concrete of lower strength and durability, as well as resulting in a mix prone to
segregation [11].

2.5.2 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

To know more about the concrete it is very essential that one should know more about the
aggregates that constitute major volume in concrete. Cement is the only factory made
standard component in concrete. Other ingredients, namely, water and aggregates are natural
materials and can vary to any extent in many of their properties [12].

The physical properties like specific gravity, porosity, thermal, and the chemical properties of
an aggregate are attributed to the parent rock. However, the shape and surface texture of
natural aggregates and the density, porosity, in addition to shape and surface texture in
artificial aggregates are attributed from the mode of production. It is, therefore, very
important to give a due consideration to the source and mode of production of aggregates.

2.5.3 CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES

Aggregates are generally classified based on either their source, their chemical composition,
their weight, their size or the mode of preparation. However, the method of classification
widely used in concrete works is based on aggregate size. Aggregates bigger than 4.75 mm in
diameter are classified as coarse aggregates and those smaller than 4.75 mm are classified as
fine aggregates. In some countries all-in aggregate, an aggregate composed of both fine and
coarse aggregate is made available in the market [9].

18
2.5.3.1 MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY
Rocks are naturally occurring crystalline, cemented or consolidated materials that form the
immediate crust. They are subdivided into types according to mineralogical, petrological and
physical characteristics [15]. Almost all natural aggregate materials originate from bed rocks.
There are three kinds of rocks, namely, igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic [12].

a. Aggregates from Igneous Rocks

Most igneous rocks make highly satisfactory concrete aggregates because they are normally
hard, tough and dense. Therefore, bulk of the concrete aggregates, that are derived, are of
igneous origin [12].

The most widespread of all the igneous rocks are basalts. Basalts are dark colored, fine-
grained extrusive rocks. The mineral grains are so fine that they are impossible to distinguish
with the naked eye or even a magnifying glass. Most basalts are volcanic in origin and were
formed by the rapid cooling and hardening of the lava flows. Some basalts are intrusive
having cooled inside the Earth’s interior.

b. Aggregates from Sedimentary Rocks

The quality of aggregates derived from sedimentary rocks will vary in quality depending upon
the cementing material and the pressure under which these are originally compressed. Some
siliceous sand stones have proved to be good concrete aggregate. Similarly, the limestone also
can yield good concrete aggregate [12].

The thickness of the stratification of sedimentary rock may vary from a fraction of a
centimeter to many centimeters. If the stratification thickness of the parent rock is less it is
likely to show up even in an individual aggregate and there by it may impair the strength of
the aggregate. Such rocks may also yield flaky aggregates. The degree of consolidation, the
type of cementation, the thickness of layers and contamination, are all important factors in
determining the suitability of sedimentary rock for concrete aggregates [12].

c. Aggregates from Metamorphic Rocks

Many metamorphic rocks particularly quartzite and gneiss have been used for production of
good concrete aggregates [12].

Classification of rocks according to their mode of formation is summarized in Table 2.6.

19
Table 2.6 Classification of Rocks According to their Mode of Formation
Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic

Formed from the Formed as strata as a result Either igneous or sedimentary

solidification of molten rock of sedimentation from the that has been altered structurally
1. Volcanic disintegration products and mineralogically by heat or
- Basalt derived from rocks. pressure or both acting together.
- Trachyte - Sand stone
2. Plutonic - Lime stone
- Granite - Shale

They are very good concrete If hard, sand stone and They are of minor interest for
making materials. lime are good materials for building purposes except marble.
concrete.

It was found in some literature that the type of rock normally used for concrete production in
Ethiopia is igneous rock. Especially, basalt and rhyolites are widely used. In addition to
igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks such as black lime stones are also used for concrete
production [22].

2.5.3.2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

There are three main classes of aggregates differing in their chemical composition and these
are derived from argillaceous, siliceous or calcareous rocks as it is shown in Table 2.7[9].

Table 2.7 Classification of rocks according to their chemical composition

Argillaceous Siliceous Calcareous
Composed primarily Composed primarily of silicon Composed primarily of
of aluminum (Al2O3) the dioxide (SiO2), the principal calcium carbonate or lime
chief component of clay ingredient of quartz sand (CaCO3)

2.5.3.3 WEIGHT
Based on their weight, aggregates are divided into three groups: 1) heavy aggregates with
specific gravity more than four, 2) normal weight aggregates with specific gravity between
2.4 and 3.0 and 3) light weight aggregates such as pumice and scoria which are used to make
light weight concrete [16].

20
Lightweight aggregates
All light weight materials are relatively weak because of their high porosity, which gives them
reduced weight. This imposes a limitation on strength. Lightweight aggregates are used to
reduce weight in structural elements or to give improved thermal insulation [11].

Mikyas (1970) investigated the concrete making properties of lightweight aggregate using
concrete made with Ethiopian pumice and scoria. Satisfactory structural capacity was
obtained in addition to reduction of imposed dead loads on structures [24]. Use of local
lightweight and cheaper Ethiopian aggregate (scoria) as a replacement to crushed rocks had
been studied by Girma(1982). The structural properties of lightweight aggregates, which were
used with varying proportions to normal weight, were found to be structurally sound [25].

Pumice
Pumice is a very light, porous igneous rock that is formed during volcanic eruptions. It is
made up of very tiny crystals, since they cool so quickly above ground. The texture of pumice
is rough and has many hollows and cavities. In fact, it forms from frothy lava that has lots of
gas bubbles trapped in it, and all those little holes used to have gas trapped in them. It has
bulk density of 500 to 900 kg/m3. The varieties of pumice, which are not too weak
structurally, make a satisfactory concrete with a density of 700 to 1400 kg/m3 and with good
insulating characteristics, but high absorption and high shrinkage.

Scoria
Scoria rocks are igneous rocks that are found when lava cooled quickly above ground. One
can see where little pockets of air had been. Scoria is actually a kind of glass and not a
mixture of minerals. It is abundantly found in Addis Ababa and along the rift valley, on
occasions newly formed scoria is observed along sides of the road to Metahara.

2.5.3.4 SOURCE
As regards the source, aggregates may be natural or artificial. Natural aggregates are obtained
from river beds (sand, gravel) or from quarries (crushed rock) while artificial aggregates are
generally obtained from industrial wastes such as the blast furnace slag [9]. Classes of
aggregates with respect to their source is shown in Table 2.8. Almost all aggregates used for
construction is natural in origin. In addition to natural gravels and crushed rock, a number of
manufactured aggregates are available for use in concrete [11].

21
Table 2.8 Aggregate Classification With Respect to their Source

Natural Artificial
Sand, Gravel, Crushed Rock such as Broken Brick, Air cooled slag
Granite, Quartzite, Basalt, Sandstone

In most parts of Ethiopia sand is obtained from river beds while coarse aggregate is prepared
from crushed rock and sold as crushed stone aggregate. In south western regions of Ethiopia
(Illubabor, Kaffa, Gamu-Gofa) where river sand is scarce, fine aggregate is prepared from
stone as crushed sand. Crushed stone aggregate, course or fine, can also be prepared at the
construction site from lumps supplied with trucks [9]. However, no artificial aggregate is
produced in Ethiopia. Except the sources of scoria, the majority of aggregate sources in Addis
Ababa are located around rivers within the city. The big river banks of Akaki River and
Matahara River (around Bole Airport) are the main sources for the production of coarse
aggregate in Addis Ababa.

In Germany natural sand and gravel are collected from river beds; however, crushed rock
aggregate is usually used for high strength and special concrete production. In addition,
crushed rock is also used as fine aggregate where natural sand is not available. Since the
crushed aggregates have sharp granular surface they produce concrete of better strength than
smooth surfaced gravel. This is important for the proper utilization of aggregate sources. In
addition, artificial aggregate is also used for concrete production in Germany.

The mode of production of the aggregates differs depending on the type of aggregate
produced. The two dominantly produced aggregates, lightweight namely scoria and normal
weight basalt do have different modes of production. The light weight aggregate is produced
from quarries by simple digging or bulldozing as it is a soft material and the different sizes
produced mainly depend on digging or bulldozing. The normal weight aggregates, on the
other hand,are drilled, blasted or dug with special mechanisms, fed to crushers, sieved and
separated according to their sizes. In Ethiopia, the different sizes commonly known as Fine,
01, 02, 03 and 04 are produced and stockpiled separately. In Germany, the types of aggregates
normally produced are 0-4mm, 2-8mm, 8-16mm and 16-32mm to be used as fine aggregate
and 2-5mm, 5-8mm, 8-11mm, 11-22mm and some times 8 – 16 mm to be used as coarse
aggregate.

22
2.5.3.5 PARTICLE SHAPE AND TEXTURE
Further, aggregates may be classified on visual inspection in terms of particle shape and
texture (BS 812), as is shown in Table 2.9.

Table 2.9 Shape and Texture of Aggregates [15]

Characteristic Classification Description Examples

Particle shape Angular Well-defined edges at the Crushed rocks of
intersection of rough faces, and three all types; rubble;
dimensions nearly equal. crushed slag.
Elongated Particles, usually angular, having a -
length/width ratio greater than 3.
Flat or flaky Particles having a width/thickness -
ratio greater than 3.

Flat and Particles having width/thickness and Crushed or

elongated length/width ratios greater than 3. laminated rock.
Irregular Naturally irregular or partly shaped Pit gravel, land or
by attrition, having rounded edges dug flint.
and three dimensions nearly equal.

Misshapen Either flat or elongated, or flat and Crushed or

elongated particle. laminated rock.
Rounded Fully water-worm or shaped by River or seashore
attrition, and three dimensions gravel; desert,
nearly equal. seashore and
wind-blown sand.
Surface texture Crystalline Easily visible crystalline Granite, gabbro,
constituents. gneiss
Glassy Concoidal fracture. Black flint,
vitreous slag.
Granular Fracture showing more or less Sandstone
uniform rounded grains.
Honey- Visible pores and cavities. Pumice, scoria,
combed clinker, foamed
and porous slag, expanded
shale or clay,
brick.
Rough Rough fracture of fine-grained or Basalt, felsite,
medium-grained rock with no easily porphyry,
visible crystalline constituents. carboniferous
limestone.
Smooth Water-worn or smooth due to
fracture of laminated or fine-grained
rock.

23
2.5.4 RESEARCHES ON LOCAL AGGREGATES IN ETHIOPIA
A research was carried out to test the potential use of local normal weight aggregates for the
production of high strength concrete. The result confirmed that the locally available basalt
stone can reasonably be used to produce concrete of higher strength. With the application of
super plasticizers, concrete strength of 90MPa was obtained. This result was obtained by
proper selection of aggregates (removing friable particles), limiting the maximum size of
aggregates (higher strength can be attained with smaller maximum sizes), washing (to remove
material finer than No. 200 sieve) and using higher quantity of cement in combination with
limiting the w/c ratio. Nevertheless, from this result it is possible to see that the widely used
concrete class C-25 is a low grade as compared to the potential of producing higher strength
concrete[26].

A research conducted around Mekele (Tigrai) indicated that the existing raw materials in the
area are suitable for construction purposes. According to the research, the better crushed
aggregate source in the area is black limestone. The soundness and Los Angeles Abrasion
varies from 17.9 to 21 % and 2.9 to 4.7% respectively [41]. Table 2.10 summarizes the Los
Angeles Abrasion and soundness loss values of different aggregates in the study area [41].

Table 2.10 Test results of rock samples taken from quarry sites around Mekele
Los-Angeles Soundness
No Type Abrasion (%) Loss (%) Location
1 Crushed Aggregate 17.9 2.9 Quiha (Limestone)
2 Crushed Aggregate 19.6 4.7 Quiha (Limestone)
3 Crushed Aggregate 21 3.7 Adulis quarry site
(black limestone)
4 Sand - 1.9 Gereb-giba
(20 km from Mekele)
5 Natural Aggregate 24.1 10.4 Quarry
(5 km from Business College)

According to the result of the research, the best rock that can be used to produce good quarry
site for aggregate in the area is the black finely crystalline limestone. The other rock units
were either weak, difficult to shape or crush them. A sulphate content of up to 0.44% was
found in some rocks of the study area, indicating its damaging effect to concretes or other
infrastructures upon contact with water. This indicates the need for special protections for
structures placed in such materials [38].

24
In addition, a report of a research carries out in Awassa indicated that from engineering point
of view, the rocks outcropping in the town area were grouped in to two: strong (basalts and
rhyolites) and weak rocks (dominantly of basaltic hayalloclastites). From field Schmidt
hammer test result, it was found out that the former ones have an unconfined strength in the
range from 310 to greater than 700 kg/cm2, while the latter less than 100 kg/cm2. The strong
ones were found out to be good sources for aggregates while the weaker ones are not suitable
for most of civil engineering works. The results of the chemical analysis and physical tests of
the rocks are summerized in Table 2.11 and Table 2.12 respectively[39]. Therefore, the above
mentioned researchs give an indication that good quality aggregate for concrete production is
available in both places of Ethiopia.

Table 2.11 Chemical Analysis data for rocks of the study area [42]
Sample Location Sio2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO Na2O K2O MnO TiO2 P2O5 H2 O LOI
Type
Basalt Tumura 47.92 15.87 12.32 8.89 5.46 1.68 0.12 0.21 4.02 0.59 0.27 0.21
Rhyolite Kika 75.82 9.94 4.32 0.14 0.13 3.55 4.31 0.13 0.21 0.06 0.68 <0.01

Table 2.12 Aggregate test result for the rhyolite sample from kika ridge [42]
Test Type Test Result Maximum Allowable Procedure
Soundness Test by sodium sulphate ASTM C33
(% loss) 0.86 12
Abrasion (% wear) 10.18 50 ASTM C33
Stripping (%) Above 95% Above 95% ASTM D1669
Flakiness Index (%) 23 35 BS 882
Bulk Specific Gravity 2.42
Bulk Specific Gravity (SSD) 2.43
Apparent Specific Gravity 2.46
Water Absorption (%) 0.67

2.5.5 AGGREGATE TYPE SELECTION

As aggregates form the bulk of the volume of concrete and can affect its performance, the
selection of a suitable material is important [11]. Many properties of aggregates depend
mostly on the quality of parent rock. However, there are some properties possessed by the
aggregates which are important so far as concrete production is concerned. These properties
have no relation with the parent rock, particularly the shape and size . In addition, selection of
aggregates is required to be done judiciously taking the economic factor into consideration.

The aggregate that can be delivered to the mixing plant directly may not be the most
economical one. It may require a cement content more than that of another source. Also very
often, the cost of some processing accomplishes the reduction in cement content of the

25
concrete. In general, the aggregate that brings about the desired quality in the concrete with
least over all expense, should be selected [12].

2.5.6 DETERMINATION OF AGGREGATE REQUIREMENT

For the calculation of batch quantities, for making mix adjustments, for computing effective
water - cement ratios and yields, and for making estimates of quantities required for jobs,
some of or all of the information like specific gravity of aggregate particles, unit weight of
aggregate in bulk, free moisture and absorption and gradation of aggregate are needed [8].

Methods that have been used or are used to choose the relative proportions of the various
sizes are as follows [8]:
1. Trial mix of the concrete to obtain maximum economy with good workability
2. Empirical criteria based upon
a. Unit weight or void content
b. Sieve analysis and grading diagrams
3. Trial mixtures of dry aggregates to obtain maximum density
4. Rule- of - thumb ratios

The first method is probably the most satisfactory in the long run, since the final criterion of
optimum proportions is a concrete which most nearly possesses the necessary economy and
workability. However, with more than two sizes of aggregate the number of trials may
become large, so that familiarity with the significance of unit weights and gradations (method
2) serves as an excellent guide to the most desirable combinations. The third method may also
serve as a guide, except that, as has been pointed out, maximum density of dry aggregates
doesn't give optimum workability in a concrete mixture, so that either trial mixes or empirical
modification of proportions is still necessary [8]. However, there is no standard procedure in
Ethiopia for concrete mix design. Due to this reason concrete producers in Ethiopia are
obliged to use mix design procedures developed for other countries.

2.5.7 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE MAKING AGGREGATES

As much as the aggregate occupies 65 to 75 percent of the volume of concrete the importance
of having information on the physical and chemical characteristics can not be over
emphasized.

26
2.5.7.1 Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of the unit weight of the substance to the unit
weight of water. Applied to aggregates, the term specific gravity customarily refers to the
density of the individual particles, not to the aggregated mass as a whole [8].

In connection with concrete mix calculations, it is desired to know the spaces occupied by the
aggregate particles with in the relatively thick cement paste regardless of whether or not pores
or internal voids exist within the particles. Hence, there is determined what is called the bulk
specific gravity of the particles. The bulk specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight
in air of a given volume of a material at the standard temperature to the weight in air of equal
volume of distilled water at the standard temperature. For use in the computation of concrete
mixes the bulk specific gravity is always determined for saturated surface dry aggregates. The
specific gravities of a number of commonly used aggregates fall with in the range of 2.6 to
2.7, although there are satisfactory materials for which the specific gravity falls outside this
range [8].

2.5.7.2 Unit Weights and Voids

Unit weight is the weight of a unit volume of aggregate, usually stated in kg per cubic meter.
In estimating quantities of materials, and in mix computations when batching is done on a
volumetric basis, it is necessary to know the conditions under which the aggregate volume is
to be measured: (1) loose or compact, and (2) dry, damp, or inundated [8]. The general range
in unit weights of some fine and coarse aggregates are shown in Table 2.13.

Table 2.13 General Range in Unit Weight of Some Natural Aggregates

Material Kg/m3
Sand (dry) 1520 – 1680
Gravel 1280 – 1440
Crushed Stone 1250 – 1400

Bulk density measures the weight of the aggregate that fills a container of unit volume part of
which is void because of loose packing of the particles. The bulk density is used to convert
quantities by weight to quantities by volume for batching concrete. In general, for comparison
of different aggregates and calculation of mix quantities the standard conditions are dry and
compact (rodded). However, for scheduling volumetric batch quantities, the unit weight in
the loose, damp state should also be known [12].

27
2.5.7.3 Surface Moisture, Porosity and Absorption
As regards moisture content, the various states in which an aggregate may exist are: (1) Oven
dry (2) Air dry (3) Saturated surface dry and (4) Damp, or wet [8]. In proportioning the
materials for concrete, it is always taken for granted that the aggregates are saturated and
surface dry [12].

It should be noted that if the aggregates are dry they absorb water from the mixing water and
there by affect the workability and, on the other hand, if the aggregates contain surface
moisture they contribute extra water to the mix and thereby increase the water/cement ratio.
Both these conditions are harmful for the quality of concrete. In making quality concrete, it is
very essential that corrective measures should be taken both for absorption and free moisture
so that the water/cement ratio is kept as exactly as per the design [12]. Therefore, in
calculating or measuring quantities for concrete mix it is important to know the state at which
the aggregate is used [9].

Absorption represents the total water contained in the aggregate in the saturated surface-dry
condition and the surface moisture (or free moisture) is the water in excess at the saturated
surface-dry state. The total water content of a damp or moist aggregate is equal to the sum of
absorption and surface moisture content. The surface or free moisture content is generally
given in terms of percent of the weight of the saturated surface dry aggregates [9].The
absorption capacity is a measure of the porosity of an aggregate. Approximate values of the
absorption capacities of some types of aggregates are given in Table 2.14.

Table 2.14 Approximate absorption capacities of some types of stones used for aggregate
Material Absorption capacity
% by wt.
Sand 0 – 2.0
Gravel 0.5 – 1.0
Basalt 0 – 0.5
Granite 0 – 0.5
Limestone (firm) 0.5 – 1.0
Sand stone 2 – 7.0
Trap rock 0 – 0.5

Some of the aggregates are porous and absorptive. Porosity and absorption of aggregate will
affect the water/cement ratio and hence the workability of concrete. The porosity of aggregate

28
will also affect the durability of concrete when the concrete is subjected to freezing and
thawing and also when the concrete is subjected to chemically aggressive liquids [12].

The porosity of aggregate is important since it affects its bulk specific gravity, permeability
and absorption which in turn affect the properties of the resulting concrete. Unless their
openings are very wide, the surface pores are considered impermeable to cement paste
because of its viscosity. Hence, the gross volume of the aggregates particle, including the
surface pores of narrow opening, is considered to be solid for the purpose of calculating the
aggregate content in concrete [9].

Determination of moisture content in aggregate is of vital importance in the control of the

quality of concrete particularly with respect to workability and strength. The measurement of
the moisture content of aggregate in the field must be quick, reasonably accurate and must
require only simple apparatus which can easily be handled and used in the field. Some of the
methods that are being used for determination of moisture content of aggregate are: (i) Drying
method (ii) Displacement method (iii) Calcium Carbide method and (iv) Measurement by
electrical meter [12].

Bulking of Fine Aggregates

The free moisture content in fine aggregates results in bulking of volume. Due to the bulking,
fine aggregate shows completely unrealistic volume. Therefore, it is absolutely necessary that
consideration is given to the effect of bulking in proportioning the concrete by volume. This is
especially important in Ethiopia where volumetric batching of aggregates is normally
experienced in concrete production. If cognizance is not given to the effect of bulking, in case
of volume batching, the resulting concrete is likely to be under sanded and harsh. It will also
affect the yield of concrete for a given cement content [12].

The finer the sand the more pronounced the bulking. An increase in volume relative to that
occupied by a saturated and surface dry sand sharply increases to the extent of 20 and 40 %
with a corresponding 4 and 8 % increase in surface moisture [9].Stockpiled coarse aggregate
is generally in the air dry (AD) state with an effective absorption of less than 1%. However,
fine aggregate is often in the wet state, with a moisture content typically in the range 0 to 5%.
The reason for high surface moisture values for the fine aggregate is that in addition to their
surface films of moisture, additional water can be held in the interstices between fine particles
as a result of formation of menisci [10].

29
2.5.7.4 Gradation
In order to calculate the proportions of the different ingredients and produce concrete of
desired proportions, it is important and indeed required to determine the characteristics of the
aggregate which include among other things its gradation. The grading of particle size
distribution of aggregate is usually determined by a sieve analysis [9].

A sample of aggregate for sieve analysis is first surface dried and then sieved through the
series, starting with the largest. The standard sieve sizes used by some internationally
accepted standards are given in Table 2.15. The weight retained on each sieve is recorded and
the percentage computed. The summation of the cumulative percentage of the material
retained on the sieves (not including the intermediate sieves) divided by 100 is called the
fineness modulus. It is used as an index to the fineness or coarseness and uniformity of
aggregate supplied, but it is not an indication of grading since there could be an infinite
number of gradings which will produce a given fineness modulus [9]. The following limits
may be taken as guidance.
Fine sand : F.M. 2.2 - 2.6
Medium Sand : F.M. 2.6 - 2.9
Coarse Sand : F.M. 2.9 - 3.2
A sand having a fineness modulus more than 3.2 will be unsuitable for making satisfactory
concrete [12]. According to literature, for concrete work, the fineness modulus of sand should
lie between 2.6 and 3.1 [8].

Table 2.15 Standard Sieves and Square Openings [9]

For Fine Aggregates For Coarse Aggregates
ES Series ASTM Series ES Series ASTM Series
Sieve Size & Sieve Size Clear Opening Sieve Size & Sieve Size Clear Opening
Clear Opening Clear Opening
9.5mm 3 in
8 0.375 in 75 mm 3 in 3.00 in
6
4.75mm No 4 0.187 in 63 mm (2 in ) 2.00 in
2.36mm No 8 0.0937 in 37.5 mm 1½ in 1.50 in
- - - - 1 in 1.00 in
1.18mm No. 16 0.0469 in 19 mm ¾ in 0.75 in
600µm No. 30 0.0232 in 13.2 mm (½ in)6 0.50 in
300µm No.50 0.0117 in 9.5 mm 3 in
8 0.375 in
150µm No.100 0.0059 in 4.75 mm No 4 0.187 in

6
These values called “intermediate” or “full size sieves” are not included in the series for fineness modulus
calculations.

30
Aggregate is graded so as to have different sizes of particles, from the required largest size to
the very fine. The use of well - graded mixture of aggregates results in improved workability
of the concrete and economy of the cement since such aggregates have a decreased amount of
voids between their particles and they consequently require less cement paste [9].

It is reported that, for mixes of given consistence and cement content, a well-graded aggregate
produces a stronger concrete than a poorly graded one because less water is required to give
suitable workability. In addition, with a given cross sectional dimension of a concrete
structural member and spacing of reinforcements, it is in general recommended to select the
maximum possible size of aggregate. The maximum size and the grading are important
because they affect 1) the relative volume occupied by the aggregate, hence the economy in
producing concrete 2) the surface area of the aggregate which determines the amount of water
necessary to wet all the solids, 3) the workability of the mixture, 4) the tendency to
segregation, and 5) the porosity and shrinkage. This implies that from the point of view of
selecting proportions (mix design), it is important to have well graded coarse and fine
aggregate with maximum possible size [17].

A suitable gradation of the combined aggregate in a concrete mix is desirable in order to

secure workability and to secure economy in the use of cement [8]. A sample of the well
graded aggregate containing minimum voids will require minimum paste to fill up the voids
in aggregates. Minimum paste will mean less quantity of cement and less quantity of water,
which will further mean increased economy, higher strength, lower -shrinkage and greater
durability [12].

For the reason that both the maximum size and grading are important factors to be considered
when calculating proportions for concrete mix, national standards specify grading limits for
coarse and fine aggregates. According to the Ethiopian Standard ES. C. D3. 20 [16] fine
aggregate should consist of natural sand obtained from the natural disintegration of rocks or
sand obtained from crushed stones where as coarse aggregate should be gravel, crushed
gravel, or crushed stone. In addition, according to the same standard, the fine aggregate
should not have more than 45 percent retained between any two consecutive sieves and the
fineness modulus should not be less than 2.0 or more than 3.5 with a tolerance of ± 0.2 [16].

31
The grading or particle size distribution of fine aggregate and coarse aggregate should be with
in limits specified in Table 2.16 and Table 2.17 respectively. Standards such as B.S.882
prescribe grading requirements combined or all-in aggregate. These are given in Table 2.18.

Table 2.16 Grading Requirement for Fine Aggregate [16].

Sieve size ASTM Percentage
(ES) Designation Passing
9.5 mm 3/8 100
4.75 mm - 95 - 100
2.36 mm No. 8 80 - 100
1.18 mm No. 16 50 - 85
600 µm No. 30 25 - 60
300 µm No. 50 10 - 30
150 µm No. 100 2 - 10

Table 2.17 Grading Requirement for Coarse Aggregate [16].

Percentage Passing

Sieve Size(ES) ASTM Designation Nominal Size of Graded

Aggregate (mm)
387 - 5 197- 5 137- 5
75 mm 3 in 100
63 mm (2 in) -
37.5 mm 11/2 in 95 - 100 100
19 mm ¾ in 30 – 70 95 – 100 100
13.2 mm ½ in - - 90 – 100
9.5 mm 3/8 in 10 - 35 25 – 55 40 – 85
4.75 mm No. 4 0–5 0 – 10 0 - 10

Table 2.18 Grading Requirements for All- In Aggregate (B.S. 882:1954) [16].

B. S. Sieve Percentage by Weight Passing B.S. Sieves

Size 1 ½ in (37 mm) ¾ in (19 mm)
Nominal Size Nominal Size
3 in (75 mm) 100 -
1 ½ in (37.5 mm) 95 - 100 100
¾ in (19 mm) 45 - 75 95 - 100
3
16 in (4.75 mm) 25 - 45 30 - 50
25 8 - 30 10 - 35

100 (4.75 mm) 0-6 0-6

7
The maximum size of an aggregate is defined by the largest sieve through which at least 90% of the aggregates
passes.

32
Divided aggregate is preferable to all - in aggregate for consistent grading and the practical
control of quality in concrete manufacture. The various sizes of particles of which an
aggregate is composed should be uniformly distributed [15]. Generally, divided aggregate is
used in the Ethiopian construction industry.

Standard Grading Curve

When a sieve analysis has been completed, the weight of aggregate retained on each sieve is
expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the sample [10]. The results obtained as
percent passing or percent retained coarser can be shown graphically in aggregate grading
charts. On the horizontal axis are read the sieve openings with arithmetic or logarithmic scale.
They are arranged with increasing sieve opening sizes form left to right. On the vertical scale
on the left side of the chart are indicated the total percentage coarser, 0 to 100, form bottom to
top. The corresponding values for the percentage passing are read on the right side of the chart
[9]. However, it is also possible to draw the chart the other way round.

A grading chart is especially useful in checking whether the results obtained from the sieve
analysis of a given sample fall with in the limits specified by standards. If, however, they fall
outside the limits adjustments must be made. In fact in some places it is difficult to obtain
well graded aggregates especially sands. In this case the combined aggregate may be based on
what is called gap grading meaning certain sizes are missing. This often happens in places
where the coarse aggregate is crushed stone and where only very fine sand is available.

The grading of fine aggregates has much greater effect on workability of concrete than does
the grading of coarse aggregate. Experience has shown that usually very coarse sand or very
fine sand is unsatisfactory for concrete making. The coarse sand results in harshness, bleeding
and segregation, and the fine sand requires a comparatively greater amount of water to
produce the necessary fluidity [12].

It is easiest to maintain the uniformity of concrete if the quantities of concrete are to be

handled is very large, it may be advantageous to blend several fractions of coarse aggregate to
maintain uniform grading. This is a common procedure in ready-mixed concrete plants, due to
the reason that concrete can be produced more economically when corrections for grading
variability are eliminated [10].

33
Maximum Size of Aggregates
The maximum size of an aggregate is determined from its sieve analysis and is generally
designated by the largest sieve through which atleast 90% of the aggregates pass [8]. The
largest maximum size of aggregate practicable to handle under a given set of conditions
should be used. Using the largest possible maximum possible size will result in (i) reduction
of the cement content (ii) reduction in the water requirement (iii) reduction of drying
shrinkage.

The bigger the size of the aggregate, the less is the surface area and hence less amount of
water is required for wetting the surface and less matrix or paste is required for lubricating the
surface to reduce internal friction. For a given quantity of water and paste a bigger size of
aggregate will give higher workability [12].

The maximum size of coarse aggregate is governed by the type of work to be done. For
reinforced concrete it should be such that the concrete can be placed without difficulty,
surrounding all reinforcement thoroughly, particularly in the cover zone, and filling the
corners of the formwork. The use of a larger aggregate results in a slightly reduced water
demand and hence a slightly reduced cement content for a given strength and workability
[11].

Smaller aggregate, usually 10mm maximum size, may be needed for concrete that is to be
placed through congested reinforcement for example. In this case the cement content may
have to be increased by 10 - 20 % to achieve the same strength and workability as with a 20
mm maximum-sized aggregate concrete because the sand content and water content normally
have to be increased to produce a cohesive mix [11].

2.5.7.5 Physical Properties

With respect to physical properties, coarse aggregates should comply with the following
characteristics [15].
(i) Abrasion-resistance
(ii) Aggregate crushing value
(iii) Aggregate impact value

34
2.5.7.6 Shape
The shape of aggregate is an important characteristic since it affects the workability of
concrete. The shape of the aggregate is very much influenced by the type of crusher and the
reduction ratio, ν, i.e., the ratio of the size of material fed into crusher to the size of the
finished product [12]. Particle shape and size distribution influence the water content
necessary to obtain a mix of suitable resistance, and then by affecting the compressive
strength, drying shrinkage and durability of the resulting concrete. Inaddition, the sum of the
flakiness and elongation indices should not exceed 40% or 35% in some standards[15].
Description and examples of different classes of shapes of aggregates are given in Table 2.19.

Particle shape of aggregates can be calculated by one of the following methods:

(i) Thickness and length guages
(ii) Proportion Calliper
(iii) Angularity number

From the standpoint of economy in cement requirements for a given water/cement ratio,
rounded aggregates are preferable to angular aggregates. On the other hand, the additional
cement required for angular aggregate is offset to some extent by the higher strength and
sometimes by greater durability as a result of the inter- locking texture of the hardened
concrete and higher bond characteristic between aggregate and cement paste [12].

Table 2.19 Shape of Particles [12].

Classification Description Examples

Rounded Fully watered worn or completely River or seashore gravels; desert,
shaped by attrition seashore and wind-blown sands
Irregular or Naturally irregular, or partly shaped by Pit sands and gravels; land or
partly rounded attrition, having rounded edges dug flints; cuboid rock
Angular Possessing well-defined edges formed at Crushed rocks of all types; talus;
the intersection or roughly planar faces screes
Flaky Material usually angular, of which the Laminated rocks
thickness is small relative to the width
and/or length

2.5.7.7 Texture
Surface texture is the property, the measure of which depends upon the relative degree to
which particle surfaces are polished or dull, smooth or rough. Surface texture depends on
hardness, grain size, pore structure, structure of the rock, and the degree to which forces
acting on the particle surface have smoothed or roughened it. It has been also shown by

35
experiments that rough textured aggregate develops higher bond strength in tension than
smooth textured aggregate [12]. The summary of these experiments is shown in Table 2.20.

Table 2.20 Influence of Texture on Strength [12].

Percent of particles Water/ Cement Strength, 28 days

Ratio Kg/cm2
Smooth Rough Flexural Compressive
100 0 0.54 43 348
50 50 0.57 46 321
0 100 0.60 48 295

2.5.7.8 Strength
When cement paste of good quality is provided and its bond with the aggregate is satisfactory,
then the mechanical properties of the rock or aggregate will influence the strength of the
concrete. Therefore, it can be concluded that while strong aggregates can not make strong
concrete, for making strong concrete, strong aggregates are essential requirement [12].
Assessment of strength of the aggregate is made by using a sample of bulk aggregate in a
standardized manner. This test is known as aggregate crushing value test. Aggregate crushing
value gives a relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate sample to crushing under
gradually applied compressive load [12].

2.5.7.9 Aggregate Impact Value

Apart from testing aggregate with respect to its Crushing Value and impact resistance, testing
the aggregate with respect to its resistance to wear is an important test for aggregate to be
used for road constructions, ware house floors and pavement constructions. Specified abrasion
change and abrasion and crushing value percentage limits are given in Table 2.21 and Table
2.22 respectively. Three tests are in common use to test aggregates for its abrasion resistance
[12]. (i) Deval attrition test (ii)Dorry abrasion test (iii) Los Angeles test

Table 2.21 Specified Abrasive Change [12].

Grading Number of spheres Weight of change (gm.)

A 12 5000±25
B 11 4585±25
C 8 3330±20
D 6 2500±15

36
Table 2.22 Abrasion and Crushing Value Percentage Limits [15]
Aggregate Type Los Angeles Aggregate Crushing
Value Value
Hornfels 25 20
Andesite; Basalt 30 25
Breccia; Dolerite 30 25
Microdiorite; Microgranite 30 25
Microsyenite; Rhyolite 30 25
Limestone; Quartzite 35 30
River Gravel; Slate 35 30
Granite; Quartz 45 40

The average values of different tests on Rocks of different groups are summarized in
Table 2.23.

Table 2.23 Average Test Values for Rocks of Different Groups [12].

Rock Group Crushing Aggregate Abrasion Impact Attrition Specific

Strength Crushing value value Value gravity
(Kg/cm2) Value (%) Dry Wet
Basalt 2070 12 17.6 16 3.3 5.5 2.85
Flint 2143 17 19.2 17 3.1 2.5 2.55
Gabbro 2036 - 18.7 19 2.5 3.2 2.95
Granite 1929 20 18.7 13 2.9 3.2 2.69
Gritstone 2286 12 18.1 15 3.0 5.3 2.67
Hornfels 3536 11 18.8 17 2.7 3.8 2.88
Limestone 1714 24 16.5 9 4.3 7.8 2.69
Porphyry 2393 12 19.0 20 2.6 2.6 2.66
Quartzite 3391 16 18.9 16 2.5 3.0 2.62
Schist 2536 - 18.7 13 3.7 4.3 2.76

2.5.7.10 Modulus of Elasticity

Modulus of elasticity of aggregate depends on its composition texture and structure. The
modulus of elasticity of aggregate will influence the properties of concrete with respect to
shrinkage and elastic behavior and to very small extent creep of concrete [12].

2.5.8 Durability of Aggregates

Since aggregates make up the bulk of concrete, any lack of durability of the aggregate will
have disastrous consequences for the concrete. If there are durability problems, special

37
screening tests may be required, routinely to avoid problem aggregates, or special measures
must be taken to counter act the effects of undesirable aggregates. The latter approach will
become more important in the future as deposits of high-quality aggregates are worked out
and more marginal material is brought into use [10].

Aggregates should be hard and should not contain materials that are likely to decompose or
change in volume when exposed to weather. Examples of undesirable materials are lignite,
coal, pyrite and lumps of clay [11].

2.5.8.1 Chemical Reactions

For a long time aggregates have been considered as inert materials but later on, particularly,
after 1940's it was clearly brought out that aggregates are not fully inert. Some of the
aggregates contain reactive silica, which reacts with alkalis present in cement i.e. sodium
oxide and potassium oxide [12]. The formation of the products of the reaction between the
alkalis and the aggregate causes abnormal expansion, which, however, sometimes doesn't take
place until two or more years after the concrete has been placed [8].

The types of rocks which contain reactive constituents include traps, andesites, rhyolites,
siliceous limestones and certain types of sandstones. The reactive constituents may be in the
form of opals, cherts, chalcedony, volcanic glass, zeolites etc. The reaction starts with attack
on the reactive siliceous minerals in the aggregate by the alkaline hydroxide derived from the
alkalis in cement. As a result, the alkali silicate gel of unlimited swelling type are formed.
When these conditions are congential, progressive manifestation by swelling takes place,
which results in disruption of concrete with the spreading of pattern cracks and eventual
failure of concrete structures. The rate of deterioration may be slow or fast depending up on
the conditions [12].

The following are factors which promot the alkali - aggregate reaction
(i) Reactive type of aggregate
(ii) High alkali content in cement
(iii)Availability of moisture
(iv) Optimum temperature conditions

Many specifications restrict the alkali content to be less than 0.6 percent expressed as soda
equivalent. A cement meeting this specification is designated as a low alkali cement. Field

38
experience has never detected serious deterioration of concrete through the process of alkalis
less than 0.6 percent. In exceptional cases, however, cements even with lower alkali content
have caused objectionable expansion [12].

Evaluation of aggregates for potential damage due to alkali- aggregate reaction requires
judgement based past service record of the aggregate source, if available, and possible use of
one or more laboratory procedures such as C295 for petrographic examination, C227 for
mortar bar expansion of the aggregate used with cement, and the quick chemical method
C289. In some cases, one or more of the tests will indicate potential reactivity, but if the
source has good service record for a long period of time in a similar environment, and if the
aggregate in such concrete is petrographically similar to the aggregate under evaluation, it
may be acceptable for use, particularly with a low –alkali cement.

Use of certain pozzolanas, blended cements, or slag cement may be sufficient to eliminate the
risk of deleterious alkali-aggregate reaction and may be determined by ASTM C441 [34]. One
materials testing laboratory in Addis Ababa has all the laboratory equipments necessary to
carry out all the three test methods mentioned above. However, it is complained that the
number of test samples submitted for assessement of potential alkai-aggregate reaction is too
small.

2.5.8.2 Soundness
Soundness refers to the ability of aggregate to resist excessive changes in volume as a result
of changes in physical conditions. These physical conditions are the freezing and thawing,
variation in temperature, alternate wetting and drying in salt water. Aggregates which undergo
more than the specified amount of volume change are said to be unsound aggregates [12].The
disintegrative resistance to an aggregate to sulphate solution is a means of estimating its
soundness to weathering action, particularly where relevant service records are inadequate or
unavailable [15].

2.5.8.3 Deleterious Substances/Cleanliness

The concrete aggregate should be free from impurities and deleterious substances that are
likely to interfere with the process of hydration and results in prevention of effective bond
between the aggregate and matrix. These impurities sometimes reduce the durability of the
aggregate. Generally, the fine aggregate obtained from natural sources is likely to contain
organic impurities in the form of silt and clay. The manufactured fine aggregate doesn't

39
normally contain organic materials. But it may contain excess of fine crushed stone dust.
Coarse aggregate stacked in the open and unused for long time may contain moss and mud in
the lower level of the stack [12]. Limits of deleterious substances in concrete aggregates are
given in Table 2.24.

Sometimes excessive silt and clay contained in the fine or coarse aggregates may result in
increased shrinkage or increased permeability in addition to poor bond characteristics. The
excessive silt and clay also necessitates greater water requirements for given workability. The
quantity of clay, fine, silt and fine dust are determined by sedimentation method. To ascertain
whether a sample of fine aggregate contains permissible quantity of organic impurities or not,
a simple test known as colorimetric test is made [12].

Table 2.24 Limits of Deleterious Materials [12].

Deleterious Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate

Substance Uncrushed Crushed Uncrushed Crushed
Clay and Lignite 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Clay Lumps 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Soft fragments - - 3.00 -
Material passing 75 micron
IS sieve 3.00 3.00 3.00 1.00
Shale 1.00 - - -
Note : The sum of the percentage of all deleterious material shall not exceed five.

Aggregates should be clean and free from organic impurities: aggregate containing organic
material makes poor concrete. The particles should also be free from coatings of dust of clay,
as these prevent the proper bonding of the material. An excessive amount of fine dust or stone
'flour' may prevent the particles of stone from being properly coated with cement and thus
lower the strength of the concrete [11].

Gravels and sand are sometimes washed by the suppliers to remove excess fine (clay and silt,
for example) and other impurities, which, if present in excessive amounts, result in a poor
quality concrete. However, excessive washing can remove all fine material passing the 300µm
sieve. This may result in a concrete mix lacking in cohesion and, in particular, being
unsuitable for placing by pump. Sand deficient in fines also tends to increase the bleeding
characteristics of the concrete, which can result in poor vertical finishes due to water scour
[11].

40
2.5.9 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Rock and aggregate possess three thermal properties which are significant in establishing the
quality of aggregate for concrete construction. They are [12]:
(i) Coefficient of expansion
(ii) Specific heat
(iii)Thermal conductivity

Out of the three, specific heat and conductivity are found to be important only in mass
concrete construction where rigorous control of temperature is necessary. Also these
properties are of consequence in case of light weight concrete used for insulation purpose.
When dealing with the aggregate in general it will be sufficient to deal with only the
coefficient of expansion of the aggregate, since it interacts with the coefficient of thermal
expansion of cement paste in the body of the set-concrete [12]. The coefficient of thermal
expansion of concretes made with different aggregates is given in Table 2.25.

Table 2.25 Coefficient of thermal expansion of 1:6 concretes made with Different
Aggregates [12].

Linear coefficient of thermal expansion

Type of aggregate Air-cured concrete Water-cured concrete Air cured and wetted
10-6 per 0C 10-6 per 0C concrete 10-6 per 0C
Gravel 13.1 12.2 11.7
Granite 9.5 8.6 7.7
Quartzite 12.8 12.2 11.7
Dolerite 9.5 8.5 7.9
Sandstone 11.7 10.1 8.6
Limestone 7.4 6.1 5.9
Portland stone 7.4 6.1 6.5
Blast-furnace 10.6 9.2 8.8
slag
Foamed slag 12.1 9.2 8.

If a particular concrete is subjected to normal variation of atmospheric temperature, the

thermal incompatibility between the aggregates and the paste or between the aggregate and
matrix may not introduce serious differential movement and break in bond at the interface of
aggregate and paste or aggregate and matrix. But if a concrete is subjected to high range
temperature difference the adverse effect will become acute. In dealing with the fire resistance
of concrete the study of coefficient of thermal expansion of aggregate is also important [12].

41
Coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete at high temprature is given in Table 2.26 and the
influence of aggregate on the coefficient of thermal expansion is given in Table 2.27.

Table 2.26 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Concrete at High Temperatures [12].

Linear coefficient of thermal expansion at the edge of
Curing Water/ Cement Aggregate 28 days 90 days
conditio cement content Below Above Below 260oC Above
n ratio Kg/m3 260oC 430oC 10-6 per 0C 430oC
10-6 per 0C 10-6 per 0C 10-6 per 0C
0.4 435 7.6 20.3 6.5 11.2
Moist 0.6 310 Calcareous 12.8 20.5 8.4 22.5
0.8 245 Gravel 11 21.1 16.7 32.8
Air 0.4 435 7.7 18.9 12.2 20.7
50 % 0.6 310 Calcareous 7.7 21.1 8.8 20.2
relative 0.8 245 Gravel 9.6 20.7 11.7 21.6
humidity
Moist air 0.68 355 Expanded 6.1 7.5 - -
0.68 355 Shale 4.7 9.7 5.0 8.8

Table 2.27 Influence of Aggregate Content on the Coefficient of Thermal Expansion [12].
Linear coefficient of thermal expansion
Cement/Sand ratio Of concrete at the age of 2 years 10-6 per oC
Neat cement 18.5
1:1 13.5
1:3 11.2
1:6 10.1

2.5.10 Aggregate Beneficiation

If an aggregate doesn't meet the specifications required for the job, the concrete producer is
faced with two courses of action. One option is to reject the aggregate or the other is to
consider taking measures to bring the aggregate up to specifications. Beneficiation of
aggregate may be the only available solution if aggregate supplies are scarce, but it will add to
cost of the aggregate and hence of the concrete [10].

2.5.11 EFFECTS OF CONCRETE MAKING MATERIALS ON THE

PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE
2.5.11.1 Shrinkage of concrete
In ordinary concrete the weakest phase is the cement paste, hence, aggregate strength is of
minor importance. However, aggregates make up the highest percentage of those materials

42
used for making concrete, and as a consequence their properties, other than strength, affect the
characteristic of concrete, both in the plastic and in the hardened state [9].

When stored in an unsaturated air, concrete losses part of its water content through
evaporation. This withdrawal of water starts while the concrete is still in a fresh or plastic
state and continues for several days and months after the concrete has hardened. The
corresponding dimensional changes are known as plastic and drying shrinkage [9].

The mineral composition, grading and mechanical properties of aggregates constitute one of
the few if not the most important factors on the shrinkage of concrete. The mineral
composition of aggregates is important because under comparable conditions, minerals
behave differently when alternately wetted and dried. The maximum size and grading of
aggregates influence the magnitude of shrinkage indirectly. Well graded aggregates with a
large maximum size have a low void space and permit the use of a leaner mix, larger
maximum size aggregate also allows lower water content, consequently both effects result in
a lower shrinkage [9].

Shrinkage of concrete as influenced by mix proportions made with different aggregates is

given in Figure 2.2. As is it shown in the picture concrete made with quartz aggregates has the
least shrinkage when compared to concrete made with other types of aggregates.

Fig 2.2 Shrinkage of concretes of fixed mix proportions made with different aggregates
and stored in air at 20 oC and a relative humidity of 50 percent [12].

43
2.5.11.2 Strength of Concrete
For a constant water cement ratio and the same degree of compaction, the compressive
strength of concrete decreases when the specific surface of the aggregate increases. And if, for
the same cement content and degree of compaction, the quantity of fine is increased, the
demand for higher amount of water arises and consequently, leads to a weaker concrete . Test
results reported by Portland Cement Association indicates that the 28 day strength of concrete
of given consistence increases with fineness modulus of the mixed aggregate provided the
limits of workability are not exceeded [9]. Table 2.3 shows the effect of aggregate/cement
ratio on strength of concrete.

Fig 2.3 Effect of aggregate/cement ratio on strength (curve a represents a very stiff
mix and curve d represents a plastic mix)

2.5.12 Handling of Concrete Making Materials in Construction Sites

Materials handling is not merely a site problem; it is affected by the designer, the
manufacturer and the contractor. Unnecessary handling of materials increases site costs, and
yet often materials waste could be reduced by redirecting under-employed plant and
equipment [7].

2.5.12.1 SOURCE

a. Fine Aggregate

To ensure that the proper amount of sand is present, the separate delivery, storage and
batching of coarse and fine aggregate is essential [11]. Uniform concrete requires a consistent
source, character, grading and moisture content of fine aggregate. In addition, segregation of
aggregate moving down a sloping surface can be prevented by a retaining baffle. The
moisture in sand, as batched, should be kept within a practical range of stability. Covered

44
storage is helpful in reducing adjustments through variations in moisture content [15].
Processes involved in a modern sand production is shown in Fig. 2.4.

Fig 2.4 Modern Sand Processing (Plant operations include screening, washing,
separation and fractional classification.) [15]

Beach sands are generally unsuitable for good-quality concrete, since they are likely to have
high concentration of chloride because of the accumulation of salt crystals above the high-tide
mark. They are also single-sized, which can make the mix design difficult [11].

45
b. Coarse Aggregate
For a high degree of control over the production of concrete, it is necessary for the coarse
aggregate to be delivered, stored, and batched using separate single sizes rather than a graded
coarse aggregate [11]. The preparation of crushed rock or crushed stone aggregate at the
quarries requires several steps which include the blasting of the rock which is conveyed by
belt conveyor to the crushing plant. The crusher, which could be of different type, is generally
adjusted so as to give a range of aggregate sizes. The output is made to pass over a set of
screens and the different fraction sizes collected for sale [9].

For uniform concrete, coarse aggregate is separated into several size fractions or gauges. Bulk
storage should be on hard ground or a thin slab of weak concrete that is graded for drainage.
A space or dwarf walls should be placed between different materials. When stock piles are
required, they should be built up in horizontal or gently sloping layers and not by end-
dumping methods [15]. Correct and incorrect method of aggregate handling are shown in
Fig 2.5.

Correct Incorrect
Fig 2.5 Methods of Aggregate Handling [15].

46
 Correct Incorrect
Fig 2.5 Cont. Methods of Aggregate Handling [15].

2.5.12.2 Delivery of Cement and Aggregates

Materials are delivered to the site in many forms; some will be in bulk or even bagged, while
others are crated, packaged or in pallet form. Obviously this affects distribution and storage
on site, and while large quantities will be delivered in bulk, small quantities or mixed amounts
are more likely to be delivered loose. Bulk deliveries include hardcore, aggregate, PFA
(Pulverized Fuel Ash), bituminous paving materials, concrete and cement [7].

47
Cement is generally transported, off-loaded, stored and withdrawn from storage before it can
be used. Road vehicles for transporting cement in bulk include tipping lorries, air -assisted
discharge lorries fitted with spiral-type discharge conveyors and vehicles fitted with bottom-
emptying hoppers or pressure containers [15].

Cement may be delivered in bulk or in bags. Bulk cement is delivered by tanker, usually in
loads of more than 25 tones and blown into storage silos by compressed air. Cement is
normally supplied in bags containing 50 kg in Ethiopia. It is often convenient to use bags on a
smaller site, but cement is cheaper in bulk [11]. For instance, there is a 1 birr per quintal
saving in buying cement in bulk from Mugher cement factoryin Ethiopia.

Unless care is taken in handling and storing of aggregates, there is a marked tendency for
segregation of the fine and coarse particles to occur. In general, there is less danger of
segregation in coarse aggregates if they are screened into two or more size ranges and handled
separately [8].

Segregation is more serious in all-in-aggregates or course aggregate which contains different

sizes. In general, there is less danger of segregation, especially in coarse aggregate, if it is
prepared or split into size fractions (i.e. 13-5, 19-5, etc.) and stockpiled separately and
remixed in the desired proportions when the concrete is prepared [9].

2.5.12.3 Receiving
The simplest and presumably the cheapest method of unloading materials has been to tip them
directly where they are to be used, and with aggregates, hardcore and excavated materials this
can still be done with out detracting from the quality. These materials offloaded by direct
tipping are usually transported in trucks with elevated sides [7].

Quality control of concrete should start with a visual inspection of the aggregates as they are
delivered, combined with some quick, simple testing if there is any doubt about their quality
or grading. The cleanness of sand can be checked quickly by hand. If a sample of sand is
rubbed between the palms of the hands, staining of the palms may be an indication of that an
excessive amount of clay and silt are present, due to in adequate washing [11].

Coarse aggregates should be inspected visually for clay lumps and clay coatings grading and
particle shape. Clay lump are not always obvious and careful inspection of deliveries is
advised. Loads containing such lumps should be rejected before discharge [11].

48
2.5.12.4 Storage
Cement should be kept dry during storage as moist air leads to the phenomenon of air-setting,
which results in the formation of lumps of hydrated cement. Air-set cement should not be
used, as concrete made from it could have a much reduced strength. Silos have to be
weatherproof but, during prolonged periods of storage, some air setting may occur due to
condensation in the silo. This is minimized by aeration, which should be done frequently in
periods of prevailing damp weather. Regular maintenance of cement silos is essential [11].

At all stages up to the time of use, cement must be kept dry so as to prevent or minimize
deterioration from the effects of moisture, atmospheric humidity and carbonation. Air tight
drums and internally coated bulk silos are ideal storages. Cement in multi-wall paper bags
should be stored in a water proof building with close-fitting doors which should be kept
closed as much as possible. The floor should be placed well above the ground and incorporate
a vapor proof membrane so as to keep it dry. If this is not possible, the bagged cement must
be stacked on pallets or on a dry board platform, some 150mm clear of the surface. The roof
should be pitched as a slope of 1 in 3, so that condensation drips will not fall. In regions of
high relative humidity, insulation and a storage temperature of 45 0c are advisable [15].

Bags of cement should be stacked close together, so as to restrict the circulation of air around
them. The stacks should be kept 150 - 300 mm clear of the walls (with access ways 900 mm
wide). Stacks that are more than eight bags high should be placed in header and stretcher
formation, so as to increase their stability when laid up to the maximum height (for economic
handling) of 4.2 m. Tall stacks are stepped back for stability when cement is being withdrawn
[15].

Cement which is 4 months old should be classified as "aged" and be retested before use. The
capacity of bulk-storage containers should excess the requirements of cement for 1 week and
they should be cleared out as least once each 4 months. For full strength development, the
cement should be used with in 3 months [15].

The bags should be used in the order in which they are received; thus each delivery should be
kept separate to avoid confusion. Paper bags used for packing cement are not vapor proof, so
undue exposure should be avoided. Even when stored under good conditions, bagged cement
may lose 20% of its strength after two months' storage. In addition, to avoid risk of accidental
confusion, cements of different types should be stored separately [11].

49
Aggregates should be stored so that they are kept as uniform as possible in grading and
moisture content, and protected from intermingling and contamination by other materials. If
clean, hard base is not provided, the bottom 300 mm of each aggregate pile should not be
used, since dirt and water can accumulate there. It is essential to provide substantial partitions
to separate the different aggregate sizes and to prevent spillage from on bay to another [11].

Stockpiles should be as large as possible, as this helps to ensure uniformity of moisture

content. Ideally, stockpiled sand should be allowed to stand for 12 hours before use so that,
apart form the lower part of the stockpile, the moisture content will be reasonably uniform at
about 5 -7 %. When sand is very wet the moisture content can be as high as 12 - 15%. Unless
adjustments are made to the water added at the mixer, excessive variations in workability,
strength and durability will result. In large batching plants the aggregate would probably be
lifted by a conveyor system to covered overhead storage hoppers discharging directly into
weigh-batchers [11]. Aggregate for concrete will be stored in a central area.

2.5.12.5 Materials Control on Site

Control of the materials used on site begins the time the contractor is handed over the site. All
materials delivered to site must be compared with the relevant standards. Besides the general
waste of materials on site, there is a lot of damage, and this is often due to lack of proper
supervision. Responsibility for materials must begin with the person handling them.

Many foremen and supervisors see their main function as that of materials supplier to the
group they are responsible for, ignoring materials handling. If a materials controller is
appointed to anticipate materials requirement and distribute supplies, trades foremen will have
enough time to do their job properly. Site management is ultimately responsible for materials
use and handling [7]. Materials may be kept on site over long or short period of time until
they are needed. Storage also means expenditure of capital, and money and contractors are
reluctant to purchase materials in advance, except for those needed almost immediately [7].
Summary of the proper control of materials at every stage of operation is shown in
Table 2.28.

50
Table 2.28 Proper control of materials requires controlled supervision at every stage of
operations [7].
Materials Handling Storage Protection Loss or Waste
Fine & -Delivered by high-sided truck In prepared bays -Cover against frost, -Indiscriminate
Coarse -Check quality, grade and adjacent to mixer. snow or rain handling
Aggregates quantity In selected grading -Avoid contamination -Contamination of
-Transfer by grab, mechanical and particular size. with mud, clay or oil any kind
shovel or power-assisted On concrete base -Install steam heating -Failure to trim
equipment on weigh batcher laid to falls. to base of mound stocks
-Transport by bucket, hopper, -Check calibrations on -Using as site
dumper and barrow. weighting equipment dressing or to fills
site voids
Cement -Delivered by tanker and -In special silo adjacent -Avoid accidental -Humidity causing
pumped into silo to mixer bursting of sacks materials to damp
-Delivered in 50 kg paper sacks -On raised platforms in -Restrict raising -Dumpiness
on timber pallets shed or in open moisture affecting initiating set
-Offload by forklift or crane -Covered completely cement in store -Indiscriminate
-Use bagger cement in order of with tarpaulin or -Cover against rain, handling causing
delivery polyethylene sheet snow and ice bags to burst
-Failure to use
deliveries in rotation
-Pilfering
-Leaving stocks
unused

2.5.12.6 Stockpile arrangements

Stockpiles must be pre-planned as short-term storage areas, each one selected for its strategic
relationship to one or more sectors of the site. Withdrawal of materials should be monitored
so that stockpiles can be balanced regularly. There must be a recognized and easily applied
system for withdrawing materials from the stockpile [7].

Materials should be stacked so that access to other components is not obstructed, and
mechanical equipment can be operated without additional manual assistance. Cement should
be stacked on a timber platform in moisture-free conditions, and stocks withdrawn in rotation
to prevent the materials being kept too long. Burst bugs should be used first, but materials
affected in any way by moisture can not be used, particularly where cement is required for
'design mixes.' Large deliveries of cement will normally be stored on site within a site
included with the cement concrete paste [7].

51
2.5.12.7 General Preparation
Materials are consistently stored on unprepared ground. Too little thought is given to storage
until materials actually arrive on site; storage areas are then hurriedly selected without thought
for the likely hazard. Materials laid directly down on the ground can be affected by moisture
and chemical reactions, which is a very strong reason for preparing the area beforehand.
Topsoil should be removed and set aside for re-use elsewhere. The area should be rolled and
blended with ashes, and hardcore laid and rolled with slight falls from the center to ensure
good surface drainage. When a ground is prepared for storing aggregates in the mixing area a
bed of concrete 100mm thick should be laid over the hardcore base and tamped to provide
sufficient falls to remove excess water combined with the aggregates either when delivered or
due to weather conditions [7].

2.5.12.8 Protection
Construction materials and components are rarely given the degree of protection they need to
perform in accordance with the specification. Usually this is because site personnel do not
understand the possible problems that can arise. Physical attack on materials and components
can be dealt with relatively easily. Chemical attack is much more a problem. It is very
difficult to detect early on, and the only way to avoid it is to take early precaution in storage.
Aggregate stored in a mixing area is shown in Figure 2.5.

Fig 2.6 Aggregate for concrete stored in a mixing area [7].

52
Of all the construction materials, none can have been treated with more indifference over the
years than Ordinary Portland Cement. OPC is hygroscopic, it absorbs moisture from the air,
setting off a chemical reaction which affects the molecular structure and reduces the
subsequent strength. In addition, unless aggregates are stored on a properly prepared site they
are likely to become contaminated with mud or clay, which will obviously affect the strength
of the concrete mix [7].

2.5.12.9 Waste in Handling

There is more waste of some materials than others; on most sites it would be difficult to
decide which materials were worst affected, bricks, blocks, concrete or mortar, although the
waste from bagged plaster and cement has always been exceptionally high. Whenever
concrete is used in large quantities it is wasted and one reason for that is the quantities
required have been miscalculated [7].

The construction industry has changed considerably in recent years, influencing production
rates, construction techniques and the total quantity of materials each year. The increase in the
total quantity of materials used has in turn led to an increase in the amount of waste [7].

Materials waste can be classified as loss through poor site security, inefficient handling,
inadequate storage, and misuse in construction or manufacture, or all of which point to poor
management. Where the losses occurs at site level then it is site control which must be
improved, and this must be more effective where support is available from head office
management. Plans can be made at head office or at site management level, but
implementation can only be achieved by general cooperation at site level [7].

Waste occurs on site for a number of reasons, most of which can be prevented. Some of the
most obvious ones are:

misinterpretation of drawings;

overestimating the quantities required;

faulty workmanship;

careless handling of materials.

Materials are also wasted by design requirements. The preparation and use of materials
inevitably creates a certain amount of waste, and this can be assessed in advance. Any
increase should be investigated to avoid a recurrence. While poor design contributes to

53
materials waste, it is often the quality of craftsmen which determines the extent of such waste.
Waste can occur through shortages in the materials delivered to site [7].

Much of the problem lies in the abundance of and relative cheapness of materials in the past.
Planning approval is now required before erecting plant or opening up quarries; Health and
Safety at Work legislation necessitates expensive labor and machinery, and increased running
costs; more stringent controls on waste disposal have to be complied with; and even when the
materials have been won it is necessary to reinstate the area to satisfy environmental
regulations [7].

The answers to many of these problems can be found in better controls. One solution is to
appoint a materials controller with defined responsibilities for all materials on site, and
sufficient authority to enforce control procedures. This will save materials and money [7].

2.5.12.10 Batching
One important aspect in handling of concrete making materials is the method used in batching
these materials. For normal batching, cement should be measured by the bag unless fractional
bags are weighed [15]. However, fine and coarse aggregates can be batched gravimetrically,
manually or volumetrically. Since cement is delivered in bags there is no problem in batching
cements in Ethiopia.

a. Gravimetric Batching
Each type or size of aggregate should be stored and weighed separately, weighing being to a
tolerance of 2% individually or 1% cumulatively on a standard, surface dry basis [15].

b. Manual Batching
Wheel barrows and platform scales are satisfactory and economical for projects that require
up to 1000m3 of concrete [15].

c. Volumetric Batching
Volumetric batching on small-job sites is done with cuboid gauge boxes, which are screened
off level for uniformity in filling. If fractional bags of cements are used, an allowance must be
made for the increase in volume of the cement, due to aeration by disturbance. Batches should
be so arranged in size that whole bags of cement are employed. Nominal proportions of mix
refer to dry materials. When gauging moist sand by volume, a correction is necessary for
bulking due to moisture content, which causes sand to occupy a larger volume than it would if

54
it were dry. The volume of coarser aggregate stays fairly constant whether it be dry, moist or
wet [15]. In most construction projects in Ethiopia, volumetric batching using wooden or steel
boxes is carried out.

2.5.13 SAMPLING OF AGGREGATES

The object of sampling is to produce a truly representative quantity of the consignment being
sampled and of sufficient quantity for the tests required [11]. Samples should show the true
nature and condition of the materials they represent. They should be drawn from points
known to be representative of the probable variations in the material. A bulk sample is
obtained by combining a sufficient number of increments that are drawn from different parts
of the bulk [15].

2.5.13.1 Samples and Sampling Methods

Sampling is equally as important as testing and the sampler shall use every precaution to
obtain samples that will show the nature and condition of the materials which they represent.
Samples for preliminary investigation tests are obtained by the party responsible for
development of the potential source (if aggregate source is to be developed8) or responsible
construction party (if it is for mix-design purpose). Samples of materials for control of the
production at the source or control of the work at the site of use are obtained by the producer,
contractor or other parties responsible for accomplishing the work.

The fineness modulus of a well-graded sand should not vary by more than ± 0.2 from that of a
preliminary representative sample. When dry sand is dropped from the end of an elevated
conveyor, a chute or a chimney should be installed so as to prevent a segregation of sizes by
wind action [34].

2.5.13.2 Securing Samples

Where practicable, samples to be tested for quality should be obtained from the finished
product. Samples from the finished product to be tested for abrasion loss shall not be subject
to further crushing or manual reduction in particle size in preparation for the abrasion test
unless the size of the finished product is such that it requires further reduction for testing

8
The preliminary investigation and sampling of potential aggregate sources and types occupies a very important
place in determining the availability and suitability of the largest single constituent entering into the
construction. It influences the type of construction from the standpoint of economics and governs the necessary
material control to ensure durability of the resulting structure, from the aggregate standpoint. This investigation
should be done only by a responsible trained and experienced person.

55
purposes. The material shall be inspected to determine noticeable variations. Sampling can be
from one of the following sources:
a. Sampling from a Flowing Aggregate Stream (Bins or Belt Discharge)
b. Samples from the Conveyor Belt
c. Sampling From Stock Piles or Transportation Units

Maximum normal size of aggragtes and the respective approximate minimum mass of field
samples is given in Table 2.29.

Table 2.29 Size of Aggregate Samples (ASTM D75 - 82)

Maximum Normal Size of Approximate Minimum

Aggregates9 Mass of Field Samples 10 (Kg)
Fine Aggregates
2.36mm 10
4.75mm 10
Coarse Aggregates
9.5mm 10
12.5mm 15
19.0mm 25
25.0mm 50
37.5mm 75
50mm 100
63mm 125
75mm 150
90mm 175

2.5.13.3 Shipping Samples

- Transport aggregates in bags or other containers as to preclude loss or contamination of
any part of the sample, or damage to the contents from mishandling during shipment.
- Shipping containers for aggregate samples shall have suitable individual identification
attached and enclosed so that field reporting, laboratory logging, and test reporting may be
facilitated.

9
For processed aggregate the normal maximum size of particles is the largest sieve size listed in the applicable
specification, upon which any ,material is permitted to be retained.
10
For combined coarse and fine aggregates minimum weight shall be course aggregate minimum plus 10kg.

56
2.6 PRODUCTION PROCESSES OF CONCRETE MAKING AGGREGATES
2.6.1 FINE AGGREGATE PRODUCTION
Sand plays a critical role as a concrete aggregate and it deserves special attention when
considering the means of process control. Unlike coarse aggregate where various types of
crushers can be used to upgrade mineral quality, sand basically relies on the same techniques
to address both mineral quality and sizing. These techniques are called particle exclusion.

Whichever size the producer decides to eliminate for quality reasons obviously also will affect
sizing. Good quality natural sand is available in many areas and may be easy to obtain and
process. The sand deposits may not have been laid uniformly, meaning a potential change in
quality and size is possible. In some deposits, sand found below the water table differs in fines
content and quality from that found above the water table. How fine aggregate is produced in
Ethiopia and in Germany is discussed in chapter 3.

2.6.2 PRODUCTION METHODS OF COARSE AGGREGATES

With the exception of manufactured aggregates, most materials for aggregate production
come from bedrock or unconsolidated deposits. A quarry can be established as a suitable
outcropping, or overburden may need to be removed before the rock is exposed .

Crushed stone aggregates are produced from many natural deposits including; limestone,
granite, trap rock and other durable mineral resources. Production of these materials requires
blasting and excavating the broken stone from quarries followed by progressive stages of
crushing, screening, washing and blending. The numerous sizes and gradations are
determined by their intended use and each complies with the specifications established by
governmental agencies or customer's requirements. Production of coarse aggregates from
rocks involves different processes including stripping, drilling, blasting, crushing and
screening.

2.6.2.1 STRIPPING
At this step, the producer should spell out a detailed stripping for each and every deposit it
mines. This phase is often overlooked, yet it has a great influence on the quality and
variability of the product. Inadequate removal of overburden from the mineral deposit often
can be the source of excessive variation.

57
2.6.2.2 DRILLING AND BLASTING
Except where unconsolidated deposits are being worked out, such as old river-beds, which are
a source of boulders, gravel and sand, the first operation in the production of aggregates is
blasting. Depending on the requirements of each operation and specifically the blasting
pattern, blasting results in a spread of loose rock ranging in size from typically 400mm to
zero, although the top-size of the run-of-mine ore can be up to one or two meters.

Quarry operators commonly design fragmentation shots for safety, economy, ease of use at
the primary crusher, and even public relations, but they often forget about quality. It is
important that the shot layout be properly engineered, documented, and adhered to for
maximum consistency. Varying the shot pattern can mean changes in product size throughout
the operation. Smaller shot rock, resulting in less crushing in the secondary and teritary
stages, may mean less improvement throughout crushing. Therefore the mineral quality and/or
changes in physical properties of the product may be affected.

Hole detonation-sequencing and blast intensity also must be properly engineered. Size
changes resulting from installation to detail can have the same effects as mentioned above.
Also, an erratic blast that throws the shot rock over a large area will tend to cause variation in
size gradation that is delivered to the primary crusher. Any deviation from previously
established shot patterns, sequencing, and intensity should be carefully thought as to the effect
on product quality. Geologic variability in the deposit can sometimes affect sizing but more
often will cause a change in mineral integrity and physical property.

2.6.2.3 CRUSHING
In stone quarries large material usually is reduced in size by either a jaw or a gyratory crusher.
After primary crushing, the resulting aggregate generally will be placed in a large “surge” pile
where it can be fed into the secondary operation whenever convenient.

Care must be taken when building up and loading out surge piles, as this step can be a major
source of segregation of material going to the secondary plant. Variation at this point may
affect both mineral quality and gradation. Care should be taken to thoroughly mix the older
material a little time with fresh product to make the surge as uniform as possible as it is being
pushed into the tunnel. Secondary and tertiary crushing, if necessary, are the final steps in
reducing the material to a desired product size.

58
2.6.2.4 SCREENING
The best technique for gradation control is screening. Screening is a technique used to control
both quality and gradation of the aggregate product. If deleterious material still exists at
undesirable levels after crushing and can be identified as being predominantly in one size
range that is not needed for product size, it may be screened out.

Washing for example, may be necessary to clean a concrete aggregate. Frequent checking of
gradation should be a standard operating procedure. Sometimes screening variation is too
great even under the most favourable of conditions. The most common reason for high
screening variability is the tendency to push too much material over a screen. The only way to
maintain a bed of material thin enough for optimum efficiency is to provide enough screening
to allow the desired rate of production.

For well-graded products, gradation control may not be accomplished without separating the
material into fractions. Frequent sampling, testing and control charting are necessary for
monitoring, because aggregates gradation is subject to so many variables.

2.6.2.5 HANDLING IN AGGREGATE PRODUCTION

SEGREGATION
Controlling the production process should be given first priority when beginning on the road
to quality. It is here that all the inputs are measured, evaluated, and controlled so that product
conformity and uniformity can be predicted. It is often felt that when a uniform product
appears on the last belt jobs are finished, but usually it is far from true. Whenever one rock is
placed upon another segregation can destroy the uniformity that the producer so carefully
built into the product.

Actually, segregation begins on the belt where fines vibrate to the bottom and coarse
aggregate remains on the top as the material bounces across the idlers. At the end of the belt,
if left undeflected, the coarse particles are thrown out and away. Fine particles, on the other
hand, tend to drop down or if wet will even follow back underneath the conveyor.

STOCKPILING
Whenever there is a difference in the process between supply and demand, a stockpile is
required. With in the process, if the production of a particular product is not balanced exactly
by the demand from a downstream operation then a stockpile must be inserted into the

59
process. Segregation is probably the nemesis of stockpiling and handling, but certainly other
problems such as degradation and contamination can adversely affect product quality. Every
possible precaution should be taken to protect product quality from the point of manufacture
to the point where it leaves the producer’s control.

Since most stockpiling problems are created because of inconsistent management, it is very
important for the producer to write standard operating procedures on building stockpiles for
each product and to educate all those involved in their responsibilities in the procedure.

DEGRADATION
Degradation or breakdown of the product is often caused by equipment running on top of the
aggregate when it is being stockpiled. When this occurs the degraded portion of the pile must
be discarded before shipping. Degradation may also occur during retrival where some of the
lower portion of the pile is carelessly run over with equipment while loading out. Piles two
years and older should be rechecked for gradation before shipping and possibly even for
mineral quality.

CONTAMINATION
Contamination is usually the result of carelessness and poor house keeping. In order to save
space, stockpiles of different products are placed close together and as they grow in size they
grow together. Equipments also can track dirt or other foreign matter into the product pile
area. And old piles are subject to wind –blown fines over time and should be checked for this
before shipping.

2.6.2.6 RETRIVAL
Retrieving material properly from a stockpile is just as important as building the stockpile
properly. In retrieving material as well as in building stockpiles a good measure of common
sense is necessary. All the effort in creating a consistent product is for naught if care and good
practice is not used to keep the product unaltered and consistent up to the point where it
leaves the producer’s control.

After final preparation of the products, they are stored prior to dispatch in bins, silos or
stockpiles. Often storage is combined with a system so that different size fractions can be
blended as they are withdrawn from the storage unit to constitute special production
requirements.

60
2.6.2.7 Precautions in Handling and storing Coarse Aggregates
When handling and storing concrete aggregate. The following four points are important[7]:
1. Minimum segregation. Avoid high, cone-shaped stockpiles.
2. Don’t allow stockpile equipment on the aggregate stockpile because the concrete
aggregate may break down, the gradation may change and/or foreign particles may be
introduced.
3. Separate the stockpile from other materials to avoid contamination and to maintain the
integrity and gradation of the concrete aggregate.
4. Watch out for extreme exposure to the weather. Be sure to mist during extreme heat.
Cover during freezing and protect from high wind.

2.7 STANDARDIZATION IN AGGREGATE PRODUCTION

2.7.1 GENERAL
Standardization is defined as a model or general agreement of a rule established by authority,
consensus, or custom, created and used by various levels of interest. The setting of the
standard depends on the effect the dimension variation has on the performance of the product
[27].

Standardization is required not only for ensuring procurement of the right quality of incoming
material, but also for cost reduction. The aim of standardization should be to have uniform
standards for similar items, and the standard evolved should take cognizance of the
indigenous availability of materials to the maximum extent possible [27].

2.7.2 BENEFITS OF STANDARDIZATION

The important general benefits are as follows:
1. Standardization helps reduce inventory items on site.
2. It helps in evolving better means of communication about the material being considered.
3. It forms a base for further inventory analysis.
4. The specification of items can be more clearly spelled out, making quality control firm.

By using national standards, it is easier to locate sources of supplies. The importance of

standardization in the construction industry especially for construction materials can not be
overemphasized. Industry has become increasingly interested in assessing its economic
efficiency, and thus is more interested in the role of standardization. Systematic and reliable
results can be attained on a common basis [27].

61
2.8 CONCRETE AGGREGATE PRODUCTION AND ITS ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACTS
The aggregate industry is presently facing a growing, public awareness in relation to the
environmental profile of its activities. Important areas of concern are:
• The non-renewable character of the natural resources, especially in regions facing a
coming shortage of adequate local materials,
• The environmental impact on neighbourhood and of the quarrying and of the materials
transport related to the quarrying activities,
• Land use conflicts between quarrying and e.g. agriculture, recreation, building sites,
archaeology - especially in densely populated regions,
• A lack of sustainability in production, characterized by inferior mass balance (i.e. high
percentages of e.g. surplus fines to be deposited) and a high energy consumption needed
per. ton aggregate produced,

These questions in the relation between the aggregate industry and its surrounding society will
by far be determinant for the industry’s survival potential. In the future, only those companies
and branches who can earn their public acceptance from an active use of environmental
parameters in their planning and execution of own activities, will survive.

The real challenge here is to merge the environmental issues with the industrial ones; to create
industrial plants, which are at the same time environmentally friendly and economically
profitable, which integrate quarrying and industrial production, and finally – for which there
exist plans for restoration and area use after quarrying period is completed.

2.8.1 IMPACTS OF QUARRY SITES ON THE ENVIRONMENT

Quarries are opened for production of construction material such as selected materials for
roads construction, dimension stones for buildings, gravel, aggregates, ceramic and cement
raw materials, etc [18].

The following are impacts on the environment due to aggregate production processes.
• Ponds developed in a quarry can serve as breeding ground for water born disease and
mosquitoes,
• Children who swim in quarry ponds could draw down and die and can be a threat to
animals,

62
 • The vertical cliffs can cause death to animals and human live,
• Land slide and land fall,
• Production of dust,
• Overburden disposal accumulation,
• Affecting farm land or cause land use change,

2.8.2 Mitigation

• Restoration of the completed overburden disposal areas,

• Abandoned qurries should be cultivated and seeded and trees planted,
• Adopt the safest quarry opening method,
• Eliminate hazardous high walls
• Shooting down the high walls
• Cover by soil and re-vegetation
• Establish appropriate quarry drainage system,
• Rehabilitate quarries and refill irregular and level surfaces around quarry sites,

Mining designers must consider the effects of mine on its surroundings. Engineering
alternatives have to be judged according to their environmental influence. After a plan is
adopted, the effects on the environment should be monitored. Construction materials
producers and communities should as a minimum recognize environmental management as a
high priority, notably during the licensing process and through the development and
implementation of environmental management systems.

2.9 Summary
Concrete is a composite product of different ingredient materials. Ensuring the availability
and supply of suitable and acceptable ingredients is one of the important tasks towards the
production of concrete which satisfies standard requirements. However, since most of the
ingredients of concrete are naturally available and are used directly for concrete production it
is so important to give due consideration for their production process and be aware of the
influence that the different properties of the ingredients have on the properties concrete.

For the aggregate producer, the concrete aggregates are end products, while, for the concrete
manufacturer or for the contractor, the aggregates are raw materials to be used for mix designs

63
and successful concrete production. In order to optimize the aggregate-concrete chain, one has
to know the aggregate quality characteristics that dominate different concrete properties.

Securing the suitable type of aggregate for concrete production starts from selecting a suitable
source that can be used for production of aggregates that satisfy standard requirements. Then
follows the production process of these aggregates. Finally transporting the product to the
place where, the different ingredients are mixed and concrete is produced, becomes the last
part of the process.

Of the different ingredients of concrete, water is one of them and proper test and care should
be given before it is used for concrete production. Though, water suitable for drinking or tap
water is suitable for concrete production it is also possible to test and use water from other
sources.

Cement is also one of the important constituents of concrete and takes the lion share of the
total cost of concrete in usual cases. The properties of cement and the amount used in a
concrete mix have big influence in the final product, concrete. Of the different types of
cements known world wide, OPC and PPC are produced and used in Ethiopia. The quality of
the cements produced in Ethiopia is also acceptable when compared to standard requirements.
However, there is a big demand of cement that attributes to the huge infrastructure
development in the country.

Generally, two types of aggregates are used for concrete production in Ethiopia; coarse
aggregates and fine aggregates. Crushed rock aggregate is used as coarse aggregate and river
sand is used in most cases as fine aggregate. Since aggregates are directly, without their
chemical composition being altered through the production process, used for concrete
production it is important to take proper care while processing and handling them. In addition,
it is important for the concrete producer to be aware of the influence of the properties of
aggregates on concrete.

The physical properties like specific gravity, porosity, thermal, and the chemical properties of
aggregates are attributed to the parent rock. However, the shape, surface texture density,
porosity, of natural aggregates and shape and surface texture in artificial aggregates are
attributed to the mode of production. It is, therefore, very important to give due attention to
the source and mode of production of concrete aggregates.

64
Since igneous rocks are normally hard, tough and dense most of the concrete aggregates are
derived of igneous origin. Depending on their weight aggregates can be classified as light,
normal and heavy weight aggregates. Light weight aggregates are abundantly found in
Ethiopia especially in areas along the Rift Valley. Researches carried out in the Ethiopian
light weight aggregates have shown that the Ethiopian aggregates can be used for structural
purposes in combination with normal weight aggregates.

As regard to aggregate sources, aggregates which are naturally available are used for concrete
production both for coarse and fine aggregates in Ethiopia. In addition, majority of aggregate
sources in Addis Ababa are located around rivers within the city with the exceptions of
sources of scoria.

Researches carried out in local aggregates in Ethiopia have shown that it is possible to
produce high strength concrete using the locally available basalt stone. However, this result
was obtained by proper selection of aggregates, limiting the maximum size of aggregates,
washing and using higher quality of cement in combination with limiting the w/c ratio. In
addition, researches carried out in different parts of Ethiopia indicated that rocks that are
suitable, even some times extraordinarily good, for production of suitable concrete aggregate
are available in different parts of the country.

Of the different properties of aggregate specific gravity, unit weights, voids, surface moisture,
porosity and absorption, gradation, maximum sizes are those which influence the property of
the concrete significantly. In addition, physical properties which include shape, texture,
strength and modulus of elasticity are also important parameters that affect the final product,
the concrete. In addition, aggregate particle shape and texture have big influence in the
property of concrete. Crushed and angular aggregates are good for strong concrete production
but they require more water for workability than gravel and smooth surfaced aggregates.

Furthermore, it is now recognized that for many conditions, the most important property of
concrete is its durability. There are many aspects of concrete durability, and practically all are
influenced by the properties of the aggregate. These include alkali-aggregate reaction which
in turn is controlled by selection of non- reactive aggregates, use of low alkali cement, use of
corrective admixtures such as pozzolanas and controlling the void space in concrete.

65
The other important property of aggregates with regard to durability is soundness. According
to all the researches indicated in this chapter, the soundness values of all the rock samples
considered in different parts of Ethiopia satisfies requirements set by standards. This is an
indication that the rocks in Ethiopia are suitable potential sources for production of concrete
aggregates.

With the same token deleterious substances can also attribute to the durability of concrete.
Unless concrete aggregates are free from impurities and deleterious substances the durability
of the concrete is in question. This is the very reason why aggregates should be washed before
they are used for concrete production.

Other property of concern is the thermal property of aggregates which is expressed by

coefficient of expansion, specific heat and thermal conductivity. In dealing with the fire
resistance of concrete the study of coefficient of thermal expansion of aggregate is also
important. A research has shown that the linear coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete
increases as the ratio of cement to sand decreases.

As discussed above production process of aggregates have significant effect on the property
of the aggregates which also affect the properties of the final product the concrete. Controlling
the production process should be given first priority when beginning on the road to quality.

Unlike coarse aggregate where various types of crushers can be used to upgrade mineral
quality, sand basically relies on the same techniques to address both mineral quality and
sizing by a technique called exclusion. Since sand is usually directly used without its physical
property being altered, except washing and screening in some occasions, it is important to
maintain the consistency and uniformity of its supply.

Coarse aggregates can be gravel or crushed rocks. Due attention is required especially in the
production of coarse aggregates by crushing rocks. The production process basically involves
stripping, drilling, blasting, crushing and screening. Frequent sampling, testing and control
charting are necessary for monitoring, because aggregates gradation is subject to so many
variables. In addition to the production process, care should be taken in handling the
aggregates especially while stockpiling and retrieving to avoid segregation, degradation and
contamination.

66
Once the aggregates are produced the following step is transporting and delivering it to
concrete mixing places. The purpose of careful handling and control, in proper sequence, is to
produce satisfactorily a selected batch assembly for the continuous production of
homogeneous concrete. Therefore, to ensure the proper handling of aggregates, the separate
delivery, storage and batching of coarse and fine aggregate is essential.

Unless care is taken in the handling and storing of aggregates, there is a marked tendency for
segregation of the fine and coarse particles to occur. In general, there is less danger of
segregation in coarse aggregates if they are screened into two or more size ranges and handled
separately.

One important aspect in the process of handling of concrete making materials is storage. At
all stages up to the time of use, cement must be kept dry so as to prevent or minimize
deterioration from the effects of moisture, atmospheric humidity and carbonation. In addition,
aggregates should be stored so that they are kept as uniform as possible in grading and
moisture content, and protected from intermingling and contamination by other materials.

Since aggregates and cement are non renewable resources there is no means to reuse them
unless they are recycled which of course is a technology that Ethiopia can’t afford to have
currently. Therefore, in construction projects and ready- mixed concrete production plants,
care should be taken to avoid wastage of concrete making materials as much as possible.

One important aspect in handling of concrete making materials is the method used in batching
for concrete mix. There is no problem normally in batching cements since they are usually
delivered in bags in Ethiopia. However, fine and coarse aggregates can be batched
gravimetrically, manually or volumetrically. As it is well known, aggregates are normally
batched volumetrically in construction projects in Ethiopia. Volumetric batching might result
in unnecessary concrete mix unless the moisture content and density of the aggregates being
measured is known and proper care and adjustment is taken.

Testing concrete making materials helps to ensure good quality material. However, equally
important is the effort that is needed to acquire a truly representative quantity of the
consignment being sampled and of sufficient quantity for the tests required. In addition, where
practicable, samples to be tested for quality should be obtained from the finished product.

67
One key aspect towards ensuring the quality of aggregate which is suitable for concrete
production is standardization. Where there is standardization and proper control
manufacturers and producers will be expected to produce consistent and uniform product and
it would also be easy for the consumer to get a material of his interest.

The environmental impact that aggregate production plants have is drawing the attention of
the public in the recent years. In addition, the relation between the aggregate industry and its
surrounding society will be determinant for the industry’s survival potential. Some of the
environmental impacts of aggregate production are: formation of ponds, formation of high
vertical cliffs, dust production, affecting land cause and land change, sound and vibration on
the neighbouring inhabitants.

Construction materials producers and communities should as a minimum recognize

environmental management as a high priority, notably during the licensing process and
through the development and implementation of environmental management system. This is
important to avoid unnecessary investment and also for an optimized utilization of natural
resources.

68
3. AGGREGATE PRODUCTION IN THE ETHIOPIAN
CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

3.1 GENERAL
Aggregates are important construction materials, both for new constructions and maintenance
works. Aggregates are valuable natural resource and it is our obligation to use these materials
sensibly. To use aggregates for the intended purpose due attention should be given to the
production process employed to get aggregate of the right quality.

The vast majority of materials used in the mineral aggregate industry are obtained from
surface-mined stone quarries or from sand and gravel pits. How materials are extracted
influences their quality. Good understanding of the basic material properties, usage
possibilities and quality are significant for sensible use of aggregate resources.

Knowledge of material properties may aid in the selection of aggregates to ensure optimum
use of the resource. For instance, high quality (and valuable) aggregate may be used for the
more expensive constructions whereas aggregates with lower quality may be selected for
massive fills where quality demands are not as such strict. In addition, unnecessary damages
to the nature may be prevented, optimum exploitation of the resource may be achieved and
environmental effects may be better estimated. Further, it is important for responsible parties
to be up to date with locations and details of existing and potential quarries.

The geology of material suitable for aggregates is highly variable and sources are widespread.
However, not all rocks make good aggregates. Good aggregates must be hard and tough and
shouldn’t not break down or disintegrate easily. In addition, the site for a quarry will depend
on the suitability of the material, proximity to populated areas, transport costs, existing and
planned land use, the impact on the environment and the rehabilitation of the site after
quarrying operations have ended. Finally, possible sites are prospected thoroughly and core
samples are taken to test for suitable aggregate products [47].

Useful resources of aggregates are widespread, but in some places they are of small volume
and are replenished slowly or are not currently available at all. The prodigious demands of
modern industrial and residential construction frequently overtax the supply. In Japan, for
example, the sand and gravel has been entirely removed from many river channels and
supplies must be imported from Taiwan. In different countries there are important regional

69
differences in the availability and quality of sand and gravel and in the types of sources from
which these materials can be obtained [29].

The location and accessibility of sand and gravel supplies determine the feasibility and cost of
transport to the site of consumption. Thus, many deposits may be unused because they lie in
places, too distant from construction sites or roads. In some cases a trade-off may be
necessary between the high cost of transport from distant sources and the environmental
disturbance that may result from gravel operations at more accessible locations. Many of
these sources will soon be exhausted, and others have already been rendered inaccessible by
past and present urbanization [29].

The availability and supply of coarse aggregate from the currently identified and potential
sources is influenced by a number of factors, such as cost of transport, competing land uses,
and the environmental impacts of extraction and transport. Therefore, it is imperative that a
strategy for sourcing and transporting large quantities of aggregate from outside the region be
adopted for future management of identified and potential concrete aggregate resources[29].

3.2 AGGREGATE PRODUCTION IN THE ETHIOPIAN CONSTRUCTION

INDUSTRY

It is a known fact that concrete making aggregates are the major building materials in
Ethiopia. Most structures, including domestic houses, roads, bridges and hydropower dams,
which are necessity for the development of the country are built with these materials. Huge
amount of resource is invested in these structures and infrastructure. As a consequence,
knowledge of the properties of the aggregates, sustainability and quality of deposits are
required in order to obtain a rational use of these materials. Since it was not possible to get a
reliable data about the total yearly production of aggregates in Ethiopia mainly the data
collected from Addis Ababa is used in this research.

3.2.1 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS PRODUCTION IN ADDIS ABABA

The city Addis Ababa City is growing from time to time very rapidly. Its area which is
54,000 Ha is being covered by buildings, houses, roads, bridges etc. This shows the high
demand of construction materials, which includes rocks for the production of concrete making
aggregates. Except ten of the existing aggregate producing firms in the city the rest are not
well organized in manpower, in machinery and in finance. respectively. In addition, the

70
potential of the area they are using is very low that the production capacity of these firms is
correspondingly very small.

Due to the above mentioned facts the existing big supply-demand gap imposes negative
influence to the existing construction activity in the city. Yearly production and number and
location of licensed quarries in Addis Ababa are shown in Table 3.1 and Table 3.2 [19].

Table 3.1 Yearly Production and Sale of Coarse Aggregate Produced by Aggregate
Producers Registered in Addis Ababa from 1995 - 2000 [19]

Budget Total Sale Total Production

Year (Birr) (m3)
1995/96 9,763,574.67 443,798.85
1996/97 11,897,063.33 169,958.05
1997/98 32,689,733.50 384,585.1
1998/99 23,917,761.55 281,385.43
1999/2000 15,241,032.34 179,119.62

Table 3.2 Number and Locations of Licensed Quarries in Addis Ababa

(Source : Addis Ababa Environmental Protection Authority 2005)

Construction Minerals
Sub City
Basalt Ignimbrite Selected Material Scoria
Bole 80 125 11 -
Nefas Silk Lafto - 100 4 -
Akaki-kaliti 65 15 25
Yeka 6 10 3 -
Kolfe Keranio 1 - - -
Total 152 250 25 25

In general, changes in the level of demand for rock materials occur because of previous or
present changes in the characteristics of the overall country’s economy. Thus, it would be
expected that a relationship exists between trends in the level of rock production and various
indicators of the general economic activity. Per capita consumption rates vary greatly,
depending upon the degree of urban maturity reached within a region. High per capita
consumption rates are generally characteristic of regions where the overall population density
is relatively low and the rate of urban development is high.

For comparison the total aggregate production trend in the German construction industry is
shown in Table 3.3. There was recession in the construction industry in Germany the last ten
years due to the decrease in growth of the total economy. This is the reason why there is a

71
decrease in the production of aggregates in the years from 1995 onwards. The reason that it
was not possible to get a reliable data concerning total aggregate production in Ethiopia, made
the comparison in quantity of the aggregate production in German with the production in
Ethiopia difficult.

Table 3.3 Trend of Aggregate Production in the Germany Construction Industry

Year11 Produced in Mill. t Sold in Mill. Euro Sold in Mill. Birr12

1950 23.3 31 330.89
1960 96.8 176 1878.61
1970 206.4 463 4942.02
1980 190.3 644 6873.99
1990 159.1 749 7994.75
1991 163.0 822 8773.95
1993 213.4 1188 12680.59
1994 244.1 1357 14484.48
1995 193.7 1107 11816.01
1996 182.4 1021 10898.05
1997 176.9 980 10460.42
1998 169.0 933 9958.75
1999 178.3 987 10535.14
2000 164.6 913 9745.27
2001 148.3 821 8763.27

As it was mentioned above, Addis Ababa is expanding in all directions. Such rapid expansion
needs engineering geological information for planning, design and assessment of construction
materials. Construction earth materials including basalt, ignimbrite, red-ash and brick soil are
available and found distributed in all corridors except the northern part of Addis Ababa.
Environmental, social and economic impacts are however experienced during mining
activities with regard to different quarry sites [20]. Potential Construction Raw Materials in
Addis Ababa and its Surrounding is shown in Figure 3.1.

11
The data before 1993 is only for the former Western Germany and the data from 1993 on wards is
the total aggregate produced by Germany after the unification.
12
1€ = 10.6739 Ethiopian Birr (Exchange rate on July 2005, Interbank Rate)

72
Fig 3.1 Potential Construction Raw Materials in Addis Ababa and its Surrounding [21]

3.2.2 AGGREGATE PRODUCTION METHODS IN THE ETHIOPIAN

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
3.2.2.1 FINE AGGREGATE
Natural fine aggregate or sand is dredged from river beds in most parts of Ethiopia. Finely
crushed aggregate is also used in some parts of the country where natural sand is not
available. In most parts of the country, though the quality varies significantly one from the
other, fine aggregate is available abundantly at least for the present.

73
Sources of Fine Aggrgates
As most of the aggregate used in Ethiopia is from river beds mostly fine aggregate is not
produced in wet seasons. One reason for this is that since the river over flows in that period it
would not be possible for sand producers to get into the river bed and collect the sand. The
other reason is that most sand production sites are not accessible by vehicles in this period.

Production Methods
Sand production sites are not mechanized. The production is done by local people of the area
using traditional method of collecting the sand from the river bed by donkey (carrying
capacity of not greater than 70 kg or 0.05 m3 per trip), depositing it to a place where vehicles
can get in. Fig. 3.2 and Fig 3.3 show the primitive but the usual way of producing sand in
Koka 90 kms south east of Addis Ababa. Fine aggregate demands of Addis Ababa is met by
sand produced in this same manner. Finally, the collected sand is loaded manually on dump
trucks and is then transported to the actual site or concrete production plants and is directly
used for actual concrete production or related works. Some part of it might be sent to
construction material suppliers and is sold out for users who need the sand in varying amount.

The production method of sand in Ethiopia is so primitive that the sand produced in this
manner is exposed to the following situations.
1. Since it is collected in a primitive manner by human labour using small hand tools, it is
susceptible to a greater degree of non-uniformity; this non uniformity can be expressed by
its gradation.
2. Since it is transported by donkey and collected somewhere in an unprepared ground, it is
susceptible to contamination by deleterious substances.
3. There is no room for quality check up.
4. There is no room for modern production of standardized product.
5. Most sand producers are local farmers who have no detail technical knowledge about the
material they produce. The only knowledge they have doesn’t go far from what they are
informally heard from their product customers.
6. The local producers are quite numerous in a single local area that it is difficult to get
consistent supply from a specific area.
7. Since the sand itself is naturally available material it is quite difficult to get a consistent
supply from same location even in hours interval.
8. There is wastage of material in the process.

74
Fig 3.2 Sand being collected from river bed manually around Koka.

Fig 3.3 Sand being collected by human labor and being loaded on back of a donkey
around Koka.

In the Germany construction industry fine aggregate is produced from naturally available
river sand and from crushed rocks. As far as the production process is concerned the fine
aggregate supplied for concrete producers is washed and checked for proper gradation. The
produced fine aggregate is normally incompliance with the standard of the country (DIN).
From interviews made in ready mix concrete production plant personnel and experienced civil

75
engineers in Germany it has been realized that the aggregate supplied for concrete production
is in most cases is up to the standard.

3.2.2.2 COARSE AGGREGATES

Coarse aggregate is produced in Ethiopia using aggregate crushers and by crushing manually
using human labor and small hand tools. Especially, in rural areas and in construction sites
where the coarse aggregate demand is low manual crushing is normally experienced. In
addition, the crusher plants vary in size and production quality.

In this research, visits were made to different large and small scaled coarse aggregate
production plants in and around Addis Ababa. The summary of the general production
technique followed by the plants is presented below.

PRODUCTION METHODS
1. Crushing by Human labor and Hand tools

Procedure

1. Boulders are collected

2. Very big ones are broken down, using sludge hammer and wedge, in to smaller units.
3. Very strong boulders are broken down after they are burnt for hours with high
temperature using worn out vehicle tires.
4. The broken relatively smaller boulders are then further broken down by hand /human
labor/ using sledge hammers (1 – 3Kg.). Figure 3.4 shows boulders being further
broken down into smaller pieces by human labor.

The following problems are associated with this method of production:

1. Production is by human labor which results high degree of non uniform and
inconsistent product. Especially, the gradation and shape of the aggregate produced will
certainly be poor.
2. It is not up to the standard
3. It has environmental impacts
– CO2 from the smoke,
– risky working environment to the workers due to flying stones,
4. Has problems associated with the production process
– production is too little,

76
 – not convenient to quality control,
– not feasible in places where relatively smaller boulders are not readily
available,
– difficult to rely on the quality and quantity produced by this process

Fig 3.4 Boulders for coarse aggregate preparation being crushed by human labor.

2. Low Scale Mechanized Crushing

1. Boulders are collected

2. Very big ones are broken down, using sludge hammer and wedge, in to smaller units.
3. Very strong boulders are broken down after they are burnt for hours with high
temperature using worn our vehicle tyres.
4. The relatively smaller boulders are fed in to the crusher and are crushed into smaller
sizes. Figure 3.5 shows a small scale mechanized crushing plant.

77
 Fig 3.5 Low scaled coarse aggregate crushing plant around Nazreth.

Problems associated with this method of production

1. Production is relatively low.
2. The row crushed stone is prepared by human labor which results high degree of non
uniformity and inconsistency of the product. Especially the gradation and shape of the
aggregate produced is quite poor. Flaky aggregate particles result from this mode of aggregate
production. In addition, it is not feasible in places where relatively smaller boulders are not
readily available.
3. Quality- The boulders they usually use for production are so weak that the resulting
product becomes of low quality. In addition, it is not convenient to quality control.
4. It is not up to the standard
5. It has environmental impacts there is emission of CO2 from the smoke and the
working environment is risky to the workers due to flying stones.
6. Production is relatively small and it is not reliable both in respets of quality and
quantity.

3. Medium to Large Scaled Crushing Plants

These types of crushing plants use open pit quarrying method of aggregate production. They
have the following characteristics.

78
1. Have big plots of land and are usually established after some geological investigation is
carries out in the area especially in the availability, potential and to some extent to the
quality of base rock suitable for coarse aggregate production.
2. At the beginning of the production process, the over burden is removed and the area is
made ready for drilling before the actual process of blasting is started. This step involves
stripping the overburden and exposing the bedrock for blasting. Here selected materials
production is carried out in the mean time.
3. Usually boulders are produced from the existing big alluvial stratum/bed rock by a process
of blasting.
4. Blasting is usually carried out using explosives. In order to carry out blasting holes for
explosives are drilled using Wagon Drilling Rigs and Manual Perforators at a certain
calculated distance.
5. Dynamites are inserted which are connected with detonating cord relay and safety fuses
attached at the end of the explosion.
6. Blasting is then carried out by explosives, ammonia nitrate or gelatin 30.
7. The resulting rock is again blasted if it happens that it is too big for the continuing
production process and this process is called secondary blasting. After the blasting is
carried out, the blasted rock is collected using excavators and is loaded on dump trucks
using loaders preferably chain loaders.
8. The resulting crushed rock is then further crushed using Dozers. The crushed rock is then
sent to the crushing site by a dump truck and stock piled.
9. The stock piled crushed rock is then fed to the crusher and will further be crushed in to
rather different smaller sizes.
10. Using separators, which are usually three or more, the crushed rock is stock piled and
becomes ready for use. The usual range of production capacities of crusher plants in
Ethiopia are:
Jaw Crushers 95 m3/hr
Cone Crushers 71 m3/hr
11. Finally it is loaded on dump trucks and is then transported to the actual construction sites.
Figure 3.6 shows one of the biggest aggregate production plants in Addis Ababa.

79
Fig 3.6 Large scaled coarse aggregate production plant (Blue Nile -around Kaliti)

Comparison with other methods of production

1. The production system is controlled
2. The gradation of the resulting aggregate is relatively good and convenient for quality
control
3. Carried out by a relatively trained personnel
4. It has a reliable supply
5. High production capacity per day
6. Has high environmental impact
7. Convenient for production of standardized product

In Germany there are three methods of aggregate production. The first one is to collect and
treat naturally available gravel and to use it directly for concrete production. The other two
methods are to crush naturally available rock into different sizes and to produce aggregates
artificially respectively. In the visit made to an aggregate production plant in Germany it has
been observed that the aggregate producer takes all the necessary care to produce an
aggregate of acceptable quality. In blasting the bed rock they use bench method which helps
to the efficient utilization of the available natural resources.

80
3.3 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF AGGREGATE PRODUCTION PLANTS IN
THE ETHIOPIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
Quarries are opened for production of construction material such as selected materials for
roads construction, dimension stones for buildings, gravel for aggregates, and ceramic and
cement raw materials, etc. However, quarry operations have impact on the surrounging
environment. Especially, the environmental impacts of aggregate production plants which are
located in and around cities can not be underestimated. Aggregate production plants in and
around Addis Ababa are good examples. The discussion made in this section concentrates on
the situation of aggregate production in Addis Ababa.

One of the environmental impacts that aggregate production plants have on the environment
and on the inhabitants dwelling nearby is the dust that results while crushing the aggregate.
Fig 3.7 shows dust produced by a process of aggregate production in one of the biggest
aggregate production plants in Addis Ababa.

Fig 3.7 Dust produced by a process of coarse aggregate production (Blue Nile)

Most of the materials used in the building of cities have natural origin. In obtaining these
materials there are a number of active and abandoned quarries which change the natural
topography in Addis Ababa. Abandoned quarries are left open and some of them becoming
ponds, or domestic waste is dumped to them which become favorable place for flies and other
insects breeding. Unless old quarries are filled and planted with trees it would be difficult to

81
avoid their hazardous consequences [20]. Fig. 3.8 shows location and number of abandoned
quarry sites in Addis Ababa.

Scale 1:2000
Fig 3.8 Locations of abandoned quarries in Addis Ababa Source: Mines and Energy
Department, 2000. (Addis Ababa Works and Urban Development Bureau)

It is to be recalled that one big aggregate production plat which is located at a populated area
and surrounded by a hospital and a school in Addis Ababa was abandoned for the reasons of
environmental protection and public safety. This quarry site has been operational since 1966
and used to produce an aggregate of best quality. This was evident from the test results that

82
were carried out on samples taken from this quarry site. In the plant there is a cliff that has a
height of more than 30 meters and it is possible to observe the houses located on top it. Figure
3.9 and Figure 3.10 show the cliff resulted from the production of coarse aggregate in Addis
Ababa.

Fig 3.9 Impact of coarse aggregate production on the environment (The Addis
Ababa City Administration Construction Materials Production Plant)

Fig 3.10 Coarse aggregate crushing plants have effect on nearby inhabitants, schools,
hospitals, factories etc. especially when they are located with in cities

83
It has been observed from a visit made in an aggregate production plant that the
environmental impact of aggregate production plants in Germany is quite minimum when
compared to the situation in Ethiopia. In general the following points were observed:
1. Aggregate production plants in Germany are relatively far from nearby inhabitants,
2. Plants are surrounded by vegetation that the impact of dust pollution is minimized,
3. Measurements are always taken to investigate the impact that the operation in the plant
has on the surrounding environment and inhabitants. For instance measurements of the
extent of vibration to a certain distance from the plant are carried out whenever there is
blasting operation in the plant.
4. Produced material are checked for their compliance (it is also rechecked by the concrete
producer later on),
5. Plants are highly mechanized,
6. Operations of the plants are carried out by highly experienced personals.

3.4 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS HANDLING IN CONSTRUCTION

PROJECTS
Observations were made and construction managers and project engineers were interviewed
to assess how concrete making materials are handled in construction projects in Ethiopia.
From the observations made the following conclusions were drawn.

1. Construction materials are stock piled with out given due consideration;
2. Almost all concrete used by the contractors in Ethiopia is produced on site and Ready-
mixed concrete production is not normally used except in few construction projects;
3. The practice of quality control is too loose. In some cases is not even required by the
consultants and it is not adequately stated in contract documents
4. Due to production problems the aggregates delivered to the construction site:
- are not to the required quality (under quality)
- the supply is not consistent
- there is high degree of non-uniformity of supplies
5. Some contractors take the following measures in order to produce concrete that
satisfies requirements and for benefication of aggregates:
- Washing the aggregates on site,
- Making conservative mix design and
- Using cement that hardens fast in place of the specified cement in contract documents.

84
To assess the situation of handling of concrete making materials in the German construction
industry, on site observations and interviews were made. Unlike the situation in Ethiopia on
site concrete production is too rare in Germany. When precast concrete is not considered
ready mixed concrete production constitutes 87% of the total concrete produced in Germany.
In addition, ready mix concrete production consumes 47.10 % of the total cement produced in
Germany.

3.5 COARSE AGGREGATE DEMAND IN ADDIS ABABA

In Addis Ababa, various construction activities are undergoing. In relation with the expansion
of these construction activities, the demand for construction materials including gravel and
sand is growing rapidly. The demand for gravel is directly related to the volume of
construction works.

Detail studies done so far have shown that the ever increasing demand for quarry output, the
continuous increase in the budget allocated to the construction sector and the new economic
policy etc. are providing more favorable condition especially for the quarry operation sector
[23].

Gravel is needed in Addis Ababa for different constructions including roads and buildings.
However, obtaining accurate statistical information concerning the demand of the city is very
difficult if not impossible. Hence, attempt was done to estimate the demand of gravel of Addis
Ababa in 2003 and it was found to be 829,583 m3. The annual growth rate of the demand was
taken as 5% and the demand for 5 years is projected. In addition, the annual production
capacity of the then existing quarries was calculated and the supply and demand gap was
calculated [23].

There were about 50 private and public organizations which were licensed by the Mining
Department to produce gravel in 2003. The quantity of gravel produced by these units was
estimated to be 399,840 m3 in 2003. A 4% annual growth was considered and their supply
was calculated. The supply and demand gap determined form this study is shown in Table 3.4.
Accordingly, as it is shown in the table the supply demand gap of coarse aggreaget in Addis
Ababa is more than 50 %. From this figure it is clear that shortage in supply of the aggregate
is imposing a negative influence on the construction industry activities in the city. However,
this figure requires further refinement and studies should be conducted in depth to determine

85
the actual demand and supply condition of concrete aggregates in Addis Ababa in particular
and in Ethiopia in general [23].

Table 3.4 Projected Supply and Demand Condition of Addis Ababa [23].
Year Demand (m3) Supply Excess Demand Percentage
(m3) (m3) Gap
2003 829,583 399,840 429,743 51.80
2004 871,062 415,834 455,228 52.26
2005 914,615 432,467 482,148 52.72
2006 960,346 449,766 510,580 53.17
2007 1,008,363 467,757 540,606 53.61

There are a lot of different potentially dependable sites in Addis Ababa and its surrounding
metropolitan area which are rich in basalt, ignimbrite, selected material, scoria and brick soil
among others. There is however not so much follow-up, evaluation and monitoring of
quarrying activities by the legally empowered and concerned institution i.e. the Mining and
Energy Department [47].

The exploitation and extraction of these construction material resources has mostly been
undertaken in unplanned and uncontrolled manner. On the other hand, this has created various
problems such as environmental, social, economical, poor land use management … etc. Thus,
quarry sites are found to be devoid of vegetation cover, hollow and disgusting to sight,
dangerous and psychologically unacceptable to residents around them [47]. In Ethiopia in
general and in Addis Ababa in particular aggregates for concrete production are available in
sufficient quantity, for the present at least. In recent years temporary shortages of materials
have indicated the problems that could be caused by more serious shortages. Shortages in
other industries can affect supplies to the construction industry as well. Many experts have
experienced serious doubts about the long-term availability of our present natural resources,
and this must concern everyone in the industry. Research into alternative sources of supply
should also be conducted [7].

Unlike the situation in Ethiopia, it has been observed from the visits and interviews made in
Germany that there is not as such supply and demand gap of concrete making materials.
Concrete producers don’t have constraint concerning these resources. It is usually the case for
customers to get the material they order on time.

86
4. RESULTS
To investigate the quality and availability of suitable concrete making aggregates in Ethiopia,
test results of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and rock samples were collected from two
prominent Construction Materials Testing Laboratories in Addis Ababa. The collected data
consists, test results of 47 fine aggregate, 37 coarse aggregate and 4 rock samples. The test
samples were collected from tests carried out b/n 3rd of October 2004 and 14th of May 2005.

4.1 GENERAL
The number and distribution of test sample results used in the research are shown in
Table 4.1 and Annex A1.

Table 4.1 Number and distribution in percentage of test sample results from and out of
Addis Ababa.

Material Addis Ababa and Different localities Location Total

Its Surrounding Out of Addis Ababa Unknown
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Coarse 22 59.46 11 29.73 4 10.81 37 100
Fine 36 76.60 9 19.15 2 4.25 47 100
Rock Sample 1 25.00 3 75.00 - - 4 100

4.2 FINE AGGREGATES

The fine aggregate samples were randomly collected from tests carried out between 3rd of
December 2004 and 10th of May 2005.

4.2.1 GRADATION OF THE SAMPLES

To see whether the samples satisfy the gradation requirement set by the Ethiopian Standard,
gradation charts were prepared and their gradations were checked in light of the given
requirement in the Standard. The gradations of the samples were characterized as coarser,
finer and other. Coarser samples had a percentage passing value below that stipulated in the
standard and finer samples had a percentage passing value above that stipulated in the
standard at least in one sieve size. The results of the analysis are summarized in Table 4.2 and
Annex C1.

87
Table 4.2 Distribution in number and percentage of Fine Aggregate Samples with respect
to the gradation requirements of the Ethiopian Standard (ES. C. D3. 201).
Number and percentage of Samples
In & around A.A Out of A.A Location
Condition Unknown Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Not Coarser 17 36.96 6 13.04 - - 23 50.00
complying Finer 2 4.35 - - 1 2.17 3 6.52
Other13 - - - - - - - -
Complying 17 36.96 2 4.35 1 2.17 20 43.48
Total 36 78.26 8 17.39 2 4.35 46 100

4.2.2 FINENESS MODULUS

According to the requirement of the Ethiopian standard (ES. C. D3. 201) the fineness modulus
shall not be less than 2.0 and more than 3.5 with a tolerance of ± 0.20. The result of the
fineness modulus of the fine aggregate samples is summarized in Table 4.3 and Annex B1.

Table 4.3 Distribution in Number and in Percentage of Fineness Modulus of the Collected
Fine Aggregate Samples.
Number and Percentage of Taste Samples
Fineness Total
In & around A.A Out of A.A Location Unknown
Modulus
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Below 2.0 - - - - - - - -
B/n 2.0 and 3.5 34 73.91 8 13.39 2 4.35 44 95.65
Above 3.5 2 4.35 - - - - 2 4.35
Total 36 78.26 8 13.39 2 4.35 46 100
Fineness Modulus range : 2.10 – 3.74
Average : 2.96

4.2.3 ORGANIC IMPURITY

In the Ethiopian Standard nothing is stated concerning the limit of organic contents of fine
aggreagtes. However, ASTM (C40 – 79)states that plat number 3 is the maximum value
allowed for fine aggregates as far as their organic content is concerned. The organic impurity
of the fine aggregate samples is summarized in Table 4.4 and Annex D1.

13
This is a condition where the requirement is not satisfied in more than two sieve sizes in which at least one is
above the upper limit and one below the lower limit.

88
Table 4.4 Distribution in Number and Percentage of the Organic Impurity of the Fine
Aggregate Samples with Respect to Requirement of ASTM.
Number and Percentage of Taste Samples
Plate Total
In & around A.A Out of A.A Location Unknown
Number
No. % No. % No. % No. %
< = 3.0 35 74.47 8 17.02 2 4.25 45 95.74
Above 3.0 1 2.13 1 2.13 - - 2 4.26
Total 36 76.60 9 19.15 2 4.25 47 47
Organic Impurity range (Plate Number) :1–4
Average : 2.14

4.2.4 LOOSE UNIT WEIGHT

There is no limit stated in the Ethiopian and other internationally accepted standards
concerning unit weights of fine aggregates. However a range where unit weights of good
concrete aggregates fall is given in different literature. Literature recommends that good fine
aggregate has a unit weight in the range of 1520 – 1680 kg/m3 [9]. Table 4.5 (Annex E1)
shows the number and percentage of the loose unit weight of the fine aggregate samples.

Table 4.5 Distribution in number and percentage of the Loose Unit Weight of the Fine
Aggregate Samples.
Number and Percentage of Taste Samples
Loose Unit Total
In and around A.A Out of A.A
Weight (kg/m3)
No. % No. % No. %
Below 1520 18 78.26 3 13.04 21 91.30
1520 – 1680 - - 2 8.70 2 8.70
Above 1680 18 - - - - -
Total 18 78.26 5 21.74 23 23
Loose Unit Weight range : 756 – 1572 kg/m3
Average : 1183.78 kg/ m3

4.2.5 COMPACTED UNIT WEIGHT

Similar to the above discussion, there is no limit stated in the Ethiopian and other
internationally accepted standards concerning unit weights of fine aggregates. However, a
range where unit weights of good concrete aggregates fall is given in literature. Literature
indicate that good fine aggregate has a unit weight in the range of 1520 – 1680 kg/m3 [9].
Table 4.6 (Annex E1) shows the number and percentage of the loose unit weight values of the
fine aggregate samples.

89
Table 4.6 Distribution in number and percentage of the Compacted Unit Weight of the
Fine Aggregate Samples.
Number and Percentage of Taste Samples
Compacted Unit Total
In & around A.A Out of A.A
weight (kg/m3)
No. % No. % No. %
Below 1520 18 78.26 1 4.35 21 91.30
1520 – 1680 - - 4 17.39 2 8.70
Above 1680 18 - - - - -
Total 18 78.26 5 21.74 23 100
Compacted Unit Weight range : 850 – 1667 kg/m3
Average : 1311.22 kg/m3

4.2.6 SILT AND CLAY CONTENT

The Ethiopian Standard stipulates that the silt and clay contents of a fine aggregate sample
should be less than or equal to 3% for concrete subject to abrasion and less than or equal to
5% for all other concrete (ES. C. D3. 201). The silt and clay contents of the fine aggregate
samples are shown in Table 4.7 (Annex D1) below.

Table 4.7 Distribution in Number and Percentage of the Silt and Clay Content of the Fine
Aggregate Samples.
Number and distribution of Taste Samples
Silt and Clay In & around A.A Out of A.A Location Unknown Total
Content (%)
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Below 3% 12 30.77 5 12.82 2 5.13 19 48.72
3-5 7 17.95 1 2.56 - - 8 20.51
Above 5% 12 30.77 - - - - 12 30.77
Total 31 79.49 6 15.38 2 5.13 39 100
Silt and Clay Content range : 0.77 – 12.62 %
Average : 3.95 %

4.2.7 SPECIFIC GRAVITY

The Ethiopian Standard requires that the apparent specifc gravity of a normal concrete
aggregate lies b/n the range of 2.4 and 3.0 (ES. C. D3. 201). Table 4.8 (Annex F1) shows the
summary of distribution of the specific gravities of the fine aggregate samples in number and
percentage.

90
Table 4.8 Specific Gravity of the Fine Aggregate Samples with respect to requirement of
the Ethiopian Standard.
Specific Gravity Number and percentage of Taste Samples
Total
Type Range Around & in A.A Out of A.A.
No. % No. % No. %
Bulk Below 2.40 3 30 - - 3 30
2.40 – 3.0 - - 7 70 7 70
Above 3.0 - - - - - -
Total 3 30 7 70 10 100
Bulk (SSD) Below 2.40 30 1 10 4 40
2.40 – 3.0 3 - 6 60 6 60
Above 3.0 - - - - - -
Total - 30 7 70 10 100
Apparent Below 2.40 - - - - - -
2.40 – 3.0 3 30 7 70 1 10
Above 3.0 - - - - - -
Total 3 30 10 100 10 100
Bulk Specific Gravity range : 2.20 – 2.64
Average : 2.42
Bulk (SSD) Specific Gravity range : 2.30 – 2.67
Average : 2.49
Apparent Specific Gravity range : 2.41 – 2.81
Average : 2.61

4.2.8 WATER ABSORPTION

There is no requirement concerning water absorption in the Ethiopian Standard. However,
ASTM states that the water absorption of good fine aggregate is in the range of 0.2 to 4%
(ASTM C127). Table 4.9 (Annex F1) shows the summary of the water absorption of the fine
aggregate samples.

Table 4.9 Water Absorption Capacity of the Fine Aggregate Samples with respect to
the requirement of ASTM.

Number and percentage of Taste Samples

Water Total
Absorption (%) Around & in A.A Out of A.A Location unknown
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Below 0.2 - - - - - - - -
B/n 0.2 & 4 2 20 6 60 - - 8 80
Above 4 1 10 1 10 - - 2 20
Total 3 30 7 70 - - 10 100
Water Absorption Range : 0.79 – 5.75 %
Average : 2.89 %

91
4.2.9 Clay Lumps Content
Two test samples from out of Addis were tested for clay lumps content and the results
obtained were 1.25% for the first sample and Nil for the second sample. The maximum limit
set by ASTM for clay lumps content is 3%. This shows that both samples satisfy the ASTM’s
requirement.

4.2.10 Chloride Content

One sample was tested for chloride content and the result was found to be 4.70 mg/liter which
extraordinarily satisfies the maximum limit set by the British Standard which is 600 mg/iltre.

4.2.11 Soundness
Two test samples from out of Addis were tested for soundness by sodium sulphate method
and the results were found to be 10.53 and 13.11 percent respectively. However, the
maximum loss stated in the ASTM is 10%. This shows that the samples didn’t satisfy the
requirement. The ES stipulates that fine aggregate, when subjected to five cycles of soundness
test, shall not show loss in mass exceeding 10 percent when sodium sulphate solution is used
or 15 percent when magnesium sulphate solution is used. Therefore, in both cases the samples
don’t satisfy the requirements.

4.3 COARSE AGGREGATES

4.3.1 GENERAL
The number and percentage of the coarse aggregate sample results used in the research is
shown in Table 4.10 (Annex A2).

Table 4.10 Distribution of Coarse Aggregate Types Used in the Analysis

Number and percentage of Samples
Nominal Total
In & around A.A Out of A.A Source Unknown
Maximum
Aggregate Size
No. % No. % No. % No. %
38 – 5 14 37.84 6 16.22 2 5.40 22 59.46
19 – 5 4 10.81 3 8.10 - - 7 18.91
13 – 5 3 8.10 1 2.71 2 5.40 6 16.21
Unknown 1 2.71 1 2.70 - - 2 5.41
Total 22 59.46 11 29.73 4 10.81 37 100

92
4.3.2 FINENESS MODULUS
Nothing is stated in the Ethiopian Standard concerning the fineness modulus of coarse
aggregate samples. However CRD(Corps of Engineers CRD-C 104 Method of Calculation of
the Fineness Modulus of Aggregates) states that the fineness modulus of a good concrete
coarse aggregate falls in the range between 5.5 and 8.5. The result of the fineness modulus of
the fine aggregate samples is summarized in Table 4.11 (Annex B2, Annex B3, AnnexB4).

Table 4.11 Distribution in number and percentage of Coarse Aggregate Samples

Number and percentage of Samples
Fineness Modulus Total
In & around A.A Out of A.A Source Unknown
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Below 5.5 - - - - 2 5.71 2 5.71
B/n 5.5 and 8.5 21 60 10 28.57 2 5.72 33 94.29
Above 8.5 - - - - - - - -
Total 21 60 10 28.57 4 11.43 35 100

Fineness Modulus range : 5.59 – 7.69

Average : 6.87

4.3.3 GRADATION OF THE SAMPLES

To see whether the samples satisfy the gradation requirement set by the Ethiopian Standard
gradation charts were prepared and their gradation was checked in light of the given
requirement in the Standard. The results obtained are summarized in Table 4.12 (Annex C2).

Table 4.12 Distribution in number and percentage of Coarse Aggregate Samples with respect
to gradation requirements of the Ethiopian Standard (ES. C. D3. 201).
Number and percentage of Samples
Condition Total
In & around Out of A.A Source
A.A Unknown
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Not complying Coarser 8 22.86 7 20.00 1 2.86 16 45.71
with the Finer 4 11.43 1 2.86 2 5.71 7 20.00
requirement Other14 - - - - - - - -
Complying with the 9 25.71 2 5.71 1 2.86 12 34.29
requirement
Total 21 60 10 28.57 4 11.43 35 100

14
This is a condition where the requirement is not satisfied in more than two sieve sizes in which at least one is
above the upper limit and one below the lower limit.

93
4.3.4 SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The Ethiopian Standard requires that the apparent specifc gravity of a normal concrete
aggregate lies b/n the range of 2.4 and 3.0. Table 4.13 (Annex F2) shows the summary of
distribution of the specific gravities of the fine aggregate samples in number and percentage.

Table 4.13 Specific Gravity of the Coarse Aggregate Samples with Respect to Requirement
of the Ethiopian Standard (ES. C. D3. 201).
Specific Gravity Number and percentage of Samples
Total
Type Range In & around A.A Out of A.A
No. % No. % No. %
Bulk Below 2.40 - - - - - -
2.40 – 3.0 5 38.46 8 61.54 13 100
Above 3.0 - - - - - -
Total 5 38.46 8 61.54 13 100
Bulk (SSD) Below 2.40 1 6.67 - - 1 6.67
2.40 – 3.0 5 33.33 9 60.00 14 93.33
Above 3.0 - - - - - -
Total 6 40.00 9 60.00 15 100
Apparent Below 2.40 - - - - - -
2.40 – 3.0 5 38.46 8 61.54 13 100
Above 3.0 - - - - - -
Total 5 38.46 8 61.54 13 100
Bulk Specific Gravity range : 2.46 – 2.73
Average : 2.58
Bulk (SSD) Specific Gravity range : 2.22– 2.78
Average : 2.59
Apparent Specific Gravity range : 2.56 – 2.89
Average : 2.66

4.3.5 LOOSE UNIT WEIGHT

Nothing is stated in the Ethiopian Standard concerning the unit weight value that concrete
aggregates should have. However, ASTM stipulates that the compacted unit weight of good
concrete aggregate falls between 1245 (75 lb/ft3)and 1825 kg/m3(110 lb/ft3) (ASTM C29).
Table 4.14 (Annex E2) shows the number and percentage of the loose unit weight of the
coarse aggregate samples.

94
Table 4.14 Loose Unit Weight of the Coarse Aggregate Samples with Respect to
Requirement of ASTM.
Number and percentage of Samples
Loose Unit weight Total
In & around A.A Out of A.A Source unknown
(kg/m3)
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Below 1300 3 20 - - - - 3 20
B/n 1300 and 1900 5 33.33 7 46.67 - - 12 80
Above 1900 - - - - - - - -
Total 8 53.33 7 46.67 - - 15 100
Loose Unit Weight range : 1264 – 1590 kg/m3
Average : 1392.07 kg/m3

4.3.6 COMPACTED UNIT WEIGHT

Similar to the above discussion, the Ethiopian Standard stipulates nothing concerning the
unitweight value that concrete aggregates should have. However, ASTM stipulates that the
compacted unit weight of good concrete aggregate falls between 1245 (75 lb/ft3) and
1825 kg/m3(110 lb/ft3) (ASTM C29). Table 4.15 (Annex E2) shows the number and
percentage of the loose unit weight of the coarse aggregate samples.

Table 4.15 Compacted Unit Weight of the Coarse Aggregate Samples with respect to
requirement of ASTM.
Number and percentage of Samples
Loose Unit weight Total
(kg/m )
3 In & around A.A Out of A.A Source Unknown
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Below 1300 - - - - - - - -
B/n 1300 and 1900 8 53.33 7 46.67 - - 15 100
Above 1900 - - - - - - - -
Total 8 53.33 7 46.67 - - 15 100
Compacted Unit Weight range : 1464 – 1736 kg/m3
Average : 1592 kg/m3

4.3.7 LOS ANGELES ABRASION

According to the Ethiopian standard (ES C. D3. 201) the maximum loss in mass when coarse
aggregate is subjected to abrasion test shall not exceed 50 per cent. Iaddition, ASTM states
that a range from 25 to 50% is acceptable for a good aggregate (ASTM- C131 and C 535).
Table 4.16 (Annex G1) shows the summary of the Los Angeles Abrasion wear of the coarse
aggregate samples used in the study.

95
Table 4.16 Los Angeles Abrasion (%) wear of the Coarse Aggregate Samples with respect
to the requirement of the Ethiopian Standard.
Number and percentage of Samples
Los Angeles Total
In & around A.A Out of A.A Source unknown
Abrasion wear(%)
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Below 50 13 65 5 25 2 10 20 100
Above 50 - - - - - - - -
Total 13 65 5 25 2 10 20 100

Los Angeles Abrasion range : 11.00 – 48.84%

Average : 19.31%

4.3.8 WATER ABSORPTION

According to the requirement of ASTM the water absorption content of a concrete aggregate
should lie in the range of 0.2 to 4 % (ASTM C127). Table 4.17 (Annex F2) shows the
summary of the water absorption values of the coarse aggregate samples.

Table 4.17 Water Absorption Capacity of the Coarse Aggregate Samples with respect to
the requirement of ASTM.
Number and percentage of Taste Samples
Total
Water Absorption In & around Out of A.A. Location unknown
(%) A.A
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Below 0,2% - - - - - - - -
B/n 0.2 and 4 % 5 33,33 10 66,67 - - 100 100
Above 4% - - - - - - - -
Total 5 33,33 10 66,67 - - 100 100

Water Absorption Capacity range : 0.31 – 2.55 %

Average : 1.25 %

4.3.9 AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE

Literature states that the aggregate crushing value of a corarse aggregate sample should be
equal to or less than 40% [15]. Fig 4.18 (Annex G1) shows the ditribution in number and
percentage of the aggregate crushing values of the coarse aggregate samples.

96
Table 4.18 Aggregate Crushing Values of the Coarse Aggregate Samples.

Number and percentage of Taste Samples

Aggregate Total
Crushing Value In & around A.A Out of A.A
(Milimoles/litre) No. % No. % No. %
Below 40 - - 4 57.14 4 57.14
Above 40 - - 3 42.86 3 42.86
Total - - 7 100 7 100
Aggregate Crushing Value range : 28 – 43 %
Average : 36.14 %

4.3.10 FLAKINESS INDEX

A maximum flakiness index value of 35% is stated in the ASTM for crushed concrete
aggregate (ASTM C33). However, there is no requirement stated in the Ethiopian
Standardard. Table 4.19 (Annex G1) shows the distribution in number and percent of the
flakiness index of the coarse aggregate samples.

Table 4.19 Flakiness Index Values of the Coarse Aggregate Samples with respect to the
requirement of the British Standard
Number and percentage of Samples
Flakiness Total
Around & in A.A Out of A.A
Index (%)
No. % No. % No. %
Below 40 - - 5 100 5 100
Above 40 - - - - - -
Total - - 5 100 5 100
Flakiness Index Value range : 11 – 32.68%
Average : 23.31%

4.3.11 POTENTIAL ALKALINE AGGREGATE REACTION

Two test samples from out of Addis Ababa were tested for Potential Alkaline reaction using
the Chemical method. In the first case Dissolved silica measurement was done and as the
result 154 and 96 Milimoles/litre of dissolved silica was found. In the second case Reduction
in Alkalinity was measured and 134 and 220 Milimoles/litre alkalinity was found (ASTM
C289). According to the ASTM there is no indication that the samples are potentially reactive.

4.3.12 DUST CONTENT

One test sample from Addis Ababa was tested for dust content and it was found to be 14.9 %
which is far above the permissible maximum value which is 1.5% (ES C. D3: 201).

97
4.3.13 CLAY LUMPS CONTENT
Two test samples from out of Addis Ababa were tested for their clay lumps content and a
result of 0.2 and 0.3 % respectively was found. The result shows the clay lumps contents of
the tested samples were closer to 0.25 % the maximum stated in the Ethiopian Standard.

4.3.14 SILT & CLAY CONTENT

Test was carried out to determine the silt and clay content of one coarse aggregate sample
from out of Addis Ababa and a result of 0.6% was found. This value is below the maximum
permissible limit which is 1% (ASTM 33/ ASTM C117).

4.3.15 10% FINES VALUE

A 10% fines value test was carried out for two coarse aggregate samples from out side of
Addis Ababa and a result of 68 KN was found for both samples. This value is well above the
lower which is 50 KN (BS 812 : Part 3).

4.4 ROCK SAMPLES

Test results of four rock samples were considered in this research.
4.4.1 LOOSE UNIT WEIGHT
Since the rock samples were tested to investigate their suitability as a potential source of
aggregate production, the requirement set by ASTM for unit weight of coarse aggregate is
used here. Nothing is stipulated in the Ethiopian Standard concerning the unitweight value
that concrete aggregates should have. However, ASTM stipulates that the compacted unit
weight of good concrete aggregate falls between 1245 (75 lb/ft3)and 1825 kg/m3(110 lb/ft3)
(ASTM C29). Table 4.20 (Annex E3) shows the number and percentage of the loose unit
weight of the rock samples.

Table 4.20 Distribution in number and percent of the Loose Unit Weights of the Rock
Samples used in the research.
Number and percentage of Taste Samples
Loose Unit weight Total
In & around Out of A.A Source unknown
(kg/m3)
A.A
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Below 1300 - - - - - - - -
B/n 1300 and 1900 - - 3 100 - - 3 100
Above 1900 - - - - - - - -
Total - - 3 100 - - 3 100
Loose unit weight range : 1429 – 1464 kg/m3
Average : 1442

98
4.4.2 COMPACTED UNIT WEIGHT
Similarly, the Ethiopian Standard stipulates nothing concerning the unitweight value that
concrete aggregates should have. However, ASTM stipulates that the compacted unit weight
of good concrete aggregate falls between 1245 (75 lb/ft3)and 1825 kg/m3(110 lb/ft3) (ASTM
C29). Since the rock samples were tested to investigate their suitability as a potential source
of aggregate production, the requirement set by ASTM for unit weight of coarse aggregate is
used here. Table 4.21 (Annex E3) shows the distribution in number and percentage of the
compacted unit weight of the rock samples.

Table 4.21 Compacted Unit Weight of the Rock Samples.

Number and percentage of Samples
Compacted Unit Total
In & around A.A Out of A.A Source unknown
weight (kg/m3)
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Below 1300 - - - - - - - -
B/n 1300 and 1900 - - 3 100 - - 3 100
Above 1900 - - - - - - - -
Total - - 3 100 - - 3 100

Compacted unit weight range : 1679 – 1700 kg/m3

Average : 1690

4.4.3 WATER ABSORPTION

According to the requirement of ASTM, the water absorption content of a concrete aggregate
should lie in the range of 0.2 to 4 % (ASTM C127). Since the rock samples were tested to
investigate their suitability as a potential source of aggregate production, the requirement set
by ASTM for the water absorption of coarse aggregates is used here.Table 4.22 (Annex F3)
shows the summary of the water absorption values of the coarse aggregate samples.

Table 4.22 Water Absorption Capacity of the Rock Samples with respect to the
requirement of the Ethiopian Standard.
Number of Taste Samples
Water Absorption Total
Range (%) In & around A.A Out of A.A Source unknown
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Below 0,2% - - - - - - - -
B/n 0.2 and 4 % - - 3 75 - - 3 75
Above 4% 1 25 - - - - 1 25
Total 1 25 3 75 - - 4 100
Water absorption capacity range : 1.18 – 6.14 %
Average : 2.80

99
4.4.4 SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The Ethiopian Standard requires that the apparent specifc gravity of a normal concrete
aggregate lies b/n the range of 2.4 and 3.0. Since the rock samples were tested to investigate
their suitability as a potential source of aggregate production, the requirement set by ASTM
for the specific gravity of coarse aggregates is used here. Table 4.23 (Annex F3) shows the
summary of distribution of the specific gravities of the rock samples in number and
percentage.

Table 4.23 Specific Gravity of the Rock Samples with respect to requirement of
the Ethiopian Standard.
Specific Gravity Number and Percentage of Taste Samples
Total
Type Range In & around A.A Out of A.A
No. % No. % No. %
Bulk Below 2.40 - - - - - -
2.40 – 3.0 - - 3 100 3 100
Above 3.0 - - - - - -
Total - - 3 100 3 100
Bulk (SSD) Below 2.40 - - - - - -
2.40 – 3.0 - - 3 100 3 100
Above 3.0 - - - - - -
Total - - 3 100 3 100
Apparent Below 2.40 - - - - - -
2.40 – 3.0 - - 3 100 3 100
Above 3.0 - - - - - -
Total - - 3 100 3 100
Bulk Specific Gravity range : 2.58 – 2.69
Average : 2.64
Bulk (SSD) Specific Gravity range : 2.64– 2.73
Average : 2.68
Apparent Specific Gravity range : 2.72 – 2.80
Average : 2.76

4.4.4 LOS ANGELES ABRASION

According to the Ethiopian standard (ES C. D3. 201) the maximum loss in mass when coarse
aggregate is subjected to abrasion test shall not exceed 50 per cent. Table 4.16 (Annex G1)
shows the summary of the Los Angeles Abrasion wear of the coarse aggregate samples used
in the study.Since the rock samples were tested to investigate their suitability as a potential
source of aggregate production, the requirement set by ASTM for Los Angeles Abrasion wear
of coarse aggregates is used here. Table 4.24 (Annex G2) shows the summary of the Los
Angeles Abrasion wear of the coarse aggregate samples used in the analysis.

100
Table 4.24 Los Angeles Abrasion (%) wear of the Rock Samples with respect to the
requirement of the Ethiopian Standard.
Number and Percentage of Samples
Los Angeles Total
In & around A.A Out of A.A Source Unknown
Abrasion wear (%)
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Below 50 1 33.33 2 66.67 - - 3 100
Above 50 - - - - - - - -
Total 1 33.33 2 66.67 - - 3 100

Los Angeles Abrasion range : 13.26 – 30%

Average : 18.85

4.4.6 SOUNDNESS
Tests were carried out to assess the soundness of the three rock samples from different parts
of the country out of Addis Ababa. Soundness was determined using Sodium Sulphate and the
results obtained were 2.09, 3.10 and 5.62 % with an average value of 3.60. This is a good
result as far as the 12% maximum permissible limit stated in the ASTM C33 and in the
Ethiopian Standard is concerned. The values are given in Annex G2.

4.4.7 SULPHATE AND CHLORIDE CONTENTS

Tests were carried out to determine the sulphate and chloride contents of a rock sample
brought from a dam site out side Addis Ababa. A 24 mg/lt sulpahte and 66mg/lt chloride
contents were found to be present in the rock sample considered (Annex G2). Though, it is
not stated in the Ethipian Standard the British standard states a maximum value of 330mg/lt.

4.4.8 POTENTIAL ALKALINE- AGGREGATE REACTION

Three rock samples were tested to assess their potential for alkaline- aggregate reaction. From
the test the dissolved silica and chloride contents of the samples were determined. 72, 76 and
92 Milimoles/litre of dissolved silica were found in the determination of dissolved silica
content and 180, 164 and 184 Milimoles/litre of reaction in alkalinity were found in the
determination of reaction in alkalinity test. According to the ASTM there is no indication that
the samples are potentially reactive.

4.4.9 FLAKINESS INDEX

From the test carried out to determine the flakiness indices of samples collected from two
rocks out of Addis Ababa, flakiness indices of 30 and 33 % were obtained. According to the
35% maximum permissible limit stated in the ASTM C33 the results obtained were in
compliance with the criterion (Annex G2).

101
5. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 TESTS ON AGGREGATES

It is necessary and worthwhile to determine the engineering properties of aggregate sources

when assessing their quality, which gives us the chance to use those materials to their
maximum potential. Following the results summarized in the previous chapter, the discussion
made on the results obtained is presented in this chapter.

5.1.1 COARSE AGGREGATES

Out of the total 37 coarse aggregate samples, aggregtes sizes 37.5, 19.5 and 13.5 constitute
59.46%, 18.91% and 16.21% of the total samples considered in this research respectively.
This gives an indication that aggregate sizes of 37.5mm are dominantly used in concrete
production in the Ethiopian construction industry.

As it is shown in Table 5.1 one sample tested for dust content failed to satisfy the
requirement. It would be difficult to characterize the quality of aggregates from this single
observation. However, the dust content of the sample was too far above the maximum limit
stated in standards. This gives an indication that aggregates produced in Addis Ababa are
susceptible to dust contamination.

The analysis of the samples shows that 65.71% of the coarse aggrgates couldn’t satisfy
gradation requirement and 40 % of the aggregates had larger value of aggregate crushing
value. Though, gradation of aggregates is one of the most important quality parameters that
predominantly influence the properties of a concrete, the results of this research depicts that
more than half of supplied aggregates don’t meet this requirement.

50% of the samples had a clay lumps content more than that stipulated in the standard. It is a
known fact that presence of clay lumps has significant influence on the strength of the
resulting concrete. In addition, 40% of the samples had an aggregate crushing value which is
above stated in the standard. Clay lumps content is an attribute dependent on the production
process of coarse aggregates. There fore, it demands the concern of the coarse aggregate
producer to use a production process which reduces the amount of clay lumps in the
aggregate. In addition, about 6 and 7% of the samples had unacceptable bulk specific gravity
(SSD) and a fineness modulus values out of the acceptable range respectively. This is good

102
indication that more than 90% the aggregates produced in the country are good for concrete as
far as their bulk specific gravity (SSD) and fineness modulus values are concerned.

The results of the remaining tests carried out on the coarse aggregate samples indicate that
100% of the samples were fit for concrete production as far as their test result values of Los
Angeles Abrasion, Compacted Unit Weight, Bulk Specific Gravity, Apparent Specific
Gravity, Water Absorption, Flakiness Index, Potential Alkaline aggregate reaction, silt and
clay content and 10% fines values are concerned.

Of the total number of tests carried out, the results of 44% of the tests were not incompliance
with the requirements of standards. This is an indication that more than 40% of the tests
carried out on the aggregates supplied for concrete production in the country are not met by
the concrete aggregates. Further, out of the 44% of the tests at which the aggregates fail to
satisfy requirements, 71% of the tests attribute to the property of the aggregate which is not
related to the property of the parent rock. This is an indication that more than about 70% of
the failure of the coarse aggregates to meet requirements of standards is not mainly related to
the property of the parent rock but to the production process and handling of the aggregates in
general.

Table 5.1 Summary of the percentage of coarse aggrregate samples failed to satisfy
requirements.
Percentage
Order Test failed
1 Dust Content 100.00
2 Gradation/sieve analysis 65.71
3 Clay Lumps Content 50.00
4 Aggregate Crushing Value 40.00
5 Loose Unit weight 20.00
6 Bulk Specific Gravity (SSD) 6.67
7 Fineness Modulus 5.71
8 Los Angeles Abrasion -
Compacted Unit Weight -
Bulk Specific Gravity -
Apparent Specific Gravity -
Water Absorption -
Flakiness Index -
Potential alkaline aggregate
reaction -
Silt and Clay Content -
10% fines value -

103
Table 5.2 shows the types of tests carried out on the aggregates and the respective percentage
of the aggregate samples tested. About 95% of the samples were checked for gradation. A Los
Angeles Abrasion test was carried out for about 55% of the samples. The loose unit weight,
compacted unit weight and water absorption of about 40 % of the samples were measured. As
it is shown in the table that the bulk specific gravity (SSD) of 38% of the samples was
determined and determination of bulk and apparent specific gravities of about 35 % of the
samples were carried out. In addition, the aggregates crushing values and flankiness index of
about 13 % of the samples were determined. Finally, the clay lumps content, potential alkaline
aggregate reaction and 10% fines values were determined only for about 5% of the samples.
In addition, only about 3% of the samples were checked for dust content and silt and clay
content

Table 5.2 Summary of the number of tests carried out on the collected coarse aggregate
samples
Number Of Percent of the
Order Test Tested Samples total
1 Gradation/sieve analysis 35 94.59
Fineness Modulus 35 94.59
2 Los Angeles Abrasion 20 54.05
3 Loose Unit weight 15 40.54
Compacted Unit Weight 15 40.54
Water Absorption 15 40.54
4 Bulk Specific Gravity (SSD) 14 37.84
5 Bulk Specific Gravity 13 35.14
Apparent Specific Gravity 13 35.14
6 Aggregate Crushing Value 5 13.51
Flakiness Index 5 13.51
7 Clay Lumps Content 2 5.41
Potential alkaline aggregate 2 5.41
reaction
10% fines value 2 5.41
8 Dust Content 1 2.70
Silt and Clay Content 1 2.70

5.1.2 FINE AGGREGATES

Two samples tested for soundness failed to satisfy the requirement as shown in Table 5.3.
However, the values of the soundness of the samples were not too far above the maximum
limit stated in standards. Depending on the specification of the concrete these aggregates
might be used for concrete production.

104
The analysis of the samples shows that 91% of the coarse aggregates had loose and
compacted unit weight values which were not in the range stated in standards and literature.
This gives an indication that about 90% of the fine aggregates supplied in the country have a
unit weight which is not suitable for quality concrete production.

Gradation of aggregates is one of the most important quality parameters that predominantly
influence the properties of a concrete. However, the result of this research shows that about 56
percent of the samples couldn’t satisfy gradation requirements. This has an implication that
more than 50% of the fine aggregates supplied to the industry have quality problems as far as
gradation requirements are concerned.

40% of the samples had a bulk specific gravity (SSD) out of the stated range for normal
concrete aggregates. This is an indication that about 40 % of the fine aggregates supplied in
the country have unacceptable bulk specific gravity for concrete production.

30% of the samples had a bulk specific value and a silt and clay content which are not in
accordance with requirements. Both of them are important parameters influencing the
properties of concrete significantly.

Only about 5% of the samples had unacceptable value of organic impurity and a fineness
modulus value out of the acceptable range respectively. This is good indication that about
95% the aggregates produced in the country are good for concrete as far as their organic
impurity and fineness modulus values are concerned.

The results of the remaining tests carried out on the fine aggregate samples indicate that 100%
of the samples were fit for concrete production as far as the test result values of apparent
specific gravity, clay lumps content and chloride contents of the samples are concerned.

Of the total number of tests carried out, the results of 77% of the tests were not incompliance
with the requirements of standards. This is an indication that more than 75% of the tests
carried out on the aggregates supplied for concrete production in the country are not met by
the concrete aggregates. Further, out of the 77% of the tests at which the aggregates fail to
satisfy requirements, 60% of the tests attribute to the property of the aggregate which is not
related to the natural quality of the fine aggregates. This is an indication that about 60% of the
failure of the fine aggregates to meet requirements of the standards is not mainly related to

105
the natural quality of the aggregates; rather it is related to the production process and handling
of the aggregates in general.

However, had the material been passed through some treatment to make it suitable for
concrete work it wouldn’t have failed to meet these standard requirements. This signifies the
importance of treating fine aggregates properly before they are used for concrete production..

Table 5.3 Summary of the percentage of fine aggrregate samples failed to satisfy
requirements.
Percentage
Order Test failed
1 Soundness 100.00
2 Loose Unit weight 91.30
Compacted Unit Weight 91.30
3 Gradation/sieve analysis 56.52
4 Bulk Specific Gravity (SSD) 40.00
5 Silt and Clay Content 30.77
6 Bulk Specific Gravity 30.00
7 Water Absorption 20.00
8 Fineness Modulus 4.35
9 Organic Impurity 4.26
Apparent Specific Gravity -
Claylumps content -
Chloride content -

Table 5.4 shows the types of tests carried out on the aggregates and the respective percentage
of the aggregate samples tested. All the samples considered were tested for organic impurity.
More than 95% of the samples were checked for gradation and more than 80% of the samples
were checked for silt and clay content. The loose unit weight and compacted unit weight of
about 49 % of the samples were determined. The bulk specific gravities, the apparent specific
gravity and water absorption of about 22 percent of the fine aggregate samples were also
determined.

Only about 4% of the samples were checked for soundness and clay lumps content. In
addition only one sample (2.13%) out of the total 36 samples is was checked for chloride
content.

106
Table 5.4 Summary of the number of tests carried out on the collected fine aggregate
samples

Order Test Number Of Tested Percent of

Samples The total
1 Organic Impurity 47 100.00
2 Gradation/sieve analysis 46 97.87
Fineness Modulus 46 97.87
3 Silt and Clay Content 39 82.98
4 Loose Unit weight 23 48.94
Compacted Unit Weight 23 48.94
5 Bulk Specific Gravity (SSD) 10 21.28
Bulk Specific Gravity 10 21.28
Apparent Specific Gravity 10 21.28
Water Absorption 10 21.28
6 Soundness 2 4.26
Claylumps content 2 4.26
7 Chloride content 1 2.13

5.1.3 ROCK SAMPLES

All the rock samples tested were in compliance with requirements except 25% of the tested
samples that failed to satisfy the requirement set concerning water absorption content as it is
shown in Table 5.5. The total number of samples considered in this research was 4.

It is apparent that the number of rock test samples was too small when compared to the
number of test samples of the fine and coarse aggregates used in this research. However, this
is practical in reality. In actual situations, a number of aggregate test samples might be tested
which are collected from a certain quarry site. However, the base rock of that quarry need not
be tested as frequently as the aggregate products. This supports the idea that, though the
number of the collected test results of the rock samples is small, it is sufficient to give
indication concerning the handling of rocks in the production of coarse aggregates in the
Ethiopian Construction Industry.

Table 5.6 shows the types of tests carried out on the aggregates and the respective percentage
of the aggregate samples tested. Water absorption of all the rock samples were determined.
Tests to determine the loose unit weights, the compacted unit weights, the bulk specific
gravity (SSD), the bulk specific gravity, apparent specific gravity, Los Angeles abrasion and
potential alkaline aggregate reaction of 75 % of the rock samples were carried out.

107
The loose unit weight and compacted unit weight of about 49 % of the samples were
determined. The flakiness index and soundness of 25 percent of the rock samples were also
determined. In addition, sulphate and chloride contents of 25% of the rock samples were
determined.

Table 5.5 Summary of the percentage of the rock samples failing to satisfy requirements.
Percentage
Order Test failed
1 Water Absorption 25
2 Loose Unit weight -
Compacted Unit Weight -
Soundness -
Bulk Specific Gravity (SSD) -
Bulk Specific Gravity -
Apparent Specific Gravity -
Los Angeles Abrasion -
Sulphate Content -
Chloride content -
Potential Alkaline Aggregate -
Reaction
Flakiness Index -

Table 5.6 Summary of the number of tests carried out on the collected coarse aggregate
samples
Number of Percent of
Order Test Samples the total
1 Water Absorption 4 100
2 Loose Unit weight 3 75
Compacted Unit Weight 3 75
Bulk Specific Gravity (SSD) 3 75
Bulk Specific Gravity 3 75
Apparent Specific Gravity 3 75
Los Angeles Abrasion 3 75
Potential Alkaline Aggregate 3 75
Reaction
3 Flakiness Index 2 50
Soundness 2 50
Sulphate Content 1 25
Chloride content 1 25

108
5.1.4 COMPARISON B/N THE FINE AND COARSE AGGREGATE SAMPLE
RESULTS
While collecting the results of the test samples for this research it was observed that the
number of fine aggregate samples submitted to the laboratories exceeds the number of coarse
aggregate samples submitted for testing. With the same token the number of fine aggregate
samples considered in this research exceeds the number of coarse aggregate test samples.

13 tests were carried out for the fine aggregates and 16 tests were carried out for the coarse
aggregate samples. This is an indication that the construction industry in Ethiopia is more
concerned on the quality test of the coarse aggregates than the quality test of the fine
aggregates.

With respect to compliance, 44% of the total coarse aggregate samples were not in
compliance with requirements and 71 % of these tests attribute to the property of the
aggregate which is not related to the properties of the parent rock. Further, 77% of the fine
aggregate test samples considered failed to satisfy requirements and 60 % of these tests
attribute to the property of the aggregate which is not related to the nature of the fine
aggregate. These results show that fine aggregates supplied to the construction industry have
lesser quality less than the coarse aggregates supplied. In addition, the results also shows that
majority (equal to or more than 60%) of the quality problems both for the fine and coarse
aggregates attributes to the production process and the handling of these aggregates in
general.

5.2 MIX DESIGN

To see the effect of inconsistency of the quality of the supply of aggregates on proportioning
concrete, trial mix designs were prepared for concretes made with aggregates of different
properties. It is known that, there is no local mix design procedure in Ethiopia. However, it is
believed that the ACI mix design procedure is used in the majority of construction projects in
Ethiopia. Therefore, the analysis made in this research was entirely based on the ACI method
of mix design [28].

Hence, different trial mix designs were prepared taking into consideration the different
qualities that were practically found in the collected test samples in this research. Finally, cost
calculations were performed using the resulted different mix proportions. The mix designs
were carried out taking 25 MPa as the required charcteristic compressive strength and taking

109
the slump to be 50mm. The analysis was made using only the properties of those aggregate
samples which were collected from Addis Ababa and its surrounding. In addition, in the trial
mix design only the properties of samples which were incompliance with standards were
considered. Of all the samples that their sources were from and around Addis Ababa, only 3
fine aggregate and 4 coarse aggregate samples were found to be in compliance with the
requirements of different standards. Therefore, mix designs carried out only using these seven
aggregate samples.

5.2.1 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES USED IN THE ANALYSIS

Table 5.7 Properties of the fine aggregate samples used for the mix design
Sample Fineness Modulus Bulk Specific Gravity(SSD)
F10 2.80 2.34
F21 2.75 2.34
F28 2.59 2.30

Table 5.8 Properties of the coarse aggregate samples used for the mix design
Bulk Specific Unit weight Maximum
Sample Gravity (SSD) (kg/m3) Aggregate Size
C9 2.56 1505 37.5
C15 2.78 1671 37.5
C16 2.74 1679 37.5
C18 2.52 1464 37.5

5.2.2 TRIAL MIX DESIGN FOR THE ANALYSIS

Here acceptable and average values found from the collected sample results were used for the
trial mix design
Required Minimum compressive cube
strength of the Concrete : 25 MPa (used for beams and reinforced walls)
Maximum aggregates size : 40 mm
Slump : 25 – 100 mm
Air content : 1%
Standard deviation : Unknown
Air entrainment : None
Maximum cement content : 550 kg/m3
Minimum cement content : 320 kg/m3
Maximum water: cement ratio : 0.60
Cement Type :Mugher PPC
Specific gravity of the cement sample : 3.15

110
5.2.3 SAMPLE TRIAL MIX DESIGN PROCEDURE USED IN THIS RESEARCH
Mix design for Fine aggregate sample F10 and coarse aggregate sample C9
(Designation of the samples is given in Annex A)
Step 1
Slump = 50mm (25 – 100 mm)............................................................... [Table A1.5.3.1 [28]]
Step 2
Maximum aggregate size = 40mm (37.5 mm)

Step 3
Non air entrained
Air content = 1% ………..………………….………………………...….. Table A1.5.3.3 [28]
Water content = 181 kg/m3 ……………………………………...…….… Table A1.5.3.3 [28]

Step 4
Minimum compressive cube strength = 25MPa; Standard deviation (s) = Unknown
Minimum cylinder compressive strength (fc’) = 0.8 x Minimum compressive cube strength
= 0.8 x 25 = 20 MPa
Average cylinder compressive strength fcr’ = fc’ + 7 MPa (Unknown standard deviation)
Therefore, = 20 + 7 =27 MPa
Therefore w:c ratio = 0.58 > 0.60 (maximum permissible) ,Take 0.58

Step 5
Cement content = 190/0.58 = 327kg/ m3> 320(Minimum required), Take 327 kg/ m3

Step 6
Fineness modulus of fine aggregate = 2.80, by interpolation approximate value of percentage
of coarse aggregate is 0.71……….........................………………………Table A1.5.3.6 [28]
Therefore, weight of coarse aggregate is 0.71 x 1505 = 1069 kg/ m3

Step 7
Absolute Volume Method
Volume of water 181/1000 = 0.181 m3
Solid volume of Cement 327/(3.15 x 1000) = 0.104 m3
Solid volume of Coarse aggregate 1069/(2.56 x 1000) = 0.418 m3
Volume of entrapped air = 0.010 m3
Total 0.713 m3

111
Therefore, solid volume of fine aggregate required = 1 – 0.713 = 0.287 m3
And weight of fine aggregate = 0.287 x 2.34 x 1000 = 672kg/ m3
Since the moisture contents of the samples were not known it was assumed in the analysis that
the samples are in a saturated surface dry condition. To this effect no adjustments were done
for the calculated proportions.

Table 5.9 Summary of Proportions of Constituents of the resulting Concrete

Constituent Content (kg/ m3 )
Water 181
Cement 327
Coarse aggregate 1069
Fine aggregate 672
Density of the fresh concrete 2235
The material cost of a 1m3 of concrete made with the above proportion is shown in the table
below (Table 5.10):

Table 5.10 Cost of the Concrete Mix ( in A.A. June 2005 market price)
Constituent Unit Quantity Shrinkage & Total Unit Price Total Price
Contingency Quantity (Birr) (Birr)
Water m3 0.181 35% 0.244 1.50 0.37
Cement Kg 327 35% 441.45 0.7555 333.52
Coarse m3 0.287 35% 0.478 165 93.11
aggregate
Fine aggregate m3 0.418 35% 0.474 135 52.31
Total 479.20

Table 5.11 Summary of the mixdesign result of the samples and the total material cost of
the resulting concrete used in the research
combination Content(kg/ m3 ) Cost
No. In A.A.
Coarse Fine
(Birr/m3)
Coarse Fine Water Cement Aggregate Aggregate
1 C9 F10 181 327 1069 672 479.20
2 C15 F10 181 327 1186 650 479.56
3 C16 F10 181 327 1192 632 480.03
4 C18 F10 181 327 1039 686 479.09
5 C9 F21 181 327 1121 625 480.07
6 C15 F21 181 327 1245 601 480.57
7 C16 F21 181 327 1251 580 480.93
8 C18 F21 181 327 1091 636 479.97
9 C9 F28 181 327 1100 633 479.85
10 C15 F28 181 327 1222 612 480.12
11 C16 F28 181 327 1227 599 480.70
12 C18 F28 181 327 1070 644 479.63

112
Generally, the cost that aggregates contribute to the total in place cost of concrete is relatively
low. Costs of aggregates are usually governed by availability, cost of processing, and distance
transported. Frequently, there are other factors which if properly considered, can have a much
greater economic or environmental impact than direct aggregate cost. Some of the important
factors are aggregate quality (cleanness, durability) particle shape, gradation, water
requirements, cement requirements, density and yield, effect on concrete strength, and effect
on placeability and finishability. Understanding of these factors and their intraction when used
in the proportioning of concrete mixtures can significantly affect the cost of inplace concrete.
Though it is difficult to deduce the cost impact of the variability of the supply of aggregates in
concrete production quantitatively, it is apparent from the above discussion that the use of
quality and uniform aggregate significantly reduces both material and placing costs of
concrete.

Aggregates may vary greately in composition due to geologic factors involved in the
formation, subsequent deformation, and mineralogy of the source material. Other
compositional differences in the aggregates may be due to the process used in crushing, sizing
and cleaning. There can be a wide range in the various physical and chemical properties
among aggregate sources as well as variation in the properties of an aggregate from a single
source can affect the performance of freshly mixed concrete.

Basic physical and chemical characteristics of aggregates can not generally be altered by
processing, although the quantities of certain deleterious particles can be reduced. Aggregate
characteristics that can be controlled include grading, moisture content, cleanliness, removal
of abnormally light particles, and to some degree, particle shape. Economic factors usually
determine the degree to which processing can be directed to produce the best compromises
between desirable aggregate properties and economy.

In the analysis, the proportion of coarse aggregates and fine aggregate calculated for the three
fine aggregate and the four coarse aggregate samples to satisfy a common specification,
ranges as follows:

Coarse aggregate : 1039 kg/m3 – 1251 kg/m3

Difference : 212 kg/m3
Fine aggregate : 580 kg/m3 – 686 kg/m3
Difference : 106 kg/m3

113
 Cost : 479 birr/m3 – 480.93 birr/m3
Difference : 1.93 birr/m3
The mix design result has shown that even among the aggregates which were supplied to
Addis Ababa and which satisfy requirement there is difference in their property. Since
normally the aggregates supplied are not unifrom and consistent, to get the required strength
the concrete producer has to make mix design to all the available aggregates. However, this is
practiacally impossible and requires additional financial and time resource. This signifies the
importance of standardization in aggregate production.

Since it is difficult to attain the required strength with the available construction materials,i.e.,
it is impractical to prepare a mix design for such a non uniform and non consistent supply,
the concrete producers resort :
1. to have a conservative mix design;
2. to increase the amount of cement in the concrete (thought this might not help unless the
mixdesign is done properly);
3. to use cements which gain strength faster than the specified one; this includes the use of
OPC inplace of PPC.
However, these options even if they might help to produce a concrete that satisfies
requirements, they incure addtional cost to the concrete producer which has significant impact
especially in the profit that the concrete producer or the contractor anticipates.

5.3 AGGREGATE PRODUCTION

Controlling the production process should be given first priority when beginning on the road
to producing a concrete of good quality. It is here that all inputs are measured, evaluated and
controlled so that the product conformity and uniformity can be predicted. Once a unform
product appears on the last belt of the crusher plant doesn’t mean that the work is over. Unless
the transportation and handling on sites is considered, the uniformity of the product can also
be destroyed at all.

It is unfortunate that the material which is naturally of good quality might not be up to the
standard at all if it is not handled properly afterwards. Whatever good quality the naturally
available material has, its final quality after all depends on the extraction method employed.
Each and every process that involve in the production process of fine and coarse aggregate
influences the final aggregate product and ultimately the concrete produced by these
aggregates.With the aggregate production, the quality of the aggregate products can be

114
influenced, but the raw material - the gravel or rock – may have characteristics which can not
be modified by the production process.

It was observed in this research that in Ethiopia, aggregate producers don’t have the
knowledge they need to have concerning the quality of the material they are producing. Due
to this reason it is difficult to get an aggregate of acceptable quality. In addition, the naturally
available good quality resource is being used inefficiently and not optimally. Further, the need
for knowledge is increasing as conventional concrete aggregate supplies are becoming
depleted especially in the urban areas, and environmental aspects prevent the use of existing
sources. Therefore , the importance of having trained aggregate producers in the Ethiopian
construction industry can not be overemphasized.

In developed countries like Germany they use natural gravel for production of normal strength
concrete. On the other hand, unlike the situation in Ethiopia, crushed aggreagte is employed in
the developed countries, only for high strength and special concrete production. This is so
important for the proper utilization of resources.

The test results which were analysed in this research have signified that good quality natural
sand is available in many parts of the country; however, the sand deposite may not have been
laid uniformly, meaning a potential change in quality and in size is possible. This signifies the
importance of treating fine aggreagte before it is employed for concrete production.

The test results and researches carried out in local concrete making materials in different parts
of Ethiopia have shown that, good quality raw material is available for coarse aggregate
production. Therefore, to properly make use of this quality of the raw materials, the
production process should be carried out in a planned and knowledgeable way. Especially, in
blasting the mining area it is preferable to employ a bench system rather than blasting a rock
which has more than 20 meters high in one go. This method is useful especially for the proper
utilization of resources and it significantly reduces environmental impacts.

Though, engineering geological maps are important for a planned and efficient utilization of
natural resources it is hard to say there is one in Ethiopia except for some selected cities and
some dam sites. Therefore, unless there is a national engineering geological map, it is difficult
to properly utilize the natural aggregate resources of the Country.

115
5.4 SUPPLY AND DEMAND
The primary information shows that according to the current trend, the existing supply will
continue to cover with an averge of 47% of the total coarse aggregate demand of Addis Ababa
for the coming few years. This shows the importance of identification of potential resources
and future planning.

Meeting the huge needs for infrastructure in the developing world with current technology
will require continual substantial increases in cement production. Cement demand in 2020 is
expected to be from 120 to 180 % higher than in 1990 [48]. Most of this growth will be due to
developing countries. Answering social and economic demands of developing countries is in
the path of sustainable infrastructural development. And doing so with current technology will
require substantial increase in cement production. This is an indication that, Ethiopia being
one of the developing countries it is viable that its yearly cement demand increases inline with
the above prediction.

According to the results of this research, the quality control of the production process in the
existing aggregate productions plants is not up to the standard. In addition, when they are
compared to the rate of expansion of cities and the demand of infrastructure development in
Ethiopia, it is doubtful that the existing production plants would meet the demand both in the
aspects of quality and quantity. To meet the future demand of aggregate,potential aggregate
sources should be identified and be prepared for future use.

5.5 STANDARDIZATION
There is no a standard written procedure as to how to handle aggreagtes while the production
process is going on and also how to handle these materials in construction projects in the
utilization of aggregates for concrete production. In addition, the number of requirements
stated in the Ethiopian Standard is not sufficient to control the quality of fine and coarse
aggregates in the Ethiopian construction industry.

There is no standard that the coarse or fine aggregate producers should follow in the
production of these aggregates. And there is no a standard guide line to control the production
process on the side of the statutory bodies.

Interviews and observations made in this research have shown that there is no licensing
guideline for sand and aggregate producers in Ethiopia especially with respect to the quality

116
of the material produced. The potential investors in the area are required to submit proposal of
their investment. However, there is no control as to whether the producers follow a quality
control procedure in the production process or not. In addition, only paper work is done when
renewing their license every year.

In Germany, there are procedures that aggregate producers are expected to follow in
aggregate production. In addition, they have to renew their license twice in a year. The
responsible bodies might come at any time and see whether the producers are following the
standard procedures or not.

5.6 APPLICATION OF READY MIXED CONCRETE IN THE CONSTRUCTION

INDUSTRY
Unlike the trend in Ethiopia where concrete is normally produced on site, in most developed
and developing countries ready mixed concrete production plants are responsible for the
production of the major portion of the total concrete produced in their country. Today, ready
mixed concrete offers high-tech solutions to the needs of the construction industry. It allows
building of ever longer bridges, ever higher buildings, tunnels, dams, etc.

In the German construction industry ready mixed concrete constitutes about 87% of the total
concrete produced excluding precast concrete and it consumes about 47% of the total cement
consumed in the country. The following table shows production, production per capita,
cement consumption and % of ready- mixed concrete in different countries in the world.

Table 5.12 Ready-mixed concrete production figures in different countries

(Source: European Ready Mix Concrete Organization, European Ready-Mixed Concrete
Industry Statistics, Year 2003, July 2004.)

Total Production per Cement % of cement to

Country Production Capita Consumption Ready-mixed
X 106 m3 (m3/capita) X 106 ton concrete produced
USA 310.00 1.06 113.83 74.00
Spain 81.00 1.96 46.22 50.00
Italy 72.90 1.27 43.48 48.70
Germany 46.90 0.57 28.90 46.70
Russia 35.00 0.24 36.41 -
France 34.8 0.58 20.68 47.00
Turkey 28.20 0.40 28.11 30.00
United Kingdom 22.00 0.37 13.24 54.00

117
The cost of ready-mixed concrete, since it is a bought commodity, may be some what higher
than that of site-mixed concrete, but this is often offset by savings in site organization, in
supervisory staff, and in cement content. The later arises from better control so that a smaller
allowance need be made for chance variations.

The observations made concerning ready mixed concrete production and utilization in
Germany is summarized below. When compared to on site mixed concrete, ready mixed
concrete has the following advantages:
1. Service
Ready mixed concrete provides consumers with good service quality. This advantage
is due to the following reasons:
• The availability of concrete truck mixers allow delivery rates to be kept under control
and optimized;
• Due to dense network of ready mixed plants it is always possible to get a ready-mixed
plant near a work site;
• Special services for difficult work sites: pumps, conveyors, night deliveries etc.
• Availability of concrete of any grade according to the client’s requirements;
• Durable and affordable;
• Environmentally friendly.

2. Quality
Ready mixed concrete guarantees quality due to the following reasons:
• The materials of which it is made are themselves subject to stringent quality
requirements;
• Rigorous quality control is carried out thorough out the manufacturing and delivery
process;
• The formulation and manufacturing of the concrete are covered by the numerous
national quality standards.

3. The Delivery Solutions

Ready-mixed concrete meets a great variety of needs in terms of technical
sophistication, ease of use and design due to the following reasons:

118
 • the ability of test centers and laboratories to do research into and industrialize ever
more innovative concrete that is in tune with trends in architecture and the
construction industry
• the use of multiple combinations of cement, aggregates and admixtures stored on
production plant sites.

4. Benefit at site for the Customer/ Contractor

• Deliveries of ready-mixed concrete can be taken directly from the ready-mix plants or
the concrete can be delivered to worksites by concrete mixer trucks;
• The pace of can be adapted to the customer’s needs and can change from one hour or
day to the next;
• The use of ready-mixed concert keeps worksite nuisance (dirt, congestions, noise, etc.)
to minimum levels;
• Elimination of procurement and hiring of plants and equipments;
• Wastage of materials as site is avoided;
• Labor and supervisory cost associated with production of concrete is lowered;
• Time required for concreting is greatly reduced;
• Noise and dust pollution as site is reduced;
• Organization at site is more streamlined;
• No storage space required either for raw materials or for the mix.

All the above mentioned facts signify the advantages of using ready mixed concrete
production plants in place of on site concrete production. As the results found in this research
indicated, the concrete making materials produced in the Ethiopian construction industry
lacks uniformity, consistency and don’t meet requirements. This imposes additional burden on
the contractor besides the management and quality control of his project.

However, the Contractors in the Germany construction industry concentrate on the

management aspect of their work rather than worrying about concrete production on site. This
gives good lesson to the Ethiopian construction industry. Though it needs a detailed analysis
concerning the financial benefit of using ready- mixed concrete in place of on site mixed
concrete, it is clear from the discussion made above that, utilization of ready-mixed concrete
is important for the efficiency and effectiveness of the construction industry in general and the
handling of concrete making materials in particular.

119
6. CONCLUSION
Effectiveness and efficiency of the construction industry of a country is a key aspect for
today’s competitiveness in the business world. It is a known fact that, resources planning and
management is one of the most important parameters for competitiveness and profitability in
today’s construction technology. One important aspect of resources management is
management of construction materials in construction projects.

Materials management is an important element in project planning and control. Further, one
important aspect of materials management is handling of construction materials. Concrete is
one of the construction materials used in almost all construction works. Concrete being one of
the important constituents of many of the construction projects, in addition to its subjectivity
to variability, requires a close and thorough care and management in construction projects.

The constituents of concrete which most of them are naturally occurring materials are
subjected to a wide range of variability. The first constituent, water, is a relatively non
variable and usually available in a condition to be used for concrete readily. The second
constituent, cement, is also a factory product that it is relatively easy to control its production
process and its quality. However, the third constituents of concrete, which are coarse and fine
aggregates, are usually naturally occurring that they are subjected to a wide range of
variability.

Coarse and fine aggregates constitute the majority of the volume of a concrete. Especially,
fine aggregates are used directly from their source or quarry with out given any kind of
treatment, that might help to keep them in line with standard quality requirements. Some
times contractors wash fine aggregates before using it for concrete if the condition obliges
them to do so. To analyze the situation of handling of concrete making materials in Ethiopia
this research has been conducted and the results found are summarized as follows. The
methods used for data collection were on site observation, material test data collection,
interview and data collection in Ethiopia and Germany.

It was observed in this research that handling of fine aggregates in the Ethiopian construction
Industry context is not mechanized. Handling of these materials starting from the production
process to the storing and use of the aggregates in construction sites is very poor. In addition,
the quality control aspect is too weak that the specifications prepared and the tests required by
supervising Engineers are too loose.

120
This is a result of two possible reasons. The first one is that there is no organized fine
aggregates supplier in the country that the contractors have no choice except accepting
whatever quality the supplied fine aggregates has. The second reason is that responsible
government bodies and supervising engineers don’t make tight control over contractors in the
aspcts of materials quality. This was apparent in construction projects where the supervisors
were expatriates and asked the contractors to supply only materials, which can satisfy their
requirements. It was observed in these situations that the contractors were doing their best to
acquire construction materials, which are to the standard. There fore, had there been tight
control on the quality of the supplied materials the situation in this country could have been
improved considerably.

Handling of coarse aggregates in the Ethiopian construction industry is no different from that
of handling of fine aggregates. Quarry site selection is usually done with out prior detail site
investigation and assessement of the availability and properties of the bed rock. In addition,
future expansion of nearby towns and environmental impacts of the crushing plant are not
usually taken in to consideration in locating the quarry site. This has resulted in wastage of
resource and unnecessary expense in addition to the environmental impact it has imposed.

In addition, there has always been a supply and demand gap in construction materials
especially, in cements and coarse aggregates in the Ethiopian construction Industry. Unless
measures are taken it would be a hindrance to the development of the economy of the country.
For example in Addis Ababa alone, it has been estimated that there is an average of above
50% supply and demand gap of coarse aggregates.

According to this research more 44%of the coarse aggregate samples considered and 77% of
the fine aggregate samples considered couldn’t satisfy requirements set by standards. In
addition, more than 60% of the test that the samples failed to satisfy don’t attribute to the
natural quality of the materials. Further, researches carried out in different parts of Ethiopia
have also shown that the naturally available material have quite acceptable quality to be used
as a concrete making material. This indicates that the reason why concrete making materials
fail to comply with requirements attributes to the handling of the materials in the construction
industry but not to the unavailability of materials satisfying requirements in Ethiopia.

In addition, since the supply of coarse and fine aggregates vary widely from one to the other
the contractors are always in problem of producing concrete which satisfies especially,

121
strength requirements. Therefore, if they have to produce a concrete which satisfies the
requirement the contractors will be left with two alternatives: the first one is to wash and
combine the aggregates to get an aggregate of acceptable quality and the other alternative is to
make a conservative design which is suitable for severe conditions. This might include use of
OPC in place of PPC, increasing the amount of cement and so on. However, both alternsatives
result in an additional cost to the Contractor.

With respect to standardization of concrete making materials, the requirements set in the
Ethiopian standard are not sufficient enough and also the quality requirements of contract
documents and work supervisors in construction projects are quite loose. However, the
situation in Germany is quite different. Almost all the materials used in the construction
industry are standardized and also the procedure that should be followed to produce these
materials is also stated in their standard. In addition, responsible authorities and construction
supervisors make all the necessary check up on the quality of the materials.

The other important aspect with respect to production process of aggregates is environmental
impact of aggregate production plant. This research has shown that the aggregate production
plants in Addis Ababa have significant impact in their surrounding environment. In addition
the effort that responsible statutory bodies are making towards controlling the production
plants with respect to environmental impact is too minimal. However, the situation in
Germany is quite different, all parties involved in the production process take all the
necessary precautions and measures to avoid the environmental impact of aggregate
production plants.

As the results obtained in this research have shown, the introduction of ready- mixed concrete
to the construction industry improves the current problem of concrete producers failing to
produce concrete which satisfies requirements. In addition, the use of ready mix concrete
would improve the quality of concrete produced and help towards the proper utilization of
naturally available raw materials.

122
7. RECOMMENDATIONS

FINE AGGREGATES

1. Fine aggregate producers should be organized to produce fine aggregate which, in

addition to its consistency, satisfies standard requirements.
2. The sand production method should employ modern technologies. Utilization of
machineries like loaders and excavators in place of primitive labor based production
should also be taken in to consideration. Screening plants should be established where fine
aggregates are being produced especially in places where the quarry sites are relatively
suitable for such plants and in places where the quarry plant is accessible to the nearby
highway.
3. Responsible statutory bodies should impose standardization requirements on parties who
are producing fine aggregates.

COARSE AGGREGATES
1. Thorough study before selection quarry sites should be given due emphasis.
2. Close control of the production process.
3. Site location and selection is very important.

GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS
1. Geological engineering map of Ethiopia is very important to the proper utilization of the
construction raw materials in Ethiopia.
2. General in – depth investigation like general evaluation on petrography of rocks to assure
quality against reactivity of aggregates is important. Close investigation of geological
properties would be easy if Engineers and Geologists work together.
3. Identification of alternative sites and incorporating them in the future land use plan
should also be considered.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASPECTS

1. Creating awareness that quarry sites with in the city and among settlements could be
detrimental to people’s well being and health and hence to look for other areas that could
not cause much harm.
2. If there is environmental, social impact on the surrounding area, technical advice should
be given to enable limitation of number of bore holes, stripping lines and extent of depth,
amount of explosive material use etc. to make the development environmentally friendly.

123
3. Ensuring that the quarrying activity would not adversely affect the environment and
society through precluding sustainable urban development.
4. Take urgent appropriate legal actions to safeguard the environment from inappropriate
land management.

STANDARDIZATION AND RESEARCH ASPECTS

1. Laboratories should check all qualities of aggregates to investigate their compliance to
standards.
2. Quarry sites should be checked for standards. They should have consistent quality and
quality assurance periodically. The customer should be able to compare quality of the
aggregate with out any expenses for tests.
3. Laboratory tests should be compiled periodically for further research works.

CONCRETE PRODUCTION ASPECTS

The use of ready mix concrete should be sought for. Production of ready mix concrete should
be encouraged and introduced in the Industry.

REGULATIONS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF STATUTORY ORGANS

1. Putting stringent quality criteria with respect to the production of coarse and fine
aggregates.
2. Based on the construction earth materials type, mining criteria and techniques, mining
rules and regulations should be applied.
3. Assessement of new potental resources for fine and coarse aggregate sources to meet the
increasing demand of these construction materials in Ethiopa.
4. The monitoring and follow-up mechanism of the responsible bodies should be improved.
5. In case of Addis Ababa, in order to keep the city structure development the Mines and
Energy Department should be strengthened and its institutional capacity promoted to solve
existing problems and ameliorate impacts.

CONTRACT DOCUMENTS PREPARATION AND SUPERVISON

Proper specifications should be prepared and proper control of the quality of aggregates
should be carried out in construction projects.

124
8. SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK
1. Advantages and disadvantages of using all-in aggregates in place of single sized
aggregates for concrete production.
2. The potential of alkali-aggregate reaction of concrete produced in Ethiopia.
3. Percentage of wastage of concrete and concrete making materials in the Ethiopian
Construction Industry.
4. Actual supply and demand gap of concrete making materials in the Ethiopian
Construction Industry.
5. Assesssment of suitability of the different types of rocks that are available in Ethiopia for
production of concrete.
6. Prospects of using ready-mixed concrete in the Ethiopian Construction Industry.

125
REFERENCES
[1] Chitkara, K.K., (1998), Construction Project Management-Planning Scheduling and
Controlling, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi.
[2] Bell, L. C., and Stokhart, G. (1986). Attributes of Materials Management systems,
Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, ASCE,112(1), pp 14-21.
[3] Bell, L. C., and Stokhart, G. (1987). Cost and Benefit of Materials Management
System, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, ASCE,113(2), pp.222-
234.
[4] Ye Konsterakshen Kefle Ekonomi Yeaser Amet Lemat Meri Eked, Part 2, 1982, Addis
Ababa.
[5] Okpala, D. C.,and Aniekwu, A. N. (1988), Causes of High Construction Costs in
Nigeria, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, ASCE ,114(2), pp. 233
– 244.
[6] Ballard, G. (1994), The Last Planner, Northern California Construction Institute,
Monterey, CA.
[7] J. E, Johnston (1981), Site Control of Materials, Handling Storage and Protection,
Billing & Sons Ltd, London.
[8] Troxel, G. E., and Davis (1956), H. E., Composition and Properties of Concrete,
MCGRAW - HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC, New York.
[9] Mikyas Abayneh, (1987), Construction Materials, A Teaching Material, Addis Ababa
University Press, June 1987.
[10] Sidney Mindess, J. Francis Young (1981), Concrete, Prentice-Hall, INC, New Jersey.
[11] G. F. Blackledge (2002), Concrete Practice, British Cement Association, Century
House, Berkshire.
[12] M. S. Shetty (1982), Concrete Technology, Theory and Practice, S. Chand & Company
LTD, New Delhi.
[13] Abebe Dinku, Asnake Adamu, Girma Zerayohannes, Mix Design Proposal for
Structural Concrete Using Messobo Ordinary Portland Cement, Zede Journal of the
Ethiopian Engineers and Architects, No 19, December 2002.
[14] Abebe Dinku, Tigist Getaneh, High Strength Concrete Production Using Mugher OPC
and PPC, EACE Journal, Vol.2 - No. 1, September, 2003.
[15] Taylor, W. H. (1977), Concrete Technology and Practice, McGRAW-HILL Book
Company, 4th edition, Sydney.
[16] Ethiopian standards ES C. D3. 201, “Aggregates, Normal Concrete Aggregates”, 1990.

126
[17] Symposium on Mix Design and Quality Control of Concrete, Cement and Concrete
Association, London, 1955.
[18] E. R. Skoytes and H. J. Hussey, “Wastage of materials on building sites”, BRE
Current Paper CP/44/74.
[19] Ye conestrakeshin ekawoch mamrecha derejit atekalai chegeroch ena yemefetehe hasb
tenat, Dec. 2002. [Unpublished material]
[20] Kebede T., Tadesse H.M. (1990), “Engineering Geological Mapping of Addis Ababa”,
Addis Ababa.
[21] Neville, A. M. (1986), Properties of Concrete, Longman Scientific & Technical,
England.
[22] Karstaedt, H., Wondafrash M.(1986), “Summarized Report on Building Raw
Materials East of Addis Ababa (Bole)”, Addis Ababa.
[23] Project Profile for KASMA Engineering PLC Stone Crushing and Screening Plant,
2004, Addis Ababa (Unpublished).
[24] Mikyas Abayneh (1970), Concrete Making Properties of Light Weight Aggregate
Concrete Made With Ethiopian Pumice and Scoria, MSc Thesis , Israel Institute of
Technology.
[25] Girma Zerayohannes (1982), Concrete Made With Basaltic Gravel and Coarse Scoria
Aggregates, MSc. Thesis, Addis Ababa.
[26] Tigist Getaneh (2002), Investigation on the Potential Use of Available Materials for the
Production of High Strength Structural Concrete, MSc Thesis, Addis Ababa.
[27] Gopalakrishan, P. and Sundaresan, M., Materials Management an integrated
approach, 24th ed., Prentice- Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi, 2003.
[28] Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass
Concrete (ACI 211.1-91), Reported by ACI Committee 211, Farmington Hills, 1997.
[29] U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2005, UNITED
STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, 2005.
[30] Humphreys, K., Mahasenan, M., Climate Change (Towards a sustainable Cement
Industry, Substudy 8). Battele – World Business Council for Sustainable Development,
March 2002.
[31] Environmental Impact Assessment Guideline for Mineral and Petroleum Operation
Projects, Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Environmental Protection Authority,
2003.

127
[32] Kaplan M.F., Flexural and Compressive Strength of Concrete as Affected by the
Properties of the Coarse Aggregate, Proc. Am. Conc. Inst., 55, May 1959.
[33] Soroka I., “Portland Cement Paste and Concrete”, The MacMillan Press, London,
1979.
[34] Guide for Use of Normal Weight Aggregates in concrete, Reported by ACI
Committee 221, Report no. ACI 221R, American concrete Institute, June 1984.
[35] Central Statistics Authority Report on the Contract Construction Activities Survey,
Statistical Bulletin 232, 2000.
[36] Daniel Abebayehu, Studies on Pumice Block and Scoria Bricks as the Basis of
Standardization, Unpublished MSc. Thesis, Addis Ababa University,Addis Ababa.
[37] Report on Large and Medium Scale Manufacturing and Electricity Industries Survey,
November 2004, Addis Ababa, Statistical Bulletin 231.
[38] Gebremedhin Berhane, Geotechnical and Engineering Geological Investigation of
Mekele area, Tigray, Northern Ethiopia, Unpublished MSc. Thesis, Addis Ababa
University, Addis Ababa, 2002.
[39] Zemenu Geremew, Engineering Geological Study of Awassa Town and Its
Surrounding, Unpublished MSc. Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, 2000.
[40] Abebe Dinku, Tigist Getaneh, High Strength Concrete Production Using Mugher OPC
and PPC, EACE Journal, Vol.2 - No. 1, September, 2003.
[41] More Construction for the Money (1983), The Business Roundtable, Summary Report of
the Construction Industry Cost Effectiveness Project.
[42] Ethiopian standard ES C. D5. 201, “Portland Cement, General Requirements”, 1990.
[43] Ethiopian standards ES C. D8. 490, “Portland Cement. Methods of Sampling and
Testing”, 1990.
[44] Ethiopian standards ES C. D2. 301, “Standard Sand General Requirements”, 1990.
[45] ASTM C128 “Standard Method for Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse
Aggregates”.
[46] ASTM C128 “Standard Method for Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine
Aggregates”.
[47] Eyelachew Y. (2000), Construction –earth Materials /Quarries of Addis Ababa
Metropolitan Area (A Preliminary Report – part II), Addis Ababa.
[48] Activity Report 2004, The Europen Cement Association, Brussels, 2002.

128
ANNEXES

ANNEX A

A1 Source and Designation of fine aggregate samples

Designation Source Test date Remark

(Specific Source)
F1 Around A.A. 19.10.04 Meja Shenen
F2 Around A.A. 19.10.04 Batu Degaga
F3 Around A.A. 19.10.04 Batu Degaga
F4 Around A.A. 19.10.04 Dire Degaga
F5 Around A.A. 19.10.04 Melka Gerbi
F6 Around A.A. 19.10.04 Oda Bekota (Meki)
F7 Around A.A. 19.10.04 Chele Kiltu
F8 Around A.A. 19.10.04 Meti Sembo
F9 Around A.A. 19.10.04 Shalenge
F10 Around A.A. 16.01.05 Dera
F11 Alemaya 30.3.05 Alemaya
F12 Mekele 10.4.05 Giba
F13 Mekele 10.4.05 Giba
F14 North east Ethiopia 7.01.05 Mille
F15 North West Ethiopia 22.12.04 Nekempte
F16 Nathareth-Assela 3.12.04 Mermersa
F17 Nathareth-Assela 3.12.04 Sodere
F18 Around A.A. 15.3.05 Kality
F19 Around A.A. 15.3.05 Kality
F20 Around A.A. 14.4.05 Addis Ababa
F21 Around A.A. 12.01.05 Addis Ababa
F22 Around A.A. 3.02.05 Addis Ababa
F23 Around A.A. 4.02.05 Addis Ababa
F24 Around A.A. 15.3.05 Addis Ababa
F25 Around A.A. 15.01.05 Addis Ababa
F26 Around A.A. 28.3.05 Addis Ababa
F27 Around A.A. 17.9.04 Addis Ababa
F28 Around A.A. 26.01.05 Addis Ababa
F29 Around A.A. 1.03.05 Addis Ababa
F30 Around A.A. 22.02.05 Addis Ababa
F31 Around A.A. 28.02.05 Addis Ababa
F32 Around A.A. 15.01.05 Addis Ababa
F33 Around A.A. 24.02.05 Addis Ababa
F34 Around A.A. 13.5.05 Addis Ababa
F35 Around A.A. 28.02.05 Addis Ababa
F36 Around A.A. 21.02.05 Addis Ababa
F37 Around A.A. 22.02.05 Addis Ababa
F38 Around A.A. 17.3.05 Addis Ababa
F39 North Shoa 8.4.05 Mida Metala
F40 Around A.A. 25.4.05 Addis Ababa
F41 Dire Dawa 22.02.05 -
F42 Around A.A. 24.3.05 Addis Ababa
F43 Around A.A. 24.3.05 Addis Ababa
F44 Around A.A. 24.3.05 Meki
F45 Around A.A. 30.3.05 Addis Ababa
F46 n/a n/a n/a
F47 n/a n/a n/a

129
A2 Sources and Designation of coarse aggregate samples

Designation Source Date of Specific Source Nominal Agg.

testing SIze
C1 Dera 16.01.05 Dera 37-5
C2 Alemaya 30.3.05 Alemaya 37-5
C3 Mekele 10.4.05 Misham 37-5
C4 Mekele 10.4.05 Dalul 37-5
C5 Mekele 10.4.05 Dalul 37-5
C6 Mekele 10.4.05 Derbi 37-5
C7 Around A.A. 16.9.05 Addis Ababa 19-5
C8 Around A.A. 16.9.05 Addis Ababa 19-5
C9 Around A.A. 14.12.05 n/a 37-5
C10 Nathareth-Assela 03.12.05 Blue Nile No1 19-5
C11 Nathareth-Assela 03.12.05 Blue Nile No2 19-5
C12 Around A.A. 15.3.05 Kality 13-5
C13 Around A.A. 15.3.05 Addis Ababa 37-5
C14 Bahar Dar 13.01.05 n/a 37-5
C15 Around A.A. 31.01.05 n/a 37-5
C16 Around A.A. 12.01.05 Addis Ababa 37-5
C17 Around A.A. 17.9.05 Addis Ababa 37-5
C18 Around A.A. 26.01.05 Addis Ababa 37-5
C19 Around A.A. 13.6.05 Addis Ababa 13-5
C20 Around A.A. 13.6.05 Addis Ababa 19-5
C21 Around A.A. 13.6.05 Addis Ababa 37-5
C22 Around A.A. 28.02.05 Addis Ababa 37-5
C23 Around A.A. - Addis Ababa 37-5
C24 Around A.A. 21.02.05 Addis Ababa 37-5
C25 Around A.A. 22.02.05 Addis Ababa 37-5
C26 Around A.A. 17.3.05 Akaki Kality 13-5
C27 Around A.A. 25.4.05 Addis Ababa 37-5
C28 Dire Dawa 22.02.05 - 13-5
C29 Dire Dawa 22.02.05 - 19-5
C30 Around A.A. - Addis Ababa 19-5
C31 Around A.A. 24.3.05 Addis Ababa 37-5
C32 Around A.A. 22.3.05 Addis Ababa 37-5
C33 n/a n/a n/a 37-5
C34 n/a n/a n/a 37-5
C35 n/a n/a n/a 13-5
C36 n/a n/a n/a 13-5
C37 Around A.A. 16.01.05 Addis Ababa 37-5

A3 Sources and Designation of the rock samples

Particular Source
Designation Source Date of testing Location
R1 Wollo 17.12.04 Kesem
R2 A.A 24.3.05 -
R3 Gojam 16.3.05 Chemoga - Yedo
R4 Gojam 16.3.05 Getla

130
Annex B
B1 Sieve Analysis Result of fine aggregate Samples
Item
No Sample Percentage Passing
Finness
15 15 15 15 15 15 15
9.5 4.75 2.36 1.18 0.6 0.3 0.15 Modulus
1 F1 100 97 86 53 12 5 2 3.45
2 F2 100 99 95 80 56 23 4 2.43
3 F3 100 98 95 85 55 28 13 2.26
4 F4 100 95 81 52 12 4 2 3.54
5 F5 100 100 100 100 69 17 4 2.10
6 F6 99 94 88 34 34 8 4 3.39
7 F7 98 94 82 60 23 10 6 3.27
8 F8 99 92 74 51 32 16 5 3.31
9 F9 98 96 92 82 24 6 5 2.97
10 F10 100 100 99 82 30 7 2 2.80
11 F11 98 95 83 57 21 9 4 3.33
12 F12 94 91 82 78 52 21 3 2.79
13 F13 98 97 96 93 70 23 3 2.20
14 F14 97 90 77 56 17 4 3 3.56
15 F15 - - - - - - - -
16 F16 96 90 78 59 24 7 3 3.43
17 F17 99 97 92 76 31 10 5 2.90
18 F18 97 90 82 67 31 12 7 3.14
19 F19 100 99 93 78 52 29 8 2.41
20 F20 98 93 83 72 34 10 4 3.06
21 F21 99 96 89 76 42 16 7 2.75
22 F22 89 80 68 53 27 15 9 3.59
23 F23 98 95 87 72 32 9 5 3.02
24 F24 99 96 89 82 51 20 7 2.56
25 F25 99 96 90 77 38 14 7 2.79
26 F26 100 100 71 43 21 12 8 3.45
27 F27 100 96 92 85 51 19 8 2.49
28 F28 99 97 90 82 48 18 7 2.59
29 F29 92 82 62 43 19 7 4 3.91
30 F30 97 89 71 43 14 7 5 3.75
31 F31 99 95 90 75 33 13 6 2.89
32 F32 98 95 88 68 27 7 1 3.16
33 F33 96 90 82 60 20 5 3 3.44
34 F34 99 96 88 73 39 14 6 2.85
35 F35 100 98 88 63 23 8 5 3.15
36 F36 96 93 89 82 59 30 10 2.41
37 F37 100 96 84 60 31 23 6 3.00
38 F38 99 90 79 65 21 10 6 3.30
39 F39 100 96 88 73 42 21 7 2.73
40 F40 98 94 85 64 23 7 3 3.26
41 F41 96 91 85 74 43 15 4 2.92
42 F42 99 97 92 64 31 15 6 2.96
43 F43 98 95 88 75 43 16 7 2.78
44 F44 99 98 95 88 55 11 4 2.50
45 F45 98 95 91 83 58 28 15 2.32
46 F46 100 99 97 96 72 21 2 2.14
47 F47 99 96 88 62 32 12 4 3.08
ES requirement 100 95-100 80-100 50-85 25-60 10-30 2-10 2.0 – 3.5

15
Sieve sizes in mm

131
B2 Sieve Analysis Result of the coarse aggregate Samples 37-5 Nominal Aggregate Size

Item No Sample Sieve Sizes and Percentage Passing

Fineness
75• 37,5• 19• 9,5• 4,75• Modulus
1 C1 100 100 81 32 4 6.83
2 C2 100 100 49 3 1 7.47
3 C3 100 100 67 1 0 7.32
4 C4 100 100 71 2 0 7.27
5 C5 100 100 49 3 1 7.17
6 C6 100 100 66 15 4 7.15
7 C9 100 98 30 3 0 7.69
8 C13 100 100 48 10 1 7.41
9 C15 100 100 53 7 0 7.40
10 C16 100 100 51 7 1 7.41
11 C17 100 100 30 3 0 7.67
12 C18 100 100 72 11 1 7.16
13 C21 100 100 41 8 0 7.51
14 C22 100 100 62 11 1 7.26
15 C23 100 100 78 9 1 7.12
16 C24 100 100 45 3 0 7.52
17 C25 100 100 47 13 5 7.35
18 C27 100 100 62 10 2 7.26
19 C31 100 100 84 - - 7.13
20 C32 100 100 70 - - 7.26
21 C33 100 100 47 6 0 7.43
21 C34 100 100 54 3 0 7.40
The ES requirement 100 95-100 30-70 10-35 0-5 5.5-8.5

B3 Sieve Analysis Result of the coarse aggregate Samples 19-5 Nominal Aggregate Size

Item No Sample Sieve Sizes and Percentage Passing Fineness

37,5• 25• 19• 12,5• 9,5• 4,75• Modulus
1 C7 100 100 82 28 7 0 7.11
2 C8 100 100 98 83 16 0 6.86
3 C10 100 100 73 40 23 7 6.97
4 C11 100 100 87 59 36 11 6.66
5 C20 100 100 90 51 27 3 6.18
6 C29 100 100 86 32 6 0 6.62
7 C30 100 100 91 33 9 1 6.57
The ES requirement 100 - 95-100 - 25-55 0-10 5.5-8.5

B4 Sieve Analysis Result of the coarse aggregate Samples 13-5 Nominal Aggregate Size

Item No Sample Sieve Sizes and Percentage Passing Fineness

19• 12,5• 9,5• 4,75• Modulus
1 C12 100 100 99 27 5.70
2 C19 100 100 100 37 5.59
3 C26 100 100 99 19 5.76
4 C28 100 99 87 9 6.05
5 C35 100 100 99.5 95.2 4.34
6 C36 100 100 100 94.9 4.71
The ES requirement 100 90-100 40-85 0-10 5.5-8.5

•
Sieve sizes in mm

132
Annex C Gradation Charts of the collected samples
C1 Fine Aggregates

Gradation Chart for Sample F1

120

100
Percentage Passing

80
Lower Limit
60 Upper Limit
Sample Values
40

20

0
9.5 4.75 2.38 1.18 600 300 150
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sample F2

120

100
Percentage Passing

80
Lower Limit
60 Upper Limit
Sample Values
40

20

0
9.5 4.75 2.38 1.18 600 300 150
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sample F3

120

100
Percentage Passing

80
Lower Limit
60 Upper Limit
Sample Values
40

20

0
9.5 4.75 2.38 1.18 600 300 150
Sieve Size

133
 Gradation Chart for Sample F4

120

100
Percentage Passing
80
Lower Limit
60 Upper Limit
Sample Values
40

20

0
9.5 4.75 2.38 1.18 600 300 150
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sample F5

120

100
Percentage Passing

80
Lower Limit
60 Upper Limit
Sample Values
40

20

0
9.5 4.75 2.38 1.18 600 300 150
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sample F6

120

100
Percentage Passing

80
Lower Limit
60 Upper Limit
Sample Values
40

20

0
9.5 4.75 2.38 1.18 600 300 150
Sieve Size

134
 Gradation Chart for Sample F7

120

100
Percentage Passing
80
Lower Limit
60 Upper Limit
Sample Values
40

20

0
9.5 4.75 2.38 1.18 600 300 150
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sample F8

120

100
Percentage Passing

80
Lower Limit
60 Upper Limit
Sample Values
40

20

0
9.5 4.75 2.38 1.18 600 300 150
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sample F9

120

100
Percentage Passing

80
Lower Limit
60 Upper Limit
Sample Values
40

20

0
9.5 4.75 2.38 1.18 600 300 150
Sieve Size

135
 Gradation Chart for Sample F10

120

100
Percentage Passing 80
Lower Limit
60 Upper Limit
Sample Values
40

20

0
9.5 4.75 2.38 1.18 600 300 150
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sample F11

120

100
Percentage Passing

80
Lower Limit
60 Upper Limit
Sample Values
40

20

0
9.5 4.75 2.38 1.18 600 300 150
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sample F12

120

100
Percentage Passing

80
Lower Limit
60 Upper Limit
Sample Values
40

20

0
9.5 4.75 2.38 1.18 600 300 150
Sieve Size

136
 Gradation Chart for Sample F13

120

100
Percentage Passing 80
Lower Limit
60 Upper Limit
Sample Values
40

20

0
9.5 4.75 2.38 1.18 600 300 150
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sample F14

120

100
Percentage Passing

80
Lower Limit
60 Upper Limit
Sample Values
40

20

0
9.5 4.75 2.38 1.18 600 300 150
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sample F16

120

100
Percentage Passing

80
Lower Limit
60 Upper Limit
Sample Values
40

20

0
9.5 4.75 2.38 1.18 600 300 150
Sieve Size

137
 Gradation Chart for Sample F17

120

100
Percentage Passing
80
Lower Limit
60 Upper Limit
Sample Values
40

20

0
9.5 4.75 2.38 1.18 600 300 150
Sieve Size

138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
C2 Coarse Aggregates
• Coarse Aggregate Samples with nominal maximum aggregate size of
37.5 mm
Gradation Chart for Sam ple C1
120

100
Percentage Passing

80
Low er Limit
60 Upper Limit
Sample Value
40

20

0
75 37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sam ple C2

120

100
Percentage Passing

80 Lo wer Limit
Upper Limit
60 Sample Value

40

20

0
75 37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

148
 Gradation Chart for Sam ple C3

120

100
Percentage Passing
80 Lo wer Limit
Upper Limit
60 Sample Value

40

20

0
75 37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sam ple C4

120

100
Percentage Passing

80 Lo wer Limit
Upper Limit
60 Sample Value

40

20

0
75 37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sam ple C5

120

100
Percentage Passing

80 Lower Limit
Upper Limit
60 Sample Value

40

20

0
75 37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

149
 Gradation Chart for Sam ple C6

120

100
Percentage Passing
80 Lower Limit
Upper Limit
60 Sample Value

40

20

0
75 37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sam ple C9

120

100
Percentage Passing

80 Lower Limit
Upper Limit
60
Sample Value

40

20

0
75 37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sam ple C13

120

100
Percentage Passing

80 Lower Limit
Upper Limit
60
Sample Value

40

20

0
75 37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

150
 Gradation Chart for Sam ple C15
120

100
Percentage Passing
80 Lower Limit
Upper Limit
60
Sample Value

40

20

0
75 37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sam ple C16

120

100
Percentage Passing

80 Lower Limit
Upper Limit
60 Sample Value

40

20

0
75 37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sam ple C17

120

100
Percentage Passing

80 Lower Limit
Upper Limit
60 Sample Value

40

20

0
75 37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

151
 Gradation Chart for Sam ple C18
120

100
Percentage Passing
80 Lower Limit
Upper Limit
60
Sample Value

40

20

0
75 37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sam ple C21

120

100
Percentage Passing

80 Lower Limit
Upper Limit
60
Sample Value

40

20

0
75 37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sam ple C22

120

100
Percentage Passing

80 Lower Limit
Upper Limit
60 Sample Value

40

20

0
75 37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

152
 Gradation Chart for Sam ple C23

120

100
Percentage Passing
80 Lower Limit
Upper Limit
60 Sample Value

40

20

0
75 37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sam ple C24

120

100
Percentage Passing

80 Lower Limit
Upper Limit
60 Sample Value

40

20

0
75 37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sam ple C25

120

100
Percentage Passing

80 Lower Limit
Upper Limit
60 Sample Value

40

20

0
75 37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

153
 Gradation Chart for Sam ple C27

120

100
Percentage Passing
80 Lower Limit
Upper Limit
60 Sample Value

40

20

0
75 37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sam ple C31

120

100
Percentage Passing

80 Lower Limit
Upper Limit
60 Sample Value

40

20

0
75 37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sam ple C32

120

100
Percentage Passing

80 Lower Limit
Upper Limit
60
Sample Value

40

20

0
75 37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

154
 Gradation Chart for Sam ple C33

120

100
Percentage Passing
80 Lower Limit
Upper Limit
60 Sample Value

40

20

0
75 37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sam ple C34

120

100
Percentage Passing

80 Lower Limit
Upper Limit
60 Sample Value

40

20

0
75 37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

• Samples with nominal maximum aggregate size of 19.5 mm

Gradation Chart for Sam ple C7

120

100
Percentage Passing

80 Lo wer Limit

Upper Limit
60
Sample Value
40

20

0
37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

155
 Gradation Chart for Sam ple C8

120

100
Percentage Passing
80 Lo wer Limit

Upper Limit
60
Sample Value
40

20

0
37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sam ple C10

120

100
Percentage Passing

80 Lo wer Limit

Upper Limit
60
Sample Value
40

20

0
37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sam ple C11

120

100
Percentage Passing

80 Lo wer Limit

Upper Limit
60
Sample Value
40

20

0
37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

156
 Gradation Chart for Sam ple C20
120

100
Percentage Passing 80 Lo wer Limit

Upper Limit
60
Sample Value
40

20

0
37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sam ple C29

120

100
Percentage Passing

80 Lo wer Limit

Upper Limit
60
Sample Value
40

20

0
37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sam ple C30

120

100
Percentage Passing

80 Lo wer Limit

Upper Limit
60
Sample Value
40

20

0
37.5 19 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

157
• Samples with nominal maximum aggregate size of 13.5 mm
Gradation Chart for Sam ple C12
120

Percentage Passing 100

80 Lo wer Limit

Upper Limit
60
Sample Value
40

20

0
19 12.5 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sam ple C19

120

100
Percentage Passing

Lo wer Limit
80
Upper Limit
60
Sample Value
40

20

0
19 12.5 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sam ple C26

120

100
Percentage Passing

Lo wer Limit
80
Upper Limit
60
Sample Value
40

20

0
19 12.5 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

158
 Gradation Chart for Sam ple C28

120

100
Percentage Passing Lo wer Limit
80
Upper Limit
60
Sample Value

40

20

0
19 12.5 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sam ple C35

120

100
Percentage Passing

Lo wer Limit
80
Upper Limit
60
Sample Value
40

20

0
19 12.5 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

Gradation Chart for Sam ple C36

120

100
Percentage Passing

Lo wer Limit
80
Upper Limit
60
Sample Value
40

20

0
19 12.5 9.5 4.75
Sieve Size

159
Annex D
D1 Organic Impurities and silt and clay contents of the fine aggregate samples

Sample Organic Impurity Silt and Clay

(Plate Number) Content (%)
F1 2 1.98
F2 4 4.13
F3 1 8.89
F4 2 1.35
F5 2 -
F6 3 -
F7 3 -
F8 2 -
F9 2 -
F10 2 1.88
F11 1 2.60
F12 2 0.99
F13 2 1.88
F14 1 2.49
F15 1.23 -
F18 2 6.15
F19 2 5.28
F20 3 2.77
F21 2 5.36
F22 4 6.77
F23 2 4.93
F24 3 4.71
F25 2 6.37
F26 - 6.88
F27 2 6.27
F28 3 4.90
F29 3 3.56
F30 2 4.73
F31 2 2.75
F32 2 0.77
F33 1 1.50
F34 3 1.45
F35 2 4.26
F36 2 5.12
F37 3 1.16
F38 2 5.23
F39 1 3.82
F40 2 2.30
F41 1 1.49
F42 2 2.04
F43 3 5.50
F44 2 2.93
F45 3 12.62
F46 1 2.35
F47 2 2.35
ES requirement 316 <=3.0 17

16
ASTM C40
17
ES C. D3.201

160
D2 Organic Impurities and silt and caly contents of the coarse aggregate samples

Sample Silt and Clay

Content (%)
C33 1.50
C34 1.45
C35 4.26
C36 5.12
C37 1.16
Requirement 118

18
ASTM C117

161
Annex E
E1 Unit weights of the tested fine aggregate samples
Loose Compacted Unit Weight
Sample Unit Weight (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
F1 1239 1372
F2 900 1011
F3 989 1100
F4 1050 1161
F5 1111 1239
F6 1189 1338
F7 1056 1167
F8 756 850
F9 1206 1367
F10 1144 1300
F11 1383 1522
F12 1517 1667
F13 1450 1583
F14 1572 1661
F21 1150 1294
F28 998 1199
F35 1350 1450
F36 1183 1350
F40 1189 1378
F41 1417 1550
F43 1100 1133
F44 1239 1294
F45 1039 1172
Requirement 1520 - 1680 1520 - 1680

E2 Unit Weights of the tested coarse aggregate samples

Loose Unit Weight Compacted Unit Weight
Sample (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
C1 1550 1736
C2 1350 1552
C3 1312 1521
C4 1369 1562
C5 1345 1566
C6 1384 1586
C9 1276 1505
C15 1448 1671
C16 1436 1679
C18 1288 1464
C23 1590 1633
C27 1493 1716
C29 1362 1569
C31 1264 1479
C32 1414 1641
Requirement 1245 – 1825 1245 – 1825

E3 Unit Weights of the rock samples

Unit Weights
3
Designation Loose(kg/m ) Compacted(kg/m3)
R1 1464 1700
R3 1433 1691
R4 1429 1679
Requirement 1245 – 1825 1245 – 1825

162
Annex F
F1 Specific Gravity and Water Absorption of the tested fine aggregate samples
Specifc Gravity Water Absorption
Sample (%)
Bulk Bulk (SSD) Apparent
F10 2.20 2.34 2.55 5.25
F11 2.51 2.53 2.56 0.79
F12 2.64 2.67 2.72 1.18
F13 2.61 2.66 2.70 0.88
F14 2.54 2.63 2.81 3.82
F16 2.26 2.33 2.45 3.28
F17 2.40 2.49 2.62 2.54
F21 2.21 2.34 2.53 5.75
F28 2.22 2.30 2.41 3.52
F41 2.57 2.62 2.71 1.90
ES requirement 2.4 – 3.0 2.4 – 3.0 2.4 – 3.0 0.2 – 4.0

F2 Specific Gravity and Water Absorption of the tested coarse aggregate samples
Specifc Gravity
Sample Water Absorption
Bulk Bulk (SSD) Apparent
C1 2.67 2.71 2.73 0.84
C2 2.46 2.53 2.63 2.55
C3 2.57 2.58 2.61 0.57
C4 2.57 2.60 2.65 1.12
C5 2.63 2.64 2.66 0.54
C6 2.61 2.62 2.63 0.31
C9 2.53 2.56 2.60 1.11
C10 - 2.22 - 2.23
C11 - 2.75 - 1.58
C15 2.73 2.78 2.89 2.08
C16 2.71 2.74 2.79 1.07
C18 2.46 2.52 2.61 2.23
C28 2.57 2.62 2.68 0.64
C29 2.54 2.55 2.57 0.57
C31 2.47 2.50 2.56 1.38
Requirement 2.4 – 3.0 2.4 – 3.0 2.4 – 3.0 0.2 – 4.0

F3 Specific gravities and water absorption values of the rock samples

Specific Gravity Water
Designation Absorption
Bulk Bulk (SSD) Apparent
R1 2.58 2.64 2.75 2.42
R2 - - - 6.14
R3 2.69 2.73 2.80 1.45
R4 2.64 2.67 2.72 1.18
Requirement 2.4 – 3.0 2.4 – 3.0 2.4 – 3.0 0.2 – 4.0

163
ANNEX G

G1 Los Angeles Abrasion and Aggregate Crushing Values of the Coarse Aggregate
Samples

Sample Los Angeles Aggregate Crushing Flakiness

Abrasion(%) Value Index
C1 14.20 - -
C2 48.84 - -
C3 - 35 23.04
C4 - 43 23.86
C5 - 43 28.61
C6 - 40 32.68
C10 22.00 31 11.00
C11 16.00 - -
C13 15.32 - -
C14 - - -
C15 15.10 - -
C16 12.00 - -
C17 13.60 - -
C18 15.60 - -
C22 13.14 - -
C23 17.56 - -
C24 17.04 - -
C25 15.26 - -
C27 15.56 - -
C29 28.34 - -
C30 11.00 - -
C32 16.90 - -
C33 33.00 - -
C34 31.50 - -
C37 14.26 - -
Requirement <=50 <= 40 <= 35

G2 Los Angeles Abrasion values of the tested rock samples

Designation Los Angeles Soundness by Sodium Flakiness
Abrasion Value Sulphate Method Index
(%) Loss
R1 - 5.62 -
R2 30.00 - -
R3 13.26 2.09 33
R4 13.30 3.10 30
Requirement <=50 <= 12 <= 35

164
ANNEX H CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITY IN GERMANY (1995 – 2005)

(Source : The European Cement Association, Country Report 2005.)

165
DECLARATION

I, the undersigned, declare that this thesis is my original and has not been presented for a

degree in any other university, and that all sources of materials used for the thesis have been

duly acknowledged.

Name Denamo Addissie

Signature

Place Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa

Faculty of Technology

Date of submission October 2005

This thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval as a University advisor.

Name

Signature of the Advisor ___________________

Date

166