electronics

Article
All-SiC Traction Converter for Light Rail Transportation
Systems: Design Methodology and Development of
165 kVA Prototype
Doğan Yıldırım 1,2 , Mehmet Hakan Akşit 2,3 , Işık Çadırcı 3 and Muammer Ermiş 1, *

1 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Middle East Technical University,

Ankara 06800, Turkey; [email protected]
2 Transportation, Security, Energy, Automation & Healthcare Systems Business Sector, ASELSAN Inc.,
Istiklal Marsi Caddesi No. 16, Yenimahalle, Ankara 06200, Turkey; [email protected]
3 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Hacettepe University, Beytepe, Ankara 06800, Turkey;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +90-312-210-4544

Abstract: The design and development of a high-performance 165 kVA, 750 V DC all-silicon carbide
(SiC) traction converter for new generation light rail transportation systems (LRTSs) are described.
In the design of the traction motor drive, the efficiency of the overall system is maximized and the
line current harmonic content of the traction motor is minimized. A complete mathematical model
of the physical system is derived to carry out real-time simulations and proper control of the LRTS
on a real rail track. The electrical and thermal performances of traction-type SiC power MOSFET
modules are compared with those of alternative hybrid and Si-IGBT modules for various switching
frequencies. The implementation of the developed system is also described. The performance of the
resulting system is verified experimentally on a full-scale physical simulator as well as for various
Citation: Yıldırım, D.; Akşit, M.H.; track conditions. Very promising results for the next generation railway traction motor drives have
Çadırcı, I.; Ermiş, M. All-SiC Traction been obtained in terms of performance criteria, such as very high efficiency, low harmonic distortion
Converter for Light Rail of the motor line current, low cooling requirement, relatively high switching frequency, and hence,
Transportation Systems: Design superior controller performance. The effects of the SiC power MOSFET operation on the insulation
Methodology and Development of of the available traction motors are also examined experimentally. This paper is accompanied by a
165 kVA Prototype. Electronics 2022,
video demonstrating the experimental work.
11, 1438. https://doi.org/10.3390/
electronics11091438
Keywords: induction motors; pulse-width-modulated converters; rail transportation; SiC power MOSFET;
Academic Editor: Ibrahim Mohd traction motor drives
Alsofyani

Received: 30 March 2022

Accepted: 26 April 2022
1. Introduction
Published: 29 April 2022
Nowadays, high-performance railway traction converters with improved efficiency,
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
reliability, and power quality on the motor side are aimed at in design and implementation
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
works with the developments in power semiconductor technologies.
published maps and institutional affil-
A comprehensive topological overview of modern electric propulsion architectures
iations.
and configurations for railway traction, which are used in practice, has been carried out,
and the associated power semiconductor technologies from a gate turn-off thyristor (GTO)
and insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) to silicon carbide (SiC) power MOSFETs were
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
summarized in [1]. The benefits of using SiC power semiconductors in power electronics
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. applications and how SiC can be a strong and viable candidate for power electronics and
This article is an open access article system applications have been assessed in [2–6]. The potential applications and advances
distributed under the terms and enabled by wide-bandgap devices in industrial AC motor drives have also been reviewed,
conditions of the Creative Commons and the associated benefits have been highlighted in [7–9].
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// The market for automotive-grade SiC components is showing impressive growth
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ aligned with the rise in electric vehicles (EVs), with SiC power MOSFETs being used in
4.0/). traction inverters [10].

Electronics 2022, 11, 1438. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11091438 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Electronics 2022, 11, 1438 2 of 34

The design and implementation of various all-SiC voltage-source inverters for EV

applications have been reported in the literature [11–14]. A SiC-based high power density
(34 kW/L) EV traction inverter was developed for 105 ◦ C ambient temperature opera-
tions and 100 kW of peak power output [11]. The design and experimental results for a
30 kW-rated SiC inverter for EV applications, achieving 15 kW/L of volumetric density and
a 99.5% peak efficiency were presented in [12]. An optimized SiC power semiconductor-
based 2 × 250 kW dual inverter with a power density of 60 kW/L was designed and built
for traction applications, as reported in [13]. The optimization of the busbar to achieve
the minimal stray inductance has been presented in [15,16]. Similarly, the estimation,
minimization, and validation of the commutation loop inductance for a 135-kW SiC EV
traction inverter were carried out in [17]. How a traction inverter realized with SiC power
MOSFET modules can reduce inverter power losses as compared to a conventional inverter
with silicon (Si)-based IGBT and diode power modules has been demonstrated in [3–5,18].
Furthermore, in [19], a planarized, high power density 100 kW SiC traction inverter with
1kV DC-link and 1.7 kV all-SiC power MOSFET modules was developed and tested for EVs.
A 120 kW-rated SiC inverter for electric buses was also constructed, and its performance
was compared to an advanced Si-IGBT inverter [20]. The characterization of a 1200-V,
800-A all-SiC dual module designed for large-scale electric military vehicle applications
was reported in [21].
For use in railway traction converters, an outlook of SiC devices and their prospects
for developments in traction voltage-source inverters and active front-end converters were
considered in [22]. High-voltage hybrid IGBT power modules for the miniaturization
of rolling stock traction inverters were reported in [23], while energy savings using all-
SiC power modules in traction applications have been reported in [24,25]. In fact, the
development of a traction system for Shinkansen high-speed trains by adopting SiC power
devices was introduced in 2018 [26] to pursue the weight reduction and compactness of
the system. On the other hand, a state-of-the-art 3.3-kV/450-A hybrid power module for
traction inverters of rolling stock was reported in [27], combining the Si-IGBT and silicon
carbide Schottky barrier diode (SBD) chips. Furthermore, a real-time hardware-in-the-
loop emulation of a high-speed rail power system with SiC-based energy conversion was
proposed and tested in [28], while a full-scale physical simulator for light rail transportation
systems was also built with SiC power MOSFETs in [25]. A PWM control strategy suitable
for a SiC traction inverter was proposed and verified by detailed experimental tests in
terms of motor current quality, motor loss reduction, motor temperature rise, and running
noise suppression in [29], as compared to the conventional PWM control.
An integrated air-cooled, three-phase SiC power block for industry applications was
demonstrated in [16]. The characterization and scalable modeling of power semiconductors
for the optimum traction inverter design with Si and SiC devices were reported in [30]. A
comprehensive comparison of two-level, three-level, and hybrid three-level SiC inverters
in high-power, high-speed industrial drive systems was presented in [31].
In this research work, the design methodology and development of a 165 kVA,
750 V DC, 480 V l-to-l, three-phase SiC power MOSFET-based traction motor drive is
presented for future use in light rail public transportation systems (LRTSs). As far as the
authors know, the application of SiC traction converters to LRTSs has not been published
elsewhere and is not commercially available in the market yet, except for in high-speed
trains [26]. In the design of the SiC power MOSFET-based traction converter, the quan-
titative objectives chosen were: (i) higher drive efficiency, (ii) higher reliability, (iii) less
harmonic distortion in the applied motor currents, and (iv) wider current, and hence, wider
torque bandwidth, while the qualitative objectives were: (v) a simple converter topology,
(vi) lower complexity in the control and modulation methods, (vii) high switching fre-
quency to minimize audible noise, and (viii) smaller size as compared to Si-IGBT-based
commercially available traction drive alternatives for LRTSs. It must be noted that high-
current, and hence, high torque bandwidths arising from a high switching frequency of
the SiC power MOSFETs uniquely permit the application of space vector PWM (SVPWM)
Electronics 2022, 11, 1438 3 of 34

and field-oriented control over the entire operating ranges of stator frequency, output
power, and catenary voltages, whereas, with Si-IGBT-based traction converters, SVPWM
should be replaced by optimal PWM, selective harmonic elimination, or selective harmonic
mitigation methods at high operating speeds and high powers. Furthermore, field-oriented
control should be replaced by scalar control at high operating speeds owing to a reduced
switching frequency to fundamental output frequency ratio. The developed system is
optimized not only from the inverter viewpoint but also in terms of drive performance. The
utilization of 1700 V, 300 A SiC power MOSFET modules was justified by comparing their
performances in the LRTS application with those of advanced hybrid and Si-IGBT modules.
As compared to commercially available Si-IGBT-based traction motor drives, higher effi-
ciency and much lower total demand distortion have been obtained. Critical aspects of the
developed system, such as the power stage layout, the effects of the motor cable length,
and the switching characteristics of the chosen SiC power MOSFET modules on the PWM
voltage waveforms applied to the motor terminals, etc., have also been investigated. The
performance of the resulting all-SiC traction converter in the inversion and rectification
modes has been obtained experimentally on a full-scale physical simulator and found to be
quite satisfactory. Furthermore, the performance of the custom-designed control system
and SVPWM adapted to this application has been tested in real rail track conditions and
found to be superior.

2. System Description
2.1. General
A circuit diagram of a three-phase voltage-source traction converter in a light rail
public transportation system (LRTS) is shown in Figure 1. A light rail public transportation
vehicle usually contains multiple identical traction converters. The first three legs of the
converter in Figure 1 operate as a two-level voltage-source PWM inverter in the motoring
mode of operation of the three-phase squirrel-cage traction motor, and as a two-level
voltage-source PWM rectifier in the regenerative braking mode. The fourth leg of the
converter in Figure 1 was designed as a DC chopper circuit to supply controlled power to
the braking resistor during regenerative braking or the normal motoring mode of operation
whenever the DC catenary line voltage tends to exceed an overvoltage level specified in
the EN 50163-2004 standard [32]. Modern DC traction systems for tramways and local
railways should conform to the system nominal voltages of 750 V, 1500 V, or 3000 V, as
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
defined in [32]. At the present time, most LRTSs are operated by 750 V DC catenary4 lines.
of 34
Therefore, this was chosen as the nominal voltage in this research work (Appendix A).

Figure 1. Circuit diagram of a three-phase

three-phasevoltage-source
voltage-sourcetraction
tractionmotor
motorconverter
converterfor
forlight
lightrail
railpublic
pub-
lic transportation systems.
transportation systems.

2.2. Operating Characteristics of the Traction Motor Drive

A typical set of speed/torque curves of a traction motor drive is shown in Figure 2a.
In the upper half plane (Q I and Q II), the public transportation vehicle is running in the
forward direction, and therefore, the speed is positive. The vehicle can only begin to move
Electronics 2022, 11, 1438 4 of 34
Figure 1. Circuit diagram of a three-phase voltage-source traction motor converter for light rail pub-
lic transportation systems.

2.2. Operating
2.2. Operating Characteristics
Characteristics of
of the
the Traction
Traction Motor
Motor Drive
Drive
A typical
A typical set
set of
of speed/torque
speed/torquecurvescurvesof ofaatraction
tractionmotor
motordrive
driveisisshown
shownin inFigure
Figure 2a.
2a.
In the
In the upper
upperhalfhalfplane
plane(Q(QI and
I andQQ II),II),
thethe public
public transportation
transportation vehicle
vehicle is running
is running in
in the
the forward direction, and therefore, the speed is positive. The vehicle
forward direction, and therefore, the speed is positive. The vehicle can only begin to movecan only begin
to the
in move in thedirection
reverse reverse usually
direction byusually
reversing by the
reversing the phaseofsequence
phase sequence the appliedof the applied
motor volt-
motor voltages after a halt, which corresponds to an operation in the lower
ages after a halt, which corresponds to an operation in the lower half plane. The operating half plane.
The operating characteristics
characteristics correspondingcorresponding
to reverse motion to reverse
are verymotion
similarare
to very
thosesimilar to those
of forward of
oper-
forward operation; therefore, they are not
ation; therefore, they are not shown in Figure 2a. shown in Figure 2a.

Speed, nr rpm Speed, nr rpm

E D E D
4604
Q II QI Q II QI

Pm = -154 kW Pm = -154 kW

3079 C C
Pm = 140 kW
Pm = 140 kW
Pm = 125 kW
Pm = 125 kW

F 1779 A B F A B

-820 -320 0 259 434 670 750 -154 0 125 140

Shaft Torque, Tm Nm Shaft Power, Pm kW
(a) (b)

Figure
Figure 2.
2. Operating
Operating characteristics of the
characteristics of traction motor
the traction motor drive
drive for
for forward
forward motion.
motion. (a)
(a) Speed/torque
Speed/torque
characteristics; (b) speed/shaft power.
characteristics; (b) speed/shaft power.

In
In the
the Q
Q II of
of the
the upper
upper half
half plane,
plane, the
the vehicle
vehicle operates
operates in
in the
the motoring
motoring mode,
mode, whereas
whereas
in Q II, in the
the regenerative
regenerative braking
braking mode.
mode. In Q I,I, there
there are
are twotwo different
different speed/torque
speed/torque
characteristics. The one one drawn
drawnas asaasolid
solidline
linecorresponds
correspondstotothe the operation
operation of of
thethe vehicle
vehicle in
in
thethe
longlong term
term (steady-state
(steady-state operation).
operation). However,
However, the the
oneone
drawndrawn as aas a dashed
dashed line line repre-
represents
sents the dynamic
the dynamic operation
operation of theofdrive
the drive during
during the acceleration
the acceleration in thein short
the short
term.term. In gen-
In general,
eral, the power
the power ratingrating of the
of the traction
traction converter
converter as as marked
marked bybythe theoperating
operatingpoint
pointBB on on the
short-term traction motor characteristic is higher than that of the traction motor, marked by
the operating point A on the long-term operating characteristic.
It is worth noting that in a railway traction drive, the acceleration and deceleration
times are comparable to the thermal time constant of the traction converter. Moreover,
the thermal time constant of the traction motor is much higher than that of the traction
converter. Therefore, the power rating of the traction converter should not be exceeded in
the dynamic operation mode (during acceleration and deceleration). In Q I, the long-term
operating characteristic is composed of two parts: the constant torque part and constant
power region. On the other hand, the short-term operating characteristic is composed of
three parts: the torque limit, power limit, and high-speed field-weakening regions.
Short-term operation in the regenerative braking mode takes place in Q II. Therefore,
the unique speed/torque characteristic is composed of a constant torque part and a constant
power region. Since deceleration during regenerative braking takes place more rapidly
than acceleration during the motoring mode of operation, absolute values of the deceler-
ation coefficient limit and torque limit are usually higher than the acceleration limit and
corresponding torque limit. Variations in speed against the shaft power were determined
and then plotted as shown in Figure 2b.
Electronics 2022, 11, 1438 5 of 34

2.3. Mathematical Modelling

A complete mathematical model of a public transportation vehicle running on a
specific rail track is given in this subsection. The detailed derivations of mathematical
models for the physical system that carries out the real-time simulation of not only the light
rail public transportation vehicles but also of heavier vehicles, are already given in [25].
The force–balance equation on the translational motion side is shown in (1).

dv
mFsha f t = Meqv + [ Fr + Fcurve + Mgsin[α( x )]] (1)
dt
where m is the number of traction motors, Fsha f t is the tractive force per motor reflected
to the translational motion side by assuming rigid shafts, Meqv is the mass of the static
and rotating parts of the transportation vehicle, excluding motor inertias, v is the linear
speed of the vehicle, Fr is the sum of the static and dynamic resistances and drag force
acting on the vehicle, Fcurve is the curve resistance force, M is the static mass of the vehicle,
g is the gravitational acceleration, and α is the slope angle of the rail track as a function of
displacement, x, from a reference point. Meqv in (1) has three components, as shown in (2).

1 1
Meqv = M + Jgb + Jw 2 (2)
r2 r
where Jgb and Jw are the moments of inertia of all gear-boxes and wheels on the low
rotational speed side, respectively. Equation (1) can refer to the motor shaft by substituting
v = ωr/n and dividing both sides by the gear down ratio, n, and m. These yield (3), as
follows:
" !#
Meqv r2
   
dω 1 Mgr
Jm + = Tm − Tr + Tcurve + sin[α( x )] (3)
mn2 dt m n

where Jm is the motor inertia in kg-m2 , ω is the motor speed in mech-rad/s, Tm is the torque
output of each traction motor in Nm, r is the radius of the wheels in m, and Tr and Tcurve
are the load torque components owing to the train resistance and the curve resistance of
the rail track, respectively.
Tr and Tcurve are expressed as shown in (4) and (5).
h i
Tr = ( A + Bv) M + Cv2 r/n (4)

Tcurve = ( DMg/R( x )) r/n (5)

In (4) and (5), A is the friction force coefficient per unit weight of the vehicle, which
is independent of the speed, B is a constant per-unit weight of the vehicle to give a
dynamic friction force proportional to the speed, C is the air resistance coefficient that,
when multiplied by the square of the speed, gives the aerodynamic drag force acting on
the vehicle, D is the curve resistance coefficient, and R is the radius of any curve on the
rail track.
The technical specifications of the associated vehicle system that is investigated in this
paper are given in Table 1. The corresponding traction motor data, and quantified two-
quadrant operating characteristics per traction motor are given in Tables 2 and 3, respectively.
Electronics 2022, 11, 1438 6 of 34

Table 1. Technical specifications of the vehicle system and its rail track.

Parameter Values
Vehicle body structure 5 Cars, M + T + T + T + M
Number of traction motors, m 4
New wheel radius, r 300 mm
Gear ratio, n 7.5
Maximum slope 8.5%
Maximum speed 50 km/h
Acceleration up to 35 km/h 1.2 m/s2 max.
Deceleration from 50 km/h 1.3 m/s2 max.
Jerk limit 1.0 m/s3
39 tons unloaded (AW0)
Vehicle mass, M 56 tons loaded (AW3)
58 tons fully loaded (AW4)
Jgb+Jw 182 kg-m2
A 0.0405 m/s2
B 0.0023 s−1
C 3.81 kg/m
D 0.053 m
Curve radius, R 30 m (Minimum)

Table 2. Technical specifications of traction motor.

4-Pole, 60 Hz, 475 V, 125 kW, 0.81 pf (S1), η = 93.5%

Rated Torque 671 Nm
n Traction Motor Rated Speed 1779 rpm
(VEM–DKCBZ 0212-4) Max. Torque 940 Nm
Max. Speed 5100 rpm
Jm 0.67 kg-m2
Average Torque 500 Nm
Average Speed 1500 rpm
n Vehicle Demand per Average Power 80 kW
Motor for the Max. Torque 943 Nm
Chosen Track Max. Speed 2250 rpm
Max. Power 128 kW

Table 3. Quantification of all operating points in Figure 2.

Operating Converter Stator Motor Output

Stator Freq. Shaft Speed
Points in Output Power Voltage Power
(Hz) (rpm)
Figure 2 (kVA) V l-to-l (kW)
A 60 1779 165 at 0.81 pf lag 125
B 60 1774 185 at 0.81 pf lag 140
C 104 3079 170 at 0.89 pf lag 140
480
D 155 4604 154 at 0.88 pf lag 125
E 155 4604 176 at 0.81 pf lag 154
F 58 1779 172 at 0.83 pf lag 154

3. Converter Design
3.1. Design Objectives
Simple converter topology, lower complexity in the control algorithm and modulation
methods for the whole operating range, high switching frequency to minimize audible
noise, and a smaller size are the qualitative objectives in the converter design. On the
other hand, high efficiency, high reliability, less harmonic distortion in the applied motor
currents, especially in the low-order harmonic range, and a wide current, and hence, high
torque bandwidth, are the quantitative design objectives. In the design phase, the traction
Electronics 2022, 11, 1438 7 of 34

converter, which optimizes not only the initial cost/kW-converter but also the operating
cost (lower energy consumption, less maintenance), should be preferred.
Two-level classical three-phase bridge topology without parallel or series-connected
power semiconductors in all legs in conjunction with the most common space vector PWM
as the modulation technique and field-oriented control to adjust the rotor flux during
operation meet some of the design objectives given above. To complete the optimum
design work, the most suitable types of power semiconductors among Si-IGBT, hybrid
IGBT, asymmetrical IGCT, and SiC power MOSFET modules and the optimum switching
frequency for the chosen power semiconductor should be determined by carrying out
some computer simulations. In traction converters supplied with 750 V DC catenary lines,
asymmetrical IGCTs were not chosen as the main switching elements because of their
very high current and voltage ratings, which are suitable only for 1500 and 3000 V DC
catenary lines.
For 750 V DC catenaries, all traction systems should withstand 500–900 V continuously,
1000 V for 5 min, and 1000–1270 V on a straight line for durations of 1 s to 20 ms, as
recommended in Annex A of [32] and as shown in Appendix A. This makes it necessary for
the use of power semiconductors to have a standard blocking voltage capability of 1700 V.
In addition to this, the current rating of candidate power semiconductors should also be
determined initially without specifying some thermal limitations. In this application, the
maximum apparent power that will be delivered by the inverter is 185 kVA, as given in
Table 3. The associated maximum current per inverter, Imax in Appendix B, which will be
supplied from the catenary line through the LDC when the catenary line voltage is 750 V DC,
is calculated to be 200 A DC. The current through each switch (the controlled semiconductor
and its antiparallel diode) is a chopped alternating current waveform and is a combination
of the current component drawn from the catenary and the DC link capacitors. In this
application, the maximum value of the peak current through the controlled semiconductor
is 320 A while delivering 185 kVA to the traction motor at point B in Figure 2. Therefore,
the continuous DC current rating of the chosen power semiconductor should be at least
300 A by considering a small safety limit.
In this research work, Wolfspeed CAS300M17BM2 SiC power MOSFET modules
were employed in the design and implementation of the traction converter. In order to
illustrate the benefits of SiC power MOSFETs in traction motor drive applications over
new-generation IGBT-based systems, the performances of three traction converters em-
ploying Infineon FF300R17KE4P Si-IGBT, Mitsubishi CM300DY-34T Si-IGBT, and Fuji
2MSI400VAE-170-53 Hybrid IGBT were determined by considering only the thermal limita-
tions. Although these IGBT modules were developed for standard industrial applications
instead of traction applications, they were chosen in this comparison work because of
their compatible voltage and current ratings with Wolfspeed CAS300M17BM2. The sim-
ulation software of IPOSIM, Melcosim, Fuji IGBT Simulator, and Speedfit were used in
the performance calculations of FF300R17KE4P, CM300DY-34T, 2MSI400VAE-170-53, and
CAS300M17BM2, respectively, for different switching frequencies.
In AC motor drives, employing sinusoidal PWM (SPWM), discontinuous PWM
(DPWM), or SVPWM if the modulation index, Mi , is less than or equal to unity, the ratio of
the carrier frequency to the fundamental output frequency is recommended to be greater
than 21 in the literature [33,34] for an acceptable THD in motor currents. In this application,
the operating stator frequency changes from 0 to 155 Hz, as given in Table 3. Throughout
the speed control range, the carrier frequency can either be varied proportionally with the
stator frequency or can be kept constant at the value corresponding to the maximum stator
frequency. The associated carrier frequency, fC , values are shown in Table 4, specifically for
Si-IGBT-based converters.
Electronics 2022, 11, 1438 8 of 34

Table 4. Minimum values of carrier frequency against stator frequency for the operating characteris-
tics in Figure 2 for the traditional design of Si-IGBT-based converters.

Carrier Frequency, fC (Hz)

Stator Frequency, fS (Hz)
Adjustable Constant
10 1260 3255
30 1260 3255
60 1260 3255
100 2100 3255
155 3255 3255

In these simulations, the thermal resistances given in Appendix C (Table A1) were
used, and forced-air cooling by employing two sets of large standard heatsinks (one for
comparison purposes, the other one for optimum use) was assumed.
The thermal analysis based on the computer simulations was justified also by hand
calculations. Table 5 summarizes the results of the associated simulation works in detail. In
these simulations, the maximum kVA in the steady-state was considered to be 165 kVA.
The following conclusions can be drawn from these results:
• The optimum heatsink size for the SiC power MOSFET-based converter is Rth,ha =
0.018 K/W with forced-air cooling for a switching frequency range from 5 to 10 kHz.
• When the same heatsink size is used for Si-IGBTs, Tvj exceeds the pre-specified maxi-
mum operating temperature of 120 ◦ C at a switching frequency of 5 kHz. In order to
make fC = 5 kHz, a larger size heatsink of Rth,ha = 0.013 K/W should be used only for
some of the advanced Si-IGBTs.
• The hybrid IGBT can be operated at fC = 5 kHz even for Rth,ha = 0.018 K/W. Further-
more, the larger heatsink of Rth,ha = 0.013 K/W allows for its operation at fC = 10 kHz.

Table 5. Thermal performance of SiC power MOSFET modules in a traction converter as a function
of carrier frequency and stator frequency in comparison with those of hybrid and Si-IGBT modules.

S = 165 Kva, pf = 0.81 lag, Iout = 200 Arms, Vl-l = 480 Vrms, Mi = 0.905, TA = 40 ◦ C, Rth,h-a = 0.018 K/W
‡ Loss and Tvj Values Calculated for Rth, ha = 0.013 K/W

Switching Stator Si-IGBT Module Si-IGBT Module Hybrid IGBT Module

SiC MOSFET Module
Frequency, fC Frequency, (FF300R17KE4) (CM300DY-34T) (2MSI400VAE-170-53)
(CAS300M17BM2) Wolfspeed/Cree
(Hz) fs (Hz) Infineon Mitsubishi Fuji Electric

IGBT Diode IGBT Diode IGBT Diode MOSFET Diode

Sw. Cond. Sw. Cond. Sw. Cond. Sw. Cond. Sw. Cond. Sw. Cond. Sw. Cond. Sw. Cond.

Loss (W) 51 163 17 33 50 170 12 50 48 142 6 30 - - - -

1260 60
Tvj (◦ C) 94.3 75.5 84.7 76.5 77.9 73.1 - -

Loss (W) 143 168 47 33 135 177 37 49 127 145 14 31 - - -

3255 60
Tvj (◦ C) 117.1 92.4 108.2 95.8 91.2 83.8 -

Loss (W) 142 169 46 31.7 135 177 36 49 126 145 14 31 - - - -

3255 155
Tvj (◦ C) 115.2 91.1 108.2 95.8 90.2 83.4 - -

240 174 82 34 218 150 48 41

Loss (W) 199 148 22 31 20 263 - 14
(205) (143) (74) (28) (218) (150) (48) (41)
5000 60
141.9 110.7 131.2 115.8
Tvj (◦ C) 103.4 93.5 109.2 90.2
(127.6) ‡ (101.2) ‡ (117.5) ‡ (102.1) ‡

237 174 79 32 218 150 48 41

Loss (W) 199 148 22 31 19 262 - 14
(204) (144) (69) (27) (218) (150) (48) (41)
5000 155
138.2 107.7 131.2 115.8
Tvj (◦ C) 102.1 93.1 108 89
(124.9) ‡ (99.1) ‡ (117.5) ‡ (102.1) ‡

450 157 42 32
Loss (W) 591 190 260 35 416 177 113 49 44 271 - 14
(363) (128) (41) (27)
10,000 60 145 126.2
Tvj (◦ C) >200 191.6 186 163.4 115.7 95
(116.3) ‡ (101.6) ‡

446 156 42 32
Loss (W) 591 191 258 34 416 177 113 49 42 270 - 13
(362) (127) (41) (26)
10,000 155
142.4 125.2
Tvj (◦ C) >200 185.2 186 163.4 114.8 93.8
(114.6) ‡ (101.1) ‡
Electronics 2022, 11, 1438 9 of 34

3.2. Preliminary Considerations for Optimum Carrier Frequency

Si-IGBT and hybrid IGBT modules have a maximum allowable virtual junction tem-
perature of 150 ◦ C, while for the SiC power MOSFET, it is 175 ◦ C. In LRTS applications,
the operating point of the vehicle and its traction converters rapidly change over a wide
operating area. Therefore, the peak value of the virtual junction temperature should not
exceed 120 ◦ C during intermittent operation for a longer semiconductor life cycle and
higher reliability. As can be understood from Table 5, FF300R17KE4P, CM300DY-34T,
and 2MSI400VAE-170-53 can be operated safely up to switching frequencies of 3255 Hz,
3255 Hz, and 5000 Hz, respectively. The SiC power MOSFET, however, can be operated
at much higher switching frequencies in this application, i.e., over 10 kHz, as is proven
later in Section 5.1. The Si-IGBT and hybrid IGBT modules considered in Table 5 do not
have packages suitable for LRTS applications because of their Ni-coated Cu baseplates.
The use of Cu as a base plate material is common in standard industry applications for
its well-known advantages with regard to easy mechanical handling and high thermal
conductivity. However, its major disadvantage in traction applications where the power
semiconductors are subjected to a high number of thermal and power cycles is the mis-
match of the coefficient of thermal expansion to the ceramic substrates [35], which usually
destroys some of the power semiconductors in the long term.
On the other hand, an AlSiC baseplate is expected to be integrated into the traction-
type SiC power MOSFET modules in the near future. This new technology will provide
high-reliability solutions for the thermal management of power semiconductors employed
in traction applications, with nearly half the thermal expansion coefficient compared to Cu,
in contrast to a thermal resistance that is twice as high [36]. If the IGBT modules in Table 5
were furnished with AlSiC baseplates, the virtual junction temperatures would be higher
and the maximum switching frequency could be considerably lower because of their nearly
twice-as-big junction-to-heatsink thermal resistance values.
Infineon FF650R17IE4D_B2, F600R17KE3_B2, Mitsubishi CM800DZB-34N, and Fuji
Electric 2MBI600VG-170E-50 are the smallest 1700 V modules developed specifically for
traction applications. Their current ratings are 650 A, 600 A, 800 A, and 600 A, respectively,
and they are furnished with AlSiC baseplates. In this application, they can be switched
at higher frequencies at the expense of a bigger traction converter size and higher initial
cost. It is also worth noting that the virtual junction temperatures in Table 5 are the peak
values. The peak-to-peak ripple of the virtual junction temperature in a traction converter
depends on the output frequency of the converter. As the output frequency is increased
while keeping the power output nearly the same, the peak value of the virtual junction
temperature in Table 5 slightly decreases, as expected.
A further advantage of SiC power MOSFETs over hybrid and Si-IGBTs is their ability
to conduct a reverse current, thus reducing the conduction loss at relatively high operating
powers. An electrical connection diagram of the first leg of the traction converter and the
associated all-SiC half-bridge module are shown in Figure 3a,b, respectively. Low device
currents in the reverse direction are carried only by the SiC power MOSFET chip. However,
high device currents in the reverse direction are shared between the SiC power MOSFET
chip and the SiC Schottky diode chip. The transition point for the device current mentioned
above can be expressed as in (6).

− i DS xRds(on) ≥ VF(th) (6)

where i DS is the instantaneous value of the drain-to-source current, Rds(on) the equivalent
resistance of the SiC power MOSFET chip during conduction, and VF(th) is the threshold
forward voltage drop of the SiC Schottky diode.
Electronics 2022,11,
Electronics2022, 11,1438
x FOR PEER REVIEW 10
11 of
of3434

Figure3.3.Electrical
Figure Electrical connection
connection diagram
diagram of CAS300M17BM2
of CAS300M17BM2 SiC SiC
powerpower MOSFET
MOSFET module.
module. (a) Elec-
(a) Electrical
trical connection
connection diagram diagram
(the two(the two MOSFET
MOSFET chips and chips
theirand their anti-parallel
anti-parallel SiC Schottky
SiC Schottky diodes arediodes are
labeled
labeled as in the first leg of the traction converter in Figure 1); (b) the associated all-SiC half-bridge
as in the first leg of the traction converter in Figure 1); (b) the associated all-SiC half-bridge module.
module.
(1) Common (1) source/drain
Common source/drain
point, (2) point,
Source,(2)
(3)Source,
Drain, (3) Drain,
(4,6) Gate,(4,6)
(5,7)Gate, (5,7)
Kelvin Kelvin source.
source.

The current sharing between the MOSFET and Schottky diode chips when both of
them are conducting can be formulated as shown in (7). The forward conduction voltage
drop, VF , of the SiC Schottky diode depends on the forward current, i D , and its virtual
junction temperature, Tvj , while the VF(th) depends only on the Tvj .

−VF + iS1 rdiode −VF − iS1 Rds(on)

i DS1 = i D1 = (7)
Rds(on) + rdiode Rds(on) + rdiode

In Figure 4, the current waveforms through S1, D1, S4, and D4 on the SiC power MOSFET-
based inverter are compared with those of the Si-IGBT-based inverter. In Figure 4a,b, the
Si-IGBT-based inverter is delivering 173 kVA at 0.81 pf to the motor stator. Corresponding
current waveforms for the same operating point in the SiC power MOSFET-based inverter
are as shown in Figure 4c,d. On the negative half-cycle of the line current iA (t), the negative
current is shared between the SiC MOSFET chip and its anti-parallel SiC Schottky diode.
Since the forward voltage drop of the body diode of the SiC power MOSFET is much higher
than that of the SiC anti-parallel Schottky diode, the body diode carries a negligibly small
current. The SiC anti-parallel Schottky diode is formed separately and placed into the
same package, as can be understood from Figure 3. On the other hand, when the current
delivered by the SiC power MOSFET inverter is relatively low, almost all of the reverse
currents will flow through the SiC MOSFET chip, as can be understood from Figure 4e,f.
In this application, the transition between these two modes occurs when the output
power of the inverter tends to exceed 75 kVA. If there was no reverse conduction ability
of the SiC MOSFET chip, all of the reverse currents would flow through the anti-parallel
Schottky diode, as in the case of a Si-IGBT. This would increase the total conduction loss
of the traction inverter by nearly 80 W when it is supplied with Vdc = 750 V and delivers
480 V l-to-l, 173 kVA at 0.81 pf to the stator.

Figure 4. Current waveforms of S1, D1, S4, and D4 in Figure 3a, obtained by MATLAB/Simulink
when the traction inverter is supplied with 750 V DC and applies 480 V l-to-l at 60 Hz to the stator.
(a,b) Si-IGBT-based converter supplies 173 kVA at 0.81 pf; (c,d) SiC power MOSFET-based converter
supplies 173 kVA at 0.81 pf, and (e,f) SiC power MOSFET-based converter supplies 75 kVA at 0.29
pf.
 Figure 3. Electrical connection diagram of CAS300M17BM2 SiC power MOSFET module. (a) Elec-
trical connection diagram (the two MOSFET chips and their anti-parallel SiC Schottky diodes are
Electronics 2022, 11, 1438 11 of 34
labeled as in the first leg of the traction converter in Figure 1); (b) the associated all-SiC half-bridge
module. (1) Common source/drain point, (2) Source, (3) Drain, (4,6) Gate, (5,7) Kelvin source.

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Current
Current waveforms
waveforms of of S1,
S1, D1,
D1, S4,
S4, and
andD4
D4ininFigure
Figure3a,3a,obtained
obtainedby byMATLAB/Simulink
MATLAB/Simulink
when the traction inverter is supplied with 750 V DC and applies 480 V l-to-l at 60
when the traction inverter is supplied with 750 V DC and applies 480 V l-to-l at 60 Hz
Hz to
to the
the stator.
stator.
(a,b) Si-IGBT-based converter supplies 173 kVA at 0.81 pf; (c,d) SiC power MOSFET-based
(a,b) Si-IGBT-based converter supplies 173 kVA at 0.81 pf; (c,d) SiC power MOSFET-based converter converter
supplies 173 kVA at 0.81 pf, and (e,f) SiC power MOSFET-based converter supplies 75 kVA at 0.29
supplies 173 kVA at 0.81 pf, and (e,f) SiC power MOSFET-based converter supplies 75 kVA at 0.29 pf.
pf.
3.3. Application of Space Vector PWM
In most variable-frequency AC motor drive applications, SVPWM is preferred as the
carrier-based continuous modulation technique by designers. This is because of (i) a higher
DC bus voltage utilization, (ii) relatively low TDD for the line current waveforms, (iii) the
simplicity and easiness in the implementation, and (iv) the utilization of fixed switching
frequency as the common approach. The application of SVPWM to the traction converter
of LRTS described in this paper is summarized in Figure 5.
As a common approach for general-purpose PWM converters in the literature [34],
the minimum carrier frequency should be chosen as 21 f s (max ) = 21 × 155 = 3255 Hz
in order to obtain a reasonably low TDD for the line currents. Nowadays, the common
switching frequency of Si-IGBT-based traction converters of LRTS systems is around 2 kHz.
This yields 33 pulses in one complete cycle of a rated stator frequency of 60 Hz, while
only 13 pulses when the fs is at its maximum value of 155 Hz. This pulse number in one
complete cycle of the applied stator voltage waveform is very low, and hence, causes
high line current harmonics and torque ripple, thus adversely affecting the stability of the
motor drive. To avoid these drawbacks of a low switching frequency, a more complicated
control philosophy and control system are needed in addition to replacing the SVPWM
with preprogrammed modulation methods such as the OPWM, SHEPWM, SHMPWM, etc.,
at high stator frequencies, and hence, shaft speeds. Alternatively, much higher switching
frequencies can inherently eliminate this problem, e.g., there will be 64 pulses in one
complete cycle of f s = 155 Hz if the fC is set to 10 kHz. This can be achieved by the use of
 In this application, the transition between these two modes occurs when the output
power of the inverter tends to exceed 75 kVA. If there was no reverse conduction ability
of the SiC MOSFET chip, all of the reverse currents would flow through the anti-parallel
Electronics 2022, 11, 1438 Schottky diode, as in the case of a Si-IGBT. This would increase the total conduction 12 of 34
loss
of the traction inverter by nearly 80 W when it is supplied with Vdc = 750 V and delivers
480 V l-to-l, 173 kVA at 0.81 pf to the stator.
SiC power MOSFETs instead of Si-IGBTs. This is why SVPWM could be successfully applied
3.3. Application
over of Space Vector
the entire operating rangePWM
of a SiC traction motor drive in this research work. With the
advance In most variable-frequency technology,
in SiC power MOSFET AC motor drive theseapplications,
kinds of traction
SVPWM motor converters
is preferred as are
the
expected to be supplied not only from 750 V DC but also from 1500 and
carrier-based continuous modulation technique by designers. This is because of (i) a 3000 V DC catenary
lines.
higherInDC thebus
application of SVPWM
voltage utilization, (ii)asrelatively
the modulation
low TDD technique, operating
for the line regions are
current waveforms,
shown
(iii) the simplicity and easiness in the implementation, and (iv) the utilization ofoffixed
by colored circular areas in Figure 6 in terms of the DC catenary voltage the
minimum
switching value in Figure
frequency as the6a, the rated
common value in The
approach. Figure 6b, and the
application maximum
of SVPWM to continuous
the traction
value in Figure 6c.
converter of LRTS described in this paper is summarized in Figure 5.

vAn(ref) vBn(ref) vCn(ref)

Voltage Magnitude, pu

Reference line-to-neutral voltage signals

for modulation index, Mi=0.905 to give 480 V
l-to-l voltage output at fs = 155 Hz when Vdc = 750 V.

Carrier signal, its frequency is fc = 3255 Hz for

illustration (in the implementation fc = 10 kHz).

Time, ms
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Figure 5. Application of SVPWM to the traction converter of LRTS described in this paper. 13 of 34
Figure 5. Application of SVPWM to the traction converter of LRTS described in this paper.

As a common approach for general-purpose PWM converters in the literature [34],

the minimum carrier frequency should be chosen as 21𝑓 (𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 21 × 155 = 3255 Hz
in order to obtain a reasonably low TDD for the line currents. Nowadays, the common
switching frequency of Si-IGBT-based traction converters of LRTS systems is around 2
kHz. This yields 33 pulses in one complete cycle of a rated stator frequency of 60 Hz, while
only 13 pulses when the fs is at its maximum value of 155 Hz. This pulse number in one
complete cycle of the applied stator voltage waveform is very low, and hence, causes high
line current harmonics and torque ripple, thus adversely affecting the stability of the mo-
tor drive. To avoid these drawbacks of a low switching frequency, a more complicated
control philosophy and control system are needed in addition to replacing the SVPWM
with preprogrammed modulation methods such as the OPWM, SHEPWM, SHMPWM,
etc., at high stator frequencies, and hence, shaft speeds. Alternatively, much higher
switching frequencies can inherently eliminate this problem, e.g., there will be 64 pulses
in one complete cycle of 𝑓 = 155 Hz if the fC is set to 10 kHz. This can be achieved by the
Figure 6.Hexagons
Hexagonscontaining
containing coloreddiscs discsrepresent
representvariable
variablespeedspeedoperating
operatingregions
regionsbounded
bounded
Figure
use of6.SiC power MOSFETscolored instead of Si-IGBTs. This is why SVPWM could be success-
by(a)
by (a)VVdc (min)
(min) == 600
600 VV (M
(M i = 1 can give only 424 V l-to-l), (b) Vdc (rated) = 750 V (Mi = 0.9 to give 480
= 1 can give only 424 V l-to-l), (b) V (rated) = 750 V (M = 0.9 to give
fully applied
dc over the entire i operating range of a SiC traction dc motor drive in ithis research
V l-to-l),
480 V andand
l-to-l), (c) V dc (max) = 900 V (Mi = 0.75 to give 480 V l-to-l).
(c) V (max) = 900 V (M = 0.75 to give 480 V l-to-l).
work. With the advance dc in SiC poweri MOSFET technology, these kinds of traction motor
converters are
Furthermore, the expected to be supplied
the frequency not only from 750 inverter,
V DC butand also from 1500 and
Furthermore, frequency and andoutput
outputvoltage
voltageofofthe the inverter, andapparent
apparent andandac-
3000 V
tive power DC catenary
consumed lines.
from In the
thethe application
inverter of
by the SVPWM
traction as
motor the modulation
all change technique,
during the oper-op-
active power consumed from inverter by the traction motor all change during the
erating
ation ofregions
the are shown by colored circular areas in Figure 6 in terms of the DC catenary
operation of LRTS.
the LRTS.
voltage isofnot
the minimum value in Figureapplied 6a, the rated value in Figure 6b, and the maximum
ItIt is not possible to create aa rated rated appliedmotor motorvoltage
voltageofof480 480VVl-to-l
l-to-linin
thethelinear
lin-
continuous
modulation value
region in Figure
(M ≤ 1) 6c.
when the DC catenary voltage is at its minimum value, V dc =
ear modulation region (Mi ≤ 1) when the DC catenary voltage is at its minimum value,
i

600 V. The rated motor voltage can only be obtained by

Vdc = 600 V. The rated motor voltage can only be obtained by operating the converter over operating the converter over the
modulation
the modulation region,
region, whichwhich makesmakesfield-oriented
field-oriented control
controlalgorithm
algorithmveryvery
complicated.
complicated. Fur-
thermore, operation
Furthermore, operation at Vatdc V = dc
600 V reduces
= 600 V reducesthe rated
the ratedpower power transfer capability
transfer of the
capability ofcon-
the
verter by 20%.
converter by 20%.ThisThis is because,
is because, as found
as foundin [37] (Figure
in [37] (FigureA2 in A2Appendix
in Appendix B), theB),maximum
the maxi-
current
mum that can
current thatbecandelivered
be deliveredby the by converter is defined
the converter for the rated
is defined for thevalue
ratedofvalue
the catenary
of the
catenary Vdc = 750VV.
voltage, voltage, dc = 750
The V. The
operation operation
of the of the
railway railway
vehicle vehicle
is also is also permissible
permissible for for
the the
cate-
catenary
nary voltage voltage levels
levels fromfrom 600 600to to 500
500 VVDC, DC,but
butwithwithaasignificant
significant reduction
reduction in the the amount
amount
of
ofthe
thepower
powerthat thatcancanbe bedelivered
deliveredfrom fromthe theconverter.
converter.The Theoperating
operatingregion
regionin inFigure
Figure6b 6b
corresponds to the rated catenary voltage of 750 V DC, for which the rated motor voltage
of 480 V l-to-l can be obtained with a modulation index of Mi = 0.9. The Mi should be re-
duced to 0.75 in order to give the rated motor voltage when the catenary voltage is at its
continuous maximum value of 900 V DC, as illustrated in Figure 6c. Intermittent operation
takes place when the Vdc tends to exceed 900 V DC, as seen in Figure A1, Appendix A.
Electronics 2022, 11, 1438 13 of 34

corresponds to the rated catenary voltage of 750 V DC, for which the rated motor voltage
of 480 V l-to-l can be obtained with a modulation index of Mi = 0.9. The Mi should be
reduced to 0.75 in order to give the rated motor voltage when the catenary voltage is at its
continuous maximum value of 900 V DC, as illustrated in Figure 6c. Intermittent operation
takes place when the Vdc tends to exceed 900 V DC, as seen in Figure A1, Appendix A.

3.4. Controller
The block diagram of the custom-designed digital control system is shown in Figure 7.
It is implemented on the TMS320F28377 DSP platform. The major task of the control
system is to maintain the operation of the traction motor drive in safe operating areas in
the first and second quadrants of the speed–torque plane in Figure 2a, according to the
torque reference signal, Tre f , sent by the driver in the manual operation mode or by the
communication-based train control (CBTC) system in the automatic operation mode. This
is achieved in the control system by simultaneously running the following facilities:
(i) Field-oriented control is implemented to keep the rotor flux constant from zero
speed to rated speed, whereas field weakening is applied above the rated speed by control-
ling the direct axis component of the motor current, Idre f .
(ii) The Id and Iq components of the stator currents are calculated from the actual
currents, i A , i B , and iC , by the successive application of phase and commutator transforma-
tions. Commutator transformation requires the variations in θe in time. If the stator currents
are all purely sinusoidal and the motor is operating in steady-state, Id and Iq would be pure
DC currents that correspond to a constant amplitude MMF wave rotating at a constant
speed, the so-called the synchronous speed, ωe . The electromechanical torque, Te , is kept
under control by varying the quadrature axis component, as expressed in (8). As can be
understood from Figure 7, Iqre f is directly related to Idre f and Te , as in (8).

2 1 Lr0 Tre f
Iqre f = (8)
3 pp L2M Idre f

where Lr0 is the rotor self-inductance per phase referred to the stator, L M is the magnetizing
inductance, and pp is the number of the pole pairs.
Lr0 can be related to L M , as in (9), in terms of the rotor leakage inductance referring to
the stator, L0lr .
Lr0 = L M + L0lr (9)
(iii) Although the traction converter is a voltage-source converter (VSC), the direct
and quadrature axis components, and hence, the actual stator currents, iA , iB , and iC , are
controlled by applying the appropriate line-to-neutral, and hence, line-to-line voltages to
the stator terminals. The PI controllers in Figure 7 tend to make the actual Id equal to Idre f ,
and the actual Iq equal to Iqre∗ . The I
f dre f is a motor-dependent quantity to set the rotor
flux. as explained in (i). The Iqre f is calculated from the Tre f and Idre f in terms of the motor
parameters, Lr0 and L M . The core saturation affects the L M , and hence, the Iqre f in (8). The
Iqre f is then updated by the action of the active damping system to give Iqre ∗ .
f
(iv) Line current waveforms may contain low- and high-frequency harmonic compo-
nents. High-frequency harmonics changing with the switching frequency and its multiples
are successfully filtered out by the analog filters included in the current sense circuits.
Slightly non-identical motor parameters, semiconductor characteristics, and non-idealities
cause the production of low-order super-harmonics. These harmonic components will
then be reflected to the Id and Iq . Since the sampling and switching frequencies of the
traction converter are high ( f sw = 10 kHz), the bandwidth of the control system is wide,
and hence, the low-order harmonics in Id and Iq are satisfactorily filtered out by the PI
controllers after comparing them with the purely DC reference signals, Idre f and Iqre ∗ . If it
f
was an HV-IGBT-based converter, the fc could be in a lower range, from about 1.5 to 3 kHz.
This causes the existence of low-order harmonics in the Id and Iq , with higher magnitudes.
Therefore, some further reference frames that rotate synchronously at individual harmonic
 Electronics 2022, 11, 1438 14 of 34

frequencies and the corresponding PI controllers for each low-order significant harmonic
component might be necessary for the implementation. The PI controllers in Figure 7
create the necessary gating signals for the SiC power MOSFETs through the use of dq-to-αβ
transformation and the SVPWM signal generation. A brief description of the application
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 34
of SVPWM to the variable speed operation of the traction motor in a wide range is given
in Figure 6.

Figure
Figure7.7.Block
Blockdiagram
diagram of
of the digital control
the digital controlsystem
systemwith
withspace
spacevector
vector PWM,
PWM, active
active damping,
damping, andand
field-oriented control.
field-oriented control.

(i)(v)Field-oriented
The speed of the control is implemented
rotating magnetic field to in keep the rotor
the airgap, ωe , isflux constant
calculated by from
addingzero
speed
the slipto rated sωe , towhereas
speed,speed, the rotorfield weakening
speed, is appliedThe
ωre , in elec.rad/s. above thespeed
rotor ratedisspeed by con-
calculated
from the
trolling themeasurements of the shaft
direct axis component ofencoder
the motor with 𝐼
a 160-tooth
current, .encoder wheel. The sωe is
∗ the Rr0 currents
and Lr0 asare
computed 𝐼 and
(ii) Thefrom the I𝐼dre fcomponents
and Iqre f in terms
of theofstator shown in (10). from the actual
calculated
currents, 𝑖 , 𝑖 , and 𝑖 , by the successive application ∗
of phase and commutator transfor-
mations. Commutator transformation requiresRr0 Iqre
thef variations in 𝜃 in time. If the stator
sωe = 0 (10)
currents are all purely sinusoidal and the motor Lr Idref is operating in steady-state, 𝐼 and 𝐼
would be pure DC currents that correspond to a constant amplitude MMF wave rotating
The rotor resistance per phase, referring to the stator, Rr0 , is compensated by the rotor
at a constant speed, the so-called the synchronous speed,∗ 𝜔 . The electromechanical
temperature estimation from the PT100 measurement Ts . The Iqre f is related to the Iqre f , as
torque, 𝑇 , is kept under control by varying the quadrature axis component, as expressed
in (11).
in (8). As can be understood from Figure ∗ 7, 𝐼 n is directly related to 𝐼 and 𝑇 , as in
Iqre f = a Iqre f (11)
(8).
2 1 𝐿 𝑇
𝐼 = (8)
3 𝑝𝑝 𝐿 𝐼
where 𝐿 is the rotor self-inductance per phase referred to the stator, 𝐿 is the magnet-
izing inductance, and 𝑝𝑝 is the number of the pole pairs.
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 3

Electronics 2022, 11, 1438 15 of 34

the AC voltage on the 𝐶 will then be amplified significantly, resulting in destructiv

effects on the system components. Therefore, resonance or amplification risks∗ of the inpu
The control system calculates the ratio of the unfiltered, vdc (t), to the filtered, Vdc (t),
filter should
values, be avoided
as expressed in (12). by adding a significant damping effect to the input filter. Th
conventional solution is the additiona = vdc (of
t)/V a sufficiently
∗ large series resistance(12)
or a sma
dc ( t )
shunt resistance to the circuit of the input ∗ ( t ), isfilter. Unfortunately, these passive dampin
The filtered DC link voltage signal, Vdc obtained by using a digital notch filter,
techniques are dissipative and, therefore, rarely used in modern systems. In this researc
the transfer characteristic of which is shown in Figure 8. It provides an effective filtering
work, activeindamping,
performance which
the frequency is equivalent
range of 16 Hz to 68.6 to connecting a virtual
Hz. The active dissipative
damping circuitry elemen
modifies the set value of Iq by defining the new set value as in (11). A is a real harmonics
was implemented to suppress the generated uncharacteristic current number at o
aroundunity,
around the resonance frequency
and its optimum powervia the control
coefficient, n = 11, system, andby
was found thereby, the power
the simulations andcircuit o
the traction
verified converter.
experimentally.

Input
Filter

Digital Notch
32.8 Hz Filter
47.5 Hz
68.6 Hz
16 Hz

Frequency, Hz
Figure8.8.Transfer
Figure Transfer characteristics
characteristics ofinput
of the the input
powerpower filter
filter and and notch
digital digitalfilter
notch filteragainst
plotted plotted against th
the
same frequency
same frequency range.range.

3.5. (vi) TheFilter

Input design of the input filter consisting of the series Ldc and shunt Cdc and having
Design
a corner frequency of 50 Hz is described in the next subsection. Nonlinearities, non-ideal
A low-pass
operating conditions,second-order
and non-identical𝐿 𝐶systemfilterparameters
is to be used on the
on both thecatenary
DC sideline of and
the tractio
converters
the in LRTSs,
traction inverter sidesasmay
shown in Figure
produce 7. The basic
inter-harmonics at orfunctions of these input
near the resonance filters are (i
frequency
to suppress the transient voltage components produced on
of 32 Hz and be superimposed on the Vdc . The AC current through the Ldc and the AC the DC catenary side; (ii) t
enact the
voltage 𝐶 Cdcaswill
on the an then
energy storage significantly,
be amplified element to maintain
resulting inthe input voltage
destructive effects onof the
the tractio
system
convertercomponents.
during ~3–4Therefore, resonance
ms bouncing or amplification
periods risks of thewhile
of the pantograph input the
filterLRTS
should is runnin
be avoided by adding a significant damping effect to the input filter. The
on the rails; in such periods, the pantograph is displaced from the catenary line, and hence conventional
solution is the converter
the traction addition ofdraws
a sufficiently large series
the energy storedresistance or a to
in 𝐶 ; (iii) small shunt
limit the resistance
rate of the rise o
to the circuit of the input filter. Unfortunately, these passive damping techniques are
currents as a result of short circuits occurring on the traction converter side; this i
dissipative and, therefore, rarely used in modern systems. In this research work, active
achievedwhich
damping, by using a sufficiently
is equivalent large series
to connecting inductor,
a virtual dissipative𝐿 element,
, whichwas provides the safe opera
implemented
tion
to of thethe
suppress DCgenerated
contactor while clearingcurrent
uncharacteristic the fault; (iv) toatfilter
harmonics out 600
or around theHz voltage ripple
resonance
and their multiples generated by the rectifiers that supply the DC
frequency via the control system, and thereby, the power circuit of the traction converter. power to the catenar
line or third rail since they are usually 12-pulse uncontrolled rectifiers; and (v) to suppres
3.5. Input Filter Design
time-varying low-frequency harmonics (especially 100 Hz and its multiples) that are su
low-pass the catenaryLvoltage
perimposed onsecond-order
A dc Cdc filter
and,is at
to the
be used
sameontime,
the DC side of
injected the the
from traction
traction con
converters in LRTSs,
verter side [38,39]. as shown in Figure 7. The basic functions of these input filters are
(i) to suppress the transient voltage components produced on the DC catenary side; (ii) to
In view of the above considerations, the 𝐶 and 𝐿 values are expressed as show
enact the Cdc as an energy storage element to maintain the input voltage of the traction
in (13) and (14).
converter during ~3–4 ms bouncing periods of the pantograph while the LRTS is running
on the rails; in such periods, the pantograph𝐼 is displaced Δ𝑡 = 𝐶 from Δ𝑉 the catenary line, and hence, (13
the traction converter draws the energy stored in Cdc ; (iii) to limit the rate of the rise of
where as
currents Δ𝑡a is the of
result bouncing period
short circuits during
occurring onwhich the DC
the traction link voltage
converter side; thisdrops by Δ𝑉 owin
is achieved
to the charge 𝐼
by using a sufficientlyΔ𝑡 extracted from 𝐶 dc
large series inductor, L , for the 𝐼
, which provides
defined in Appendix B.the
the safe operation of
DC contactor of 𝐼the fault;
while clearing
The substitution = 200(iv)Ato, Δ𝑡 =4
filter ms600
out Δ𝑉 = 750
Hz voltage
, and − 600
ripples and=their
150 V give
multiples generated by the rectifiers that supply the DC power to the
the minimum 𝐶 = 5.3 mF. 𝐶 = 5.9 mF is then formed by using a 4.7 mF heavy-curren catenary line or third
capacitor for traction application and paralleling it with six 200 µF metalized polypropyl
ene film capacitors distributed on the laminated DC bus of the traction converter. Th
resonance frequency 𝑓 is set to 32 Hz, which is sufficiently lower than the 50 or 60 H
Electronics 2022, 11, 1438 16 of 34

rail since they are usually 12-pulse uncontrolled rectifiers; and (v) to suppress time-varying
low-frequency harmonics (especially 100 Hz and its multiples) that are superimposed on
the catenary voltage and, at the same time, injected from the traction converter side [38,39].
In view of the above considerations, the Cdc and Ldc values are expressed as shown in
(13) and (14).
Imax ∆t = Cdc ∆V (13)
where ∆t is the bouncing period during which the DC link voltage drops by ∆V owing to
the charge Imax ∆t extracted from Cdc , for the Imax defined in Appendix B.
The substitution of Imax = 200 A, ∆t = 4 ms, and ∆V = 750 − 600 = 150 V gives the
minimum Cdc = 5.3 mF. Cdc = 5.9 mF is then formed by using a 4.7 mF heavy-current
capacitor for traction application and paralleling it with six 200 µF metalized polypropylene
film capacitors distributed on the laminated DC bus of the traction converter. The resonance
frequency f 0 is set to 32 Hz, which is sufficiently lower than the 50 or 60 Hz grid frequency
and sufficiently higher than the 10 Hz frequency, as recommended in [38–40]. The Ldc is,
therefore, determined to be 4 mH, from (14).
h i
Ldc = 1/ (2π f 0 )2 Cdc (14)

The transfer characteristic of the resulting input filter is plotted in Figure 8 against the
same frequency range as the digital notch filter used in the active damping circuitry. The
unity gain is obtained at f tr = 47.5 Hz for the input filter. Harmonic frequencies lower than
f tr (in fact, lower than 68.6 Hz) are successfully suppressed by active filtering action via
the digital notch filter. Low-order and high-frequency harmonics, including the switching
frequency, its side bands, and multiples, appearing on both the catenary and traction sides
are successfully suppressed by the input filter.

4. Implementation
Figure 9 shows the all-SiC power MOSFET-based three-phase, variable-frequency and
variable-voltage traction converter developed in this research work. In the implementation
of the power stage, top-to-top mounting technology is preferred in order to minimize the
wiring and cabling inductances and maximize the volume utilization. The four layers of
the power stage are shown in Figure 10.
SiC power MOSFETs have very fast turn-on and turn-off transitions, resulting in
the generation of high di/dt and dv/dt at many points of the power circuitry. Since SiC
power MOSFETs are switched on and off at much higher frequencies in comparison to
those of Si-IGBTs, their utilization would be worsened i.e., an increase in the switching
losses during turn-off, as well as in the voltage and current overshoots, and a ringing
phenomenon would occur during turn-on and -off in cases where the parasitics were not
minimized in the design phase. This is the main reason why special attention was paid to
the design of the power stage and laminated busbars, as illustrated in Figures 9 and 10.
Furthermore, the gate-drivers are positioned very close to gate–source terminals of the
SiC power MOSFETs, as shown in Figures 9a,b and 10a in order to decrease the parasitics.
The increased resistance of the gate-driver could be an alternative countermeasure at the
expense of slower turn-on and -off.
 traction sides are successfully suppressed by the input filter.

4. Implementation
Figure 9 shows the all-SiC power MOSFET-based three-phase, variable-frequency
and variable-voltage traction converter developed in this research work. In the implemen-
Electronics 2022, 11, 1438 tation of the power stage, top-to-top mounting technology is preferred in order to mini- 17 of 34
mize the wiring and cabling inductances and maximize the volume utilization. The four
layers of the power stage are shown in Figure 10.

Figure 9. The developed all-SiC power MOSFET-based traction converter. (a) Front view, (b) top
Figure 9. The developed all-SiC power MOSFET-based traction converter. (a) Front view, (b) top
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
view, and (c) traction motor-loading generator set. 18 of 34
view, and (c) traction motor-loading generator set.

Figure Power
10.Power
Figure 10. stage
stage of traction
of traction converter.
converter. (a)layer,
(a) Top Top (b)
layer, (b)
third third
layer, (c)layer,
second(c) second
layer, layer, (d) bottom
(d) bot-
tom layer.
layer.
SiC power MOSFETs have very fast turn-on and turn-off transitions, resulting in the
generation of high di/dt and dv/dt at many points of the power circuitry. Since SiC power
MOSFETs are switched on and off at much higher frequencies in comparison to those of
Si-IGBTs, their utilization would be worsened i.e., an increase in the switching losses dur-
ing turn-off, as well as in the voltage and current overshoots, and a ringing phenomenon
would occur during turn-on and -off in cases where the parasitics were not minimized in
the design phase. This is the main reason why special attention was paid to the design of
the power stage and laminated busbars, as illustrated in Figures 9 and 10. Furthermore,
 switching the traction inverter at an optimum frequency. The variation range of the virtual
junction temperature of the SiC power MOSFETs was affected by the switching frequency
during the operation of the traction motor drive. Lower junction temperatures gave rise
to significantly longer lifetimes for power semiconductors. The overall efficiency of the
Electronics 2022, 11, 1438 traction motor drive was the product of the traction inverter efficiency and the motor 18 of ef-
34
ficiency. The major power loss components were conduction and switching losses for the
inverter, and copper and core losses for the traction motor. These power loss components
were
5. determinedResults
Experimental by tests as well as by some detailed simulations.
In order to determine the power loss components of the traction motor, it was driven
The performance of the all-SiC power MOSFET-based traction motor drive was tested
at a synchronous speed (nr = 1800 rpm) by the loading machine (Figure 9c) when the rated
on the full-scale physical simulator built in the Traction Systems R&D Laboratory for
voltage (Vs = 480 V l-to-l) and frequency (fs = 60 Hz) were applied to the stator and the
Railway Transportation. This full-scale simulator is on a per motor base and its details are
stator line current and power input to the stator were measured as a function of the in-
described in [25]. This paper is accompanied by a video demonstrating the experimental
verterasswitching
work frequency.Material.
the Supplementary The core loss was separated from the stator copper loss by
using the stator resistance provided by the motor manufacturer as a function of the in-
verter
5.1. switchingOptimum
Determining frequency and the stator
Switching Frequencytemperature and line currents. Furthermore, the
friction andresearch
In this windagework,loss component wasof
the efficiency measured in the
the traction usualdrive
motor way wasaftermaximized
decouplingby all
the rotating parts from the motor shaft. The variations in the core
switching the traction inverter at an optimum frequency. The variation range of the virtual loss and stator copper
loss components
junction temperature at the synchronous
of the SiC power speed
MOSFETs are shown in Figure
was affected by the11switching
as a function of the
frequency
switching frequency.
during the operation of the traction motor drive. Lower junction temperatures gave rise
The switching
to significantly longer and conduction
lifetimes loss components
for power semiconductors.of the Thetraction inverter
overall were of
efficiency calcu-
the
lated by motor
traction Speedfit Design
drive wasSimulator
the product of Wolfspeed as a function
of the traction inverterofefficiency
the switchingand the frequency,
motor
as shown The
efficiency. in Figure
major12. power loss components were conduction and switching losses for the
The total power
inverter, and copper and dissipation
core lossesof the traction
for the motor
traction drive
motor. was power
These then obtained by taking
loss components
into account the motor losses and inverter losses
were determined by tests as well as by some detailed simulations. at the same switching frequency. It is
worth noting that the stator and rotor copper loss components were
In order to determine the power loss components of the traction motor, it was driven calculated at the rated
operating
at conditions
a synchronous speedand(nthen added
r = 1800 to the
rpm) by core loss, friction,
the loading machine and (Figure
windage9c) loss compo-
when the
nentsvoltage
rated of the motor, andV
(Vs = 480 the conduction
l-to-l) and switching
and frequency (fs = 60losses
Hz) were of the inverter
applied to at
theeach switch-
stator and
ing stator
the frequency. The variations
line current and power in theinput
total to
losstheofstator
the motor
weredrive as a function
measured of the switch-
as a function of the
ing frequency
inverter werefrequency.
switching then plotted, as shown
The core loss in Figure 13. A closer
was separated from examination
the stator of this curve
copper loss
shows that the total power dissipation at the rated operating
by using the stator resistance provided by the motor manufacturer as a function of the point was minimized in the
switching
inverter frequency
switching range from
frequency and10 thetostator
17.5 kHz. Although
temperature andfswline
= 15currents.
kHz yielded the mini-
Furthermore,
mum
the total power
friction dissipation,
and windage and hence,was
loss component the maximum
measured drivein the efficiency,
usual wayitafter caused a higher
decoupling
all the rotating
average junctionparts from the motor
temperature duringshaft. The variations
operation as comparedin the tocore
fswloss
= 10and
kHzstator copper
(Figure 13).
loss components
Therefore, in thisat the synchronous
research work, fsw = speed
10 kHzare shown
was chosen in in
Figure
order11 toas a function
obtain a longer of life-
the
switching
time for the frequency.
SiC power MOSFETs [40].

Figure 11. Variations

Figure Variationsinintotal power
total lossloss
power components
components of the
oftraction motormotor
the traction at no-load againstagainst
at no-load switch-
ing frequency
switching of theof
frequency inverter
the inverter Vdc = V
whenwhen 750 V,750
dc = Vs =V,480
Vs =V 480
l-to-l, fs = 60fsHz,
V l-to-l, and
= 60 Hz,nrand
= 1800
nr =rpm.
1800 rpm.

The switching and conduction loss components of the traction inverter were calculated
by Speedfit Design Simulator of Wolfspeed as a function of the switching frequency, as
shown in Figure 12.
The total power dissipation of the traction motor drive was then obtained by taking
into account the motor losses and inverter losses at the same switching frequency. It is
worth noting that the stator and rotor copper loss components were calculated at the
rated operating conditions and then added to the core loss, friction, and windage loss
components of the motor, and the conduction and switching losses of the inverter at each
switching frequency. The variations in the total loss of the motor drive as a function of the
switching frequency were then plotted, as shown in Figure 13. A closer examination of this
curve shows that the total power dissipation at the rated operating point was minimized
in the switching frequency range from 10 to 17.5 kHz. Although fsw = 15 kHz yielded the
Electronics 2022, 11, 1438 19 of 34

minimum total power dissipation, and hence, the maximum drive efficiency, it caused
a higher average junction temperature during operation as compared to fsw = 10 kHz
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 34
(Figure 13). Therefore, in this research work, fsw = 10 kHz was chosen in order to obtain a
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 34
longer lifetime for the SiC power MOSFETs [40].

Figure 12.
Figure 12. Variations
Variationsin intotal
totalpower
powerloss
losscomponents
components of of
thethetraction inverter
traction against
inverter switching
against fre-
switching
frequency when Vdc = 750 V, Vs = 480 V l-to-l, fs = 60 Hz, and nr = 1779 rpm in delivering 165 kVAfre-
Figure
quency 12.
whenVariations
V dc = 750in total
V, V s = power
480 V loss
l-to-l,components
f of
s = 60 Hz, and the
n r = traction
1779 rpminverter
in against
delivering switching
165 kVA to the
to
quencyatwhen
motor 0.81 Vdclag.
pf = 750 V, Vs = 480 V l-to-l, fs = 60 Hz, and nr = 1779 rpm in delivering 165 kVA to the
the motor at 0.81 pf lag.
motor at 0.81 pf lag.

Figure 13. Total power loss of the traction motor drive, Ptot, against switching frequency, fsw, when
Figure
Vdc = 750
Figure 13.
13. Total
V,Total power
Vs = power
480 lossof
V l-to-l,
loss fof
s= the
the traction
60traction
Hz, motor
andmotor
nr = 1779drive,
rpm
drive, PP tot,,delivering
in
tot againstswitching
against switching frequency,
125 kW frequency,
to its load.fsw fsw,, when
when
VVdcdc =
= 750 V, V
750 V, Vs == 480
s 480 V
V l-to-l,
l-to-l, ffs ==60
s 60Hz,
Hz, and
andnnr = =
r
1779
1779rpm
rpminin delivering 125
delivering kW
125 kWtotoitsitsload.
load.
5.2. Steady-State Performance of the Traction Converter
5.2.
5.2. Steady-State
Steady-State Performance
Performance of the
the Traction Converter
The line-to-line voltage,ofline Traction
current,Converter
DC link voltage, and DC link current wave-
forms The
The line-to-line
of the traction voltage,
line-to-line voltage,line
inverter atline
thecurrent,
current,
rated DCDC linklink
operating voltage,
voltage,
conditions andandDC link
and current
DCoptimum
the link current waveforms
wave-
switching
of the of
forms
frequency traction
the 10inverter
oftraction areat
kHz inverter the
shown at rated
the
in rated operating
Figure operating
14. The conditions
Vconditions andand
A1(t) was obtained
thetheoptimum
from theswitching
optimum switching
VAB(t) by
frequency
frequency of
MATLAB/Simulink of1010kHzkHzandare
areshown
shownin
plotted inFigure
in Figure
the same 14. The
TheVV
14.figure. A1A1(t)
(t)was
wasobtained
obtainedfrom fromthe theVVAB AB(t)
(t) by
by
MATLAB/Simulink
MATLAB/Simulink and
and plotted
plotted in
in the
the same
same figure.
figure.
Harmonic components up to the 50th in the line current waveforms shown in Figure
15 wereHarmonic
Harmonic
obtained components
components upuptotothe
for the operating the50th50thinin
conditions thetheline
inlinecurrent
current
Figure waveforms
14awaveforms
by using shown
ashown
Hiokiin Figure
in Figure
PW3198 15
were obtained
15 wereQuality
Power obtained for the operating
for thewith
Analyzer operatingconditions
conditions
a three-phase, in Figure 14a by using
in Figureconnection.
three-wire a
14a by using Hioki
Since PW3198
a Hioki Power
PW3198
the operating
Quality
condition Analyzer
Power Quality was rated with
Analyzerat aNthree-phase,
r=with
1779a rpm, three-wire
three-phase,
the I-TDD connection.
three-wire Since
of stator connection.
line the operating
currents Since
up tothe thecondition
operating
50th har-
was
monic rated
conditionwasat wasNrrated
0.43%. = 1779
In at rpm, the
Nr =to1779
order I-TDD
assess rpm, of
thethe stator
I-TDD
effects ofline currents
of stator
the lineup
switching to the 50th
currents
frequency, up itsharmonic
to the was
50thmul-
integer har-
0.43%.
monic In
was order
0.43%. to assess
In order theto effects
assess of
the the switching
effects of the frequency,
switching its integer
frequency, multiples,
its integer and
mul-
tiples, and their sidebands on the magnitude of I-TDD, the iA(t) in Figure 14a was ex-
their sidebands
tiples, and theironsidebands
the magnitude of I-TDD,
onMATLAB/Simulink
the magnitude the iAof(t)I-TDD,
in Figure the14a was
iA(t) expanded in the FFT
panded in the FFT toolbox in and is shown in in Figure
Figure 16.14aThewasI-TDD ex-
toolbox
panded in MATLAB/Simulink
in the FFT toolbox and is shown
in MATLAB/Simulink in Figure 16. The
and is16shown I-TDD value
in Figure calculated
16.thus
Thebe from
I-TDD
value calculated from the harmonic spectrum in Figure was 3.11%. It can con-
the harmonic
value calculated spectrum
from the in Figure
harmonic 16 was 3.11%. It can
spectrum thus16bewasconcluded Itthat
canthe harmonic
cluded that the harmonic distortion in the lineincurrent Figure waveforms 3.11%. is largely thus be con-
affected by
distortion
cluded thatin the
the line current
harmonic waveforms
distortion in is
the largely
line affected
current by the
waveforms switching
is largelyfrequency
affected and
by
the switching frequency and its integer multiples.
its
theinteger
switching multiples.
frequency and its integer multiples.
The variations in the efficiency of the traction inverter against the apparent power
The variations
delivered to the stator in the efficiency
of the tractionofmotor, the traction
as shown inverter against
in Figure 17,thewere apparent
computed power by
deliveredDesign
Speedfit to the Simulator
stator of the traction motor,
of Wolfspeed and also as shownobtained in Figure 17, were It
experimentally. computed
can thus be by
Speedfit Design
concluded that the Simulator
efficiency of Wolfspeed
of the traction and inverter
also obtained is veryexperimentally.
high and above It can
98.5%thusoverbe
concluded that the efficiency of the traction inverter is
the entire operating range. As can be understood from Table 5, the efficiency of the all-SiC very high and above 98.5% over
the entire
power operating range.
MOSFET-based As can
traction be understood
converter is nearly from 0.5%Table 5, thethan
higher efficiency
that of of the all-SiC
IGBT-
powercounterparts,
based MOSFET-based which traction converter
have nearly the is samenearly 0.5% higher
installed kVA, are than that offrom
supplied the IGBT-
750 V
based
DC, andcounterparts,
are switchedwhich havelower
at a much nearlyfrequency
the sameof installed
aroundkVA, 3 kHz.are For supplied
ordinaryfrom 750 V
Si-IGBTs,
DC, and are switched at a much lower frequency of around 3 kHz. For ordinary Si-IGBTs,
 improvement would be much higher for the SiC power MOSFET-based traction converter
when it is switched at in the range of 3 to 5 kHz at the expense of a worsened control
performance, including a narrower current control bandwidth, higher I-TDD and torque
ripple, poor system stability, lower drive efficiency, the need for multiple modulation
Electronics 2022, 11, 1438 methods over the speed control range, resulting in control complexity, and increased au-
20 of 34
dible noise and operating costs. These were the common weaknesses of the traction motor
drives employing Si-IGBTs.

Figure
Figure 14.14. Input
Input DCDC current,
current, Idc ,Iand
dc, and
DCDClinklink voltage,
voltage, Vdc ,Vand
dc, and
AC AC output
output voltage,
voltage, vAB, current,
vAB , and and current,
iA ,
iA, waveforms
waveforms corresponding
corresponding to fs =to 60fsHz,
= 60fsw
Hz, fsw kHz
= 10 = 10 as
kHz as recorded
recorded by Tektronix
by Tektronix MDO3034
MDO3034 oscillo-
oscilloscope
atscope at a sampling
a sampling rate of 1rate of 1 MS/s/channel
MS/s/channel while while
(a) the(a) the traction
traction inverter
inverter is delivering
is delivering 165 kVA165 to
kVA
theto
the traction motor at Vdc = 765 V, and (b) the traction inverter is delivering 169 kVA to the traction
traction motor at Vdc = 765 V, and (b) the traction inverter is delivering 169 kVA to the traction motor
motor at Vdc = 900 V.
at Vdc = 900 V.

The variations in the efficiency of the traction inverter against the apparent power
delivered to the stator of the traction motor, as shown in Figure 17, were computed by
Speedfit Design Simulator of Wolfspeed and also obtained experimentally. It can thus be
concluded that the efficiency of the traction inverter is very high and above 98.5% over
the entire operating range. As can be understood from Table 5, the efficiency of the all-SiC
power MOSFET-based traction converter is nearly 0.5% higher than that of the IGBT-based
counterparts, which have nearly the same installed kVA, are supplied from 750 V DC,
and are switched at a much lower frequency of around 3 kHz. For ordinary Si-IGBTs,
however, the efficiency improvement may reach 1%. On the other hand, the efficiency
improvement would be much higher for the SiC power MOSFET-based traction converter
when it is switched at in the range of 3 to 5 kHz at the expense of a worsened control
performance, including a narrower current control bandwidth, higher I-TDD and torque
ripple, poor system stability, lower drive efficiency, the need for multiple modulation
methods over the speed control range, resulting in control complexity, and increased
audible noise and operating costs. These were the common weaknesses of the traction
motor drives employing Si-IGBTs.
Electronics 2022, 11, 1438 21 of 34
Electronics2022,
Electronics 2022,11,
11,x xFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 2222ofof3434
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 34

Figure15.
Figure 15.Harmonic
Harmoniccomponents
componentsofofthe
theline
linecurrents
currentsup
uptotothe
the50th
50thwere
wereobtained
obtainedby
bythree-phase,
three-phase,
three-phase,
Figure 15. Harmonic
three-wire
three-wire connectioncomponents
connection forthe
for of theconditions
theoperating
operating line currents
conditions up to the
inFigure
in Figure 50th were obtained by three-phase,
14a.
14a.
three-wire connection for the operating conditions in Figure 14a.
three-wire connection for the operating conditions in Figure 14a.

Figure16.
Figure 16.Fourier
16. Fourier
Fourier series
series expansion
expansion
series of recorded
of of
expansion recorded
recorded iA (t)iAiwaveform
A(t) waveform
(t) waveform inin Figure
in Figure Figure 14a obtained
14a obtained
14a obtained from
from MAT-
from
Figure 16. Fourier
MATLAB/Simulink
MATLAB/Simulink
LAB/Simulink series expansion of recorded iA(t) waveform in Figure 14a obtained from
FFTtoolbox.
FFT
FFT toolbox.toolbox.
MATLAB/Simulink FFT toolbox.

Figure17.
Figure 17.Percent
Percentefficiency
efficiencyofoftraction
tractioninverter
inverteragainst
againsttraction
tractionmotor
motorinput
inputkVA
kVAatatrated
ratedspeed
speedofof
Figure
Figure
1779 17.
1779rpm
rpm Percent
whenVVdcefficiency
17.when dc 750V,V,Vof
==750 VAB
traction
AB 480VVinverter
==480 rms,and
rms, and
inverter against
fsf=s =60
against traction
60Hz.
Hz.
traction motor
motor input
input kVA
kVA at rated speed of
1779
1779 rpm when V
rpm when Vdc ==750
750V,V, V
VAB = =480480VVrms,
rms,and
andfsf=s 60 Hz.
= 60 Hz.
dc AB
Electronics 2022,
Electronics 11,11,
2022, 1438
x FOR PEER REVIEW 22
23ofof3434

5.3.
5.3.Regenerative
RegenerativeBraking
BrakingMode
ModeofofOperation
Operation
The regenerative braking technique is frequently applied to the LRTS for the purpose of
The regenerative braking technique is frequently applied to the LRTS for the purpose
(i) reducing the running speed, (ii) maintaining a constant speed of operation while moving
of (i) reducing the running speed, (ii) maintaining a constant speed of operation while
on an inclined track with a negative slope, and (iii) bringing the vehicle to a controlled stop
moving on an inclined track with a negative slope, and (iii) bringing the vehicle to a con-
at the next station in combination with the mechanical brake. It is a temporary operation
trolled stop at the next station in combination with the mechanical brake. It is a temporary
mode of the traction motor as a generator and takes place for not more than a few tenths
operation mode of the traction motor as a generator and takes place for not more than a
of seconds. Two voltage and current snapshots of the traction motor drive during the
few tenths of seconds. Two voltage and current snapshots of the traction motor drive dur-
regenerative braking mode of operation, as defined in (ii), are shown in Figure 18 for two
ing the regenerative braking mode of operation, as defined in (ii), are shown in Figure 18
different catenary voltage levels (rated and maximum). Furthermore, the theoretical and
for two different catenary voltage levels (rated and maximum). Furthermore, the theoret-
experimental instantaneous efficiency values during the regenerative braking mode are
ical and experimental instantaneous efficiency values during the regenerative braking
shown in Figure 19 when Vdc = 750 V, VAB = 480 Vrms, and fs = 60 Hz.
mode are shown in Figure 19 when Vdc = 750 V, VAB = 480 Vrms, and fs = 60 Hz.

Figure18.
Figure 18.Snapshots
Snapshotsofofoutput
outputDC DClink
linkcurrent,
current,IdcI,dcand
, andDCDClink voltage,VV
linkvoltage, , ,and
dcdc andACACinput
inputvoltage,
voltage,
v , and current, i , waveforms corresponding to f = 60 Hz, f = 10
vAB , and current, iA , waveforms corresponding to fs = 60 Hz, fsw = 10 kHz as recorded by
AB A s sw kHz as recorded byTektronix
Tektronix
MDO3034oscilloscope
MDO3034 oscilloscope atat a sampling
a sampling rate
rate of of 1 MS/s/channelwhile
1 MS/s/channel whiletraction
tractionmotor
motordrive
driveisisoperating
operating
in regenerative braking mode. (a) The traction converter operating in the rectification
in regenerative braking mode. (a) The traction converter operating in the rectification mode absorbs mode absorbs
168 kVA at 0.82 pf from the traction motor operating in the generation mode and delivers 138 kW
168 kVA at 0.82 pf from the traction motor operating in the generation mode and delivers 138 kW to
to the DC link at Vdc = 765 V, and (b) the traction converter operating in the rectification mode ab-
the DC link at Vdc = 765 V, and (b) the traction converter operating in the rectification mode absorbs
sorbs 165 kVA at 0.82 pf from the traction motor operating in the generation mode and delivers 135
165
kW kVA at 0.82
to the DC pf from
link at Vthe traction motor operating in the generation mode and delivers 135 kW to
dc = 900 V.
the DC link at Vdc = 900 V.
Electronics 2022,11,
Electronics2022, 11,1438
x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of
24 of 34
34
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 34

Figure19.
19. Thevariations
variations in instantaneousefficiency
efficiency of thetraction
traction converterduring
during regenerative
Figure 19.The
Figure The variationsinininstantaneous
instantaneous efficiencyofofthe
the tractionconverter
converter duringregenerative
regenerative
braking mode as a function of input kVA.
brakingmode
braking modeasasa afunction
functionofofinput
inputkVA.
kVA.

5.4.Switching
5.4. Switching Waveforms
5.4. SwitchingWaveforms
Waveforms
Theswitching
The switchingwaveforms
waveforms of oneof of thehigh-side
high-side 1700 V, V, 325A A SiCpower
power MOSFETs
The switching waveformsofofone one ofthe the high-side1700 1700 V,325 325 ASiCSiC powerMOSFETs
MOSFETs
were
were recorded on the physical simulator while the traction inverter was operatingat at full
wererecorded
recordedononthe thephysical
physicalsimulator
simulatorwhile whilethe thetraction
tractioninverter
inverterwaswasoperating
operating atfull
full
load,asasshown
load, shown in Figure
in Figure 20. Very
20. Very shortshort
current current
rise and risefalland
timesfalloftimes
the SiCofpower
the SiC power
MOSFET
load, as shown in Figure 20. Very short current rise and fall times of the SiC power
MOSFET
were werewhen
observed observed when themotor
the associated associated motor was
line current line atcurrent was at
its positive its positive
peak peak
value. These
MOSFET were observed when the associated motor line current was at its positive peak
nearly
value. correspond
These nearlytocorrespond
the 42 ns rise time42and
to the the 56
ns rise time ns and
fall time
the 56during
ns fallthe turn-on
time duringandthe
value. These nearly correspond to the 42 ns rise time and the 56 ns fall time during the
-off transitions,
turn-on and -offrespectively,
transitions, for the given test
respectively, conditions.
for the given testOn the other On
conditions. hand,thethe risehand,
other and
turn-on and -off transitions, respectively, for the given test conditions. On the other hand,
fall
thetimes, when
rise and falldetermined
times, when from the drain-to-source
determined voltage waveforms,
from the drain-to-source werewaveforms,
voltage measured
the rise and fall times, when determined from the drain-to-source voltage waveforms,
respectively to be t =
were measured respectively
r 73 ns and t
to be = 58 ns, for the same test conditions. If t
f tr = 73 ns and tf = 58 ns, for the same testr conditions. was measured If tr
were measured respectively to be tr = 73 ns and tf = 58 ns, for the same test conditions. If tr
from the vDS during
was measured from turn-on, it was found
the vDS during turn-on, to itbewas
larger
foundthantothat of the than
be larger iD because
that ofofthe
theiD
was measured from the vDS during turn-on, it was found to be larger than that of the iD
oscillating
because ofcharacter of thecharacter
the oscillating vDS (t) in this converter.
of the vDS(t) in this converter.
because of the oscillating character of the vDS(t) in this converter.

Figure 20. Switching waveforms of 1700 V, 325 A high-side SiC Power MOSFET in phase A of the
Figure
Figure20.20.Switching
Switchingwaveforms
waveformsofof1700
1700V,V,325
325AAhigh-side
high-sideSiC
SiCPower
PowerMOSFET
MOSFETininphase
phaseAAofofthe
the
traction converter. (a) Turn-on, (b) turn-off.
tractionconverter.
traction converter.(a)(a)Turn-on,
Turn-on,(b)(b) turn-off.
turn-off.
Electronics 2022,
Electronics 11, 1438
2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 25
24 of 35
of 34

In order
In order to
to comply
comply with
with the
the EMC
EMC requirements
requirements forfor the
the traction
traction converters
converters [41]
[41] and
and
dv/dt withstand capability of the presently available traction motors [42], slower
dv/dt withstand capability of the presently available traction motors [42], slower turn- turn-on
andand
on -off-off
times could
times couldbe obtained
be obtainedby by
adjusting the the
adjusting gategate
resistance andand
resistance gate-to-source
gate-to-sourceca-
pacitance in in
capacitance thethe
gate
gatedriver circuit
driver at the
circuit expense
at the of slightly
expense higher
of slightly switching
higher losses.
switching An
losses.
alternative
An but but
alternative more complex
more andand
complex costly improvement
costly improvement technique might
technique be the
might be design and
the design
use of
and anofactive
use gate driver
an active to adjust
gate driver only the
to adjust gate
only theresistance in the in
gate resistance Miller Plateau
the Miller by meas-
Plateau by
uring the gate-to-source voltage [43–46].
measuring the gate-to-source voltage [43–46].

5.5. Dynamic
5.5. Dynamic Operation
Operation in in Real
Real Rail
Rail Track
Track Conditions
Conditions
In order to test the performance of the
In order to test the performance of the traction
traction system
system developed
developed in thisinresearch
this research
work,
work, and hence, the vehicle body structure formed as in Table 1, in real rail track condi-
and hence, the vehicle body structure formed as in Table 1, in real rail track conditions, the
tions, the physical simulator per traction motor was operated in several running condi-
physical simulator per traction motor was operated in several running conditions. Among
tions. Among
these, these,
the records the records corresponding
corresponding to the and
to the acceleration acceleration and deceleration
deceleration on a
on a level track,
the
levelacceleration on a maximum
track, the acceleration on a positive
maximum slope, and regenerative
positive braking on braking
slope, and regenerative a maximum
on a
negative slope are shown in Figures 21–23, respectively.
maximum negative slope are shown in Figures 21–23, respectively.

Figure 21.
Figure 21. Acceleration,
Acceleration, constant
constant speed
speed operation,
operation, and
and then
then deceleration
deceleration on
on aa level
level track
track Region
Region 1:
1:
Starting period,
Starting period,Region
Region2: 2: Acceleration
Acceleration at maximum
at maximum torque,
torque, Region
Region 3: Acceleration
3: Acceleration at constant
at constant power,
power, Region
Region 4: Controller
4: Controller action action for smooth
for smooth transition
transition from from acceleration
acceleration to constant
to constant speed
speed opera-
operation,
tion, Region 5: Constant speed operation, Region 6: Start of regenerative braking operation,
Region 5: Constant speed operation, Region 6: Start of regenerative braking operation, Region 7: Region
7: Deceleration at constant power, Region 8: Deceleration under maximum braking torque, Region
Deceleration at constant power, Region 8: Deceleration under maximum braking torque, Region 9:
9: Bringing the vehicle to a stop by mechanical brake.
Bringing the vehicle to a stop by mechanical brake.
Electronics2022,
Electronics 11,1438
2022,11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26
25 of 35
of 34

Figure 22.
Figure 22.Acceleration
Accelerationandandthen
then constant
constant speed
speed operation
operation on aon a track
track with with a positive
a positive maximum
maximum slope.
slope. Region 1: Starting period, Region 2: Acceleration at maximum torque, Region 3: Acceleration
Region 1: Starting period, Region 2: Acceleration at maximum torque, Region 3: Acceleration at
at constant power, Region 4: Controller action for smooth transition from acceleration to constant
constant power, Region 4: Controller action for smooth transition from acceleration to constant speed
speed operation, Region 5: Constant speed operation.
operation, Region 5: Constant speed operation.

The operating conditions were programmed in MATLAB/Simulink by using the kine-

matic equation in (3) of the vehicle to form the corresponding real-time models to control
the physical simulator system in Figure 9. The kinematic equations for the running condi-
tions shown in Figures 21–23 were obtained from (3), as shown in (15)–(17), respectively.
A close examination of the motor torque, load torque, torque command, shaft speed, and
line-A current record in Figures 21–23 shows that the all-SiC traction motor drive and its
control system developed in this research work match perfectly with the requirements of
the pre-specified rail track conditions.

dω 1
258.5 = Tm − Tr (15)
dt 4
dω 1
258.5 = Tm − [ Tr + 1968] (16)
dt 4
Electronics 2022, 11, 1438 26 of 34

Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 27 of 35

dω 1
258.5 = Tm − [ Tr − 1968] (17)
dt 4

Figure 23. Constant speed operation and then deceleration by regenerative braking while going
Figure 23. Constant speed operation and then deceleration by regenerative braking while going
downhill. Region 1: Constant speed operation, Region 2: Start of regenerative braking operation,
downhill. Region 1: Constant speed operation, Region 2: Start of regenerative braking operation,
Region 3: Deceleration at constant power, Region 4: Deceleration under maximum braking torque,
Region
Region3:5: Deceleration
Bringing the at constant
vehicle to a power,
stop byRegion 4: Deceleration
mechanical brake. under maximum braking torque,
Region 5: Bringing the vehicle to a stop by mechanical brake.
The operating
6. Effects conditions
of SiC Power MOSFETwere programmed
Operation in MATLAB/Simulink
on Traction Motor by using the kin-
ematic equation in (3) of the vehicle to form the corresponding real-time models to control
The 125 kW, 480 V, 60 Hz traction motor is supplied by the developed all-SiC traction
the physical simulator system in Figure 9. The kinematic equations for the running condi-
converter via the railway-qualified single-core flexible rubber cables, as illustrated in
tions shown in Figures 21–23 were obtained from (3), as shown in (15)–(17), respectively.
Figure 24. The effects of the SiC power MOSFET operation on the traction motor were
A close examination of the motor torque, load torque, torque command, shaft speed, and
experimentally obtained with this setup.
line-A current record in Figures 21–23 shows that the all-SiC traction motor drive and its
control system developed in this research work match perfectly with the requirements of
the pre-specified rail track conditions.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
258.5 = 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 − 𝑇𝑇𝑟𝑟 (15)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4
 6. Effects of SiC Power MOSFET Operation on Traction Motor
The 125 kW, 480 V, 60 Hz traction motor is supplied by the developed all-SiC traction
Electronics 2022, 11, 1438
converter via the railway-qualified single-core flexible rubber cables, as illustrated in Fig-
27 of 34
ure 24. The effects of the SiC power MOSFET operation on the traction motor were exper-
imentally obtained with this setup.

Figure 24. Experimental setup to test the effects of cable length on

on the
the system
system performance.
performance.

Nowadays,
Nowadays, in in most
mostrailway
railwaytraction
tractionconverters,
converters, Si-IGBTs
Si-IGBTs areare employed.
employed. With With
the the
de-
developments
velopments in in SiC
SiC technology,Si-IGBT-based
technology, Si-IGBT-basedtraction
tractionconverters
converterswill
will largely
largely be
be replaced
replaced
by
by SiC
SiC power
power MOSFET-based
MOSFET-based ones ones in
in the
the near
near future. SiC power
future. SiC power MOSFETs
MOSFETs can can be
be turned
turned
on and off 2–5 times more rapidly and at switching frequencies 3–10
on and off 2–5 times more rapidly and at switching frequencies 3–10 times higher intimes higher in com-
com-
parison to Si-IGBTs. At the present time, commercially available AC motors
parison to Si-IGBTs. At the present time, commercially available AC motors are designed are designed
by
by considering
considering thethe operational
operational aspects
aspects ofof Si-IGBT-based
Si-IGBT-based PWM PWM converters. However, the
converters. However, the
operation
operation of SiC power MOSFET-based traction converters may cause undesirable effects
of SiC power MOSFET-based traction converters may cause undesirable effects
on
on the
the presently
presently available
available traction
traction motors.
motors.
The
The SiC
SiC traction
traction converter
converter applies
applies PWM
PWM voltage
voltage waveforms
waveforms with
with very
very short
short rise
rise
times to the stator of the traction motor via a three-phase or 3 x single-phase cable system.
times to the stator of the traction motor via a three-phase or 3 x single-phase cable system.
This traction-specific cable system forms an RLC network, and hence, high-frequency
This traction-specific cable system forms an RLC network, and hence, high-frequency os-
oscillations take place and the applied voltage is enhanced at the motor terminals. These
cillations take place and the applied voltage is enhanced at the motor terminals. These
voltage overshoots are created by reflected waves at the interface between the cable and
voltage overshoots are created by reflected waves at the interface between the cable and
electrical machine terminals due to impedance mismatch, and they depend on the output
electrical machine terminals due to impedance mismatch, and they depend on the output
waveform characteristics of the converter, the cable length, and the electrical machine
waveform characteristics of the converter, the cable length, and the electrical machine ter-
terminal impedance [42,47].
minal impedance [42,47].
These aspects were verified experimentally on the developed system, as shown in
These aspects were verified experimentally on the developed system, as shown in
Figure 24, by recording the vABi (t), vABm (t), iA (t), and idc (t) for two different cable lengths
Figure 24, by recording the vABi(t), vABm(t), iA(t), and idc(t) for two different cable lengths of
of lc = 4 and 12 m. These records are shown in Figure 25 when the peak value of the inverter
loutput
c = 4 and 12 m. These records are shown in Figure 25 when the peak value of the inverter
voltage was set to VAbi = Vdc = 765 V (which corresponds to nearly 480 V l-to-l rms
output
at 60 Hz) voltage
and the was set to V
inverter Abi = Vdc = 765 V (which corresponds to nearly 480 V l-to-l rms
operated at full load (165 kVA) in Figure 25a,b, and at no load
(83 kVA) in Figure 25c,d.
The following conclusions can be drawn from these records:
(i) The motor line currents are nearly sinusoidal, e.g., iA (t);
(ii) Although the fundamental components VAbi = VABm ∼ = 480 V l-to-l rms, the first peak
∼
of VABi (t) = 780–810 is enhanced to VABm = 1240 V for lc = 4 and 1260 V for lc = 12 m;
(iii) The frequency of oscillation in the line-to-line voltage waveform is lower for longer
cables with a shorter settling time;
(iv) The dv/dt of each pulse in the line-to-line PWM voltage waveform at the output of
the inverter is usually higher than 10 kV/µs. The cables connecting the inverter to the
motor lower these high dv/dts usually to below 10 kV/µs;
(v) Similar conclusions can also be drawn for no-load operations;
(vi) For the application described in this paper, a cable length of around 12 m is more
useful than shorter cables, such as 4 m in length.
Since the catenary voltage varies in a wide range, as illustrated in Appendix A, records
corresponding to Figure 25b for lc = 12 m were obtained from the developed system and
are shown in Figure 26a,b respectively for Vdc = 600 V and 900 V.
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 28 of 34

Electronics 2022, 11, 1438 28 of 34

at 60 Hz) and the inverter operated at full load (165 kVA) in Figure 25a,b, and at no load
(83 kVA) in Figure 25c,d.

Figure 25.
Figure 25. Effects
Effects of
of motor
motor cable
cable length
length on
on line-to-line
line-to-line motor
motor voltages.
voltages. (a)
(a) 44 m
m cable
cable length
length at
at full
full
load, (b) 12 m cable length at full load, (c) 4 m cable length at no load, (d) 12 m cable length at
load, (b) 12 m cable length at full load, (c) 4 m cable length at no load, (d) 12 m cable length at no load. no
load.
Electronics
Electronics2022, 11,11,
2022, 1438
x FOR PEER REVIEW 29
30 ofof3434

Figure26.
Figure 26.Effects
Effectsofofcatenary
catenaryvoltage,
voltage,Vdc
V,dcon
, online-to-line
line-to-linemotor
motorvoltages.
voltages.(a)(a)VV
dcdc==600
600VVand
andatat80%
80%
ofoffull
fullload
loadand
and(b)
(b)VV dc
dc==900
900VV and
and full
full load.
load.

7. Conclusions and Futurefrom

As can be understood Work Figures 25 and 26, the first voltage peaks in the pulses of
the VABi (t) and V (t) and the corresponding
The design and development of a high-performance,
ABm dvABi (t)/dt and dvABm
all-SiC, (t)/dt
165 kVAvalues
tractionbecame
motor
higher and higher as the catenary voltage, V , increased. The limiting curve
drive for light rail transportation systems,dcbased on two-quadrant operating characteris- of the admissi-
ble
ticsimpulse voltage
of the drive andfora the industrial
complete induction model
mathematical motorsof is the
recommended in [42] (Figure
public transportation 40
vehicle,
ofhave
[42])been
anddescribed.
was partly redrawn by extrapolating the data
In the design phase, the performances of two-levelfrom trm = 0.1 to 0.05 µs,
traction convert- as
shown in Appendix
ers supplied by 750 D.VThis
DCstandard
catenarydefines
lines andthe equipped
area underwiththe blue-colored curve as the
different new-generation
safe operating area for the induction motor.
power semiconductors, such as a SiC power MOSFET, Si-IGBT, and hybrid IGBT of com-
In this
patible research
ratings, werework, the rise
compared in time,
view tof , of the
rmtheir line-to-line
thermal voltage
behaviors, pulses at
switching theconduc-
and stator
terminals was measured to be 90 ns in the worst case (lc = 4 m). Since the V̂m l-to-l /Vm l-to-l
tion losses, and optimum switching frequencies by carrying out detailed computer simu-
(rated) ∼ 2 for trm = 90 ns and Vm l-to-l (rated) = 480 V rms, the maximum recommended
lations.=The SiC power MOSFET was shown to outperform the hybrid and Si-IGBT alter-
peak value of the impulse voltage was calculated to be 2 × 480 = 960 V. However, the
natives, with a further advantage of conducting the reverse current, thus reducing the
V̂m l-to-l was measured to be 1240 V (Figure 25a), which is much higher than the maximum
conduction loss at relatively high operating powers. In most advanced traction motor
recommended value of 960 V. On the other hand, the maximum permissible value of
drives, Si power semiconductors are being used where the maximum attainable carrier
dvABm /dt is recommended to be 10 kV/µs by the traction motor manufacturer. The
frequency could be set to 21𝑓 (𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 3255 Hz in order to obtain a reasonably low TDD
permissible dvABm /dt curve can be calculated from the V̂m l-to-l /Vm l-to-l (rated) curve for
for the motor line currents. However, in this research work, the use of SiC power
Vm l-to-l (rated) = 480 V and different trm values. The resulting characteristics are marked
MOSFETs with a much higher switching frequency of fC = 10 kHz provided a faster drive
in Figure A3 in Appendix D. Although its value was calculated to be nearly 10 kV/µs,
response and much lower TDD in comparison to those of the alternative Si converters.
its actual value was measured to be 11 kV/µs (Figure 25a) while dvABm /dt = 8.58 kV/µs
The optimum switching frequency region was determined to be 10 to 17.5 kHz to maxim-
(Figure 25b) for lc = 12 m, which is safe.
ize the traction
However, in motor drive applications
the practical efficiency atof theSiCrated
poweroperating conditions,
MOSFET-based i.e., the
traction inverter
converters,
the trm may be lower, e.g., 50 ns, and the cable may be shorter, lc = 3–4 m, which would a
efficiency times the motor efficiency. In addition to the considerably low TDD of 3.11%,
very in
result highdvABmoperating efficiency
/dt values of 91.7%
considerably was than
higher obtained for the induction traction motor
10 kV/µs.
drive under rated operating conditions at fC = 10 kHz. The SiC inverter efficiency was ob-
In view of the above findings, the following conclusions can be made:
tained as 98.7% and the motor efficiency as 92.9% at the rated conditions, as compared to
(a) Insulation systems may be enhanced in future traction motors for use with SiC power
the Si-IGBT-based traction motor drive with 98% inverter efficiency and 91.5% motor ef-
MOSFET-based traction converters at the expense of a higher cost; and/or
ficiency, owing to the current harmonic distortion. This amounts to nearly 3% higher sys-
(b) Specially-designed active gate driver circuits may be used at the expense of marginally
tem efficiency for the developed SiC traction motor drive as compared to the Si-IGBT-
higher switching losses [43–46].
based ones. High currents, and hence, high torque bandwidths, arising from a high
switching frequency permit the application of SVPWM and FOC over the entire operating
Electronics 2022, 11, 1438 30 of 34

Presently, [47] recommends one of the following techniques to reduce the dvABm /dt
in industrial motors fed by PWM converters, the switching frequencies of which are about
2.5 kHz: (i) output reactors, (ii) dv/dt filter, (iii) sinusoidal filter, and (iv) electrical machine
termination unit. These techniques reduce the dvABm /dt values in Si-IGBT-based traction
converters below 1 kV/µs at the expense of a 0.5–1% drop in the efficiency of the traction
motor drive.

7. Conclusions and Future Work

The design and development of a high-performance, all-SiC, 165 kVA traction motor
drive for light rail transportation systems, based on two-quadrant operating characteristics
of the drive and a complete mathematical model of the public transportation vehicle, have
been described. In the design phase, the performances of two-level traction converters
supplied by 750 V DC catenary lines and equipped with different new-generation power
semiconductors, such as a SiC power MOSFET, Si-IGBT, and hybrid IGBT of compatible
ratings, were compared in view of their thermal behaviors, switching and conduction
losses, and optimum switching frequencies by carrying out detailed computer simulations.
The SiC power MOSFET was shown to outperform the hybrid and Si-IGBT alternatives,
with a further advantage of conducting the reverse current, thus reducing the conduction
loss at relatively high operating powers. In most advanced traction motor drives, Si power
semiconductors are being used where the maximum attainable carrier frequency could
be set to 21 f s (max ) = 3255 Hz in order to obtain a reasonably low TDD for the motor
line currents. However, in this research work, the use of SiC power MOSFETs with a
much higher switching frequency of fC = 10 kHz provided a faster drive response and
much lower TDD in comparison to those of the alternative Si converters. The optimum
switching frequency region was determined to be 10 to 17.5 kHz to maximize the traction
motor drive efficiency at the rated operating conditions, i.e., the inverter efficiency times
the motor efficiency. In addition to the considerably low TDD of 3.11%, a very high
operating efficiency of 91.7% was obtained for the induction traction motor drive under
rated operating conditions at fC = 10 kHz. The SiC inverter efficiency was obtained as 98.7%
and the motor efficiency as 92.9% at the rated conditions, as compared to the Si-IGBT-based
traction motor drive with 98% inverter efficiency and 91.5% motor efficiency, owing to the
current harmonic distortion. This amounts to nearly 3% higher system efficiency for the
developed SiC traction motor drive as compared to the Si-IGBT-based ones. High currents,
and hence, high torque bandwidths, arising from a high switching frequency permit the
application of SVPWM and FOC over the entire operating ranges of the stator frequency,
output power, and catenary voltage. On the other hand, the qualitative objectives in the
converter design, such as the simple converter topology, low complexity in the control
algorithm, small size, and less audible noise, have been also successfully met by the use of
SiC technology.
Most metro vehicles are supplied by 750 and 1500 V DC catenary lines. Regional trains,
high-speed and very high-speed trains, and main-line locomotives are supplied by 15 or
25 kV AC single-phase overhead lines. This AC voltage level is converted to 1800–3000 V
DC by on-board equipment. Furthermore, 1500 or 3000 V DC catenary lines are directly
used by some other railway vehicles. For future work, it is recommended to illustrate the
benefits of two-level traction converters by using 3300 V engineering prototypes of SiC
power MOSFETs in such higher voltage and power applications. Alternatively, three-level
traction converter topologies can be developed and tested in the near future by using the
newly developed traction-type 1700 V higher-current SiC power MOSFETs.

Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at https://

www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/electronics11091438/s1: Video S1: Video_MDPI_SiC_Traction_Motor
_Drive.mp4.
 directly used by some other railway vehicles. For future work, it is recommended to illus-
trate the benefits of two-level traction converters by using 3300 V engineering prototypes
of SiC power MOSFETs in such higher voltage and power applications. Alternatively,
three-level traction converter topologies can be developed and tested in the near future
by using the newly developed traction-type 1700 V higher-current SiC power MOSFETs.
Electronics 2022, 11, 1438 31 of 34
Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at
www.mdpi.com/xxx/s1: Video S1: Video_MDPI_SiC_Traction_Motor_Drive.mp4.
Author Contributions:
Author M.E.and
Contributions: M.E. andI.Ç.
I.Ç.conceptualized
conceptualizedthe
thepresented
presentedidea.
idea.D.Y.
D.Y.developed
developedand andimple-
imple-
mented the
mented theSiC
SiCtraction
tractionmotor
motordrive.
drive.D.Y.
D.Y. and
andM.H.A.
M.H.A. conducted
conducted the
the experimental
experimental tests.
tests. All
Allauthors
authors
have read
have read and
and agreed
agreed to
to the
the published
published version
version of the manuscript.
TheTraction
Funding: The
Funding: TractionMotor
MotorDrive
DriveProject
Project 5150038
5150038 was
was fully
fully financed
financed by the
by the Technology
Technology andand
In-
Innovation
novation Funding
Funding Programs
Programs Directorate
Directorate ofofthe
theScientific
Scientificand
andTechnological
TechnologicalResearch
ResearchCouncil
Council of
of
Turkey, TUBITAKTEYDEB
Turkey, TUBITAK TEYDEBandand ASELSAN,
ASELSAN, Inc.,
Inc., andand
thethe Transportation,
Transportation, Security,
Security, Energy,
Energy, Auto-
Automation
mation and Healthcare
and Healthcare SystemsSystems Business
Business Sector (Corresponding
Sector (Corresponding author: author:
MuammerMuammer
Ermis). Ermis).
Conflicts
Conflicts of Interest: The
The authors
authors declare no conflicts
conflict ofofinterest.
interest.

Appendix
Appendix A
A
The
The permissible
permissible voltage
voltage variations
variationsin
inaa 750
750 V
V DC
DC catenary
catenary line
line are
are specified
specified in
in [32]
[32]
and were
and were redrawn
redrawn against
against time,
time, as
as shown
shown in Figure A1.

Figure A1.
Figure Permissiblevoltage
A1. Permissible voltagevariations
variations in
in 750
750 V
V DC
DC catenary
catenary line.
line.

Appendix B
Appendix B
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 32 of 34
The permissible operating ranges of a vehicle current against the catenary line voltage
The permissible operating ranges of a vehicle current against the catenary line volt-
are specified in [37], and were reconstructed as shown in Figure A2.
age are specified in [37], and were reconstructed as shown in Figure A2.

Figure
FigureA2.
A2.Permissible
Permissibleoperating
operatingranges
rangesofofvehicle
vehiclecurrent
currentagainst
againstcatenary
catenaryline
linevoltage.
voltage.

AppendixCC
Appendix

Table
TableA1.
A1.Thermal
Thermalresistances
resistancesofofSiC
SiCMOSFET
MOSFETmodule
moduleinincomparison
comparisonwith
withhybrid
hybridand
andSi-IGBT
Si-IGBT
modules and different heatsink sizes.
modules and different heatsink sizes.
Si IGBT & SiC SBD
Si IGBT Module Si IGBT Module Si IGBT & SiC SBD SiC MOSFET Module
Si IGBT Module Si IGBT Module Hybrid Module SiC MOSFET Module
Thermal Data All (FF300R17KE4P)
(FF300R17KE4P)
(CM300DY-34T)
(CM300DY-34T)
Hybrid Module (CAS300M17BM2)
(CAS300M17BM2)
Thermal Data All (2MSI400VAE-170-53)
(2MSI400VAE-170-53)
in K/W Infineon
Infineon Mitsubishi
Mitsubishi Wolfspeed/Cree
Wolfspeed/Cree
in K/W Fuji Electric
Fuji Electric
IGBT
IGBT Diode
Diode IGBT
IGBT Diode
Diode IGBT
IGBT Diode
Diode MOSFET
MOSFET Diode Diode
Rth(j-c)
Rth(j-c)
-- -- 0.044
0.044
0.068
0.068
0.033
0.033
0.07
0.07
0.071
0.071
0.065
0.065
Rth(c-h) - - 0.0313 0.0313 0.0313
Rth(c-h) - - 0.0313 0.0313 0.0313
Rth(j-h) 0.114 0.117 - - - -
Rth(h-a) ⁰ 0.018 * 0.018 * 0.018 * 0.018 *
Rth(h-a) ‡ 0.013 † 0.013 † 0.013 † 0.018 *
⁰ For comparison purpose; ‡ Optimum values; † Fischer Elektronik SK-661, W × H × L: 500 × 84 × 500
mm; v = 5 m/s forced-air cooling; * Fischer Elektronik SK-461, W × H × L: 400 × 84 × 400 mm; v = 5
m/s forced-air cooling.
 Figure A2. Permissible operating ranges of vehicle current against catenary line voltage.

Appendix C
Electronics 2022, 11, 1438 32 of 34
Table A1. Thermal resistances of SiC MOSFET module in comparison with hybrid and Si-IGBT
modules and different heatsink sizes.

Table A1. Cont. Si IGBT & SiC SBD

Si IGBT Module Si IGBT Module SiC MOSFET Module
Hybrid Module
Thermal Data All (FF300R17KE4P) (CM300DY-34T) Si IGBT & SiC SBD (CAS300M17BM2)
Si IGBT Module Si Mitsubishi
IGBT Module (2MSI400VAE-170-53) SiC MOSFET Module
in K/W Infineon Hybrid Module Wolfspeed/Cree
Thermal Data All (FF300R17KE4P) (CM300DY-34T) Fuji Electric (CAS300M17BM2)
(2MSI400VAE-170-53)
in K/W IGBTInfineonDiode Mitsubishi
IGBT Diode IGBT Diode MOSFET
Fuji Electric
Wolfspeed/Cree
Diode
Rth(j-c) -
IGBT -
Diode 0.044
IGBT 0.068
Diode 0.033
IGBT 0.07
Diode 0.071
MOSFET 0.065
Diode
Rth(c-h) - - 0.0313 0.0313 0.0313
Rth(j-h) 0.114 0.117 - - - -
Rth(j-h) 0 0.114 0.117 - - - -
Rth(h-a) 0.018 * 0.018 * 0.018 * 0.018 *
Rth(h-a) ⁰ 0.018 * 0.018 * 0.018 * 0.018 *
Rth(h-a)‡‡
Rth(h-a) 0.013 ††
0.013 0.013 ††
0.013 0.013††
0.013 0.018**
0.018
⁰0For
Forcomparison
comparison purpose;
purpose;‡‡Optimum
Optimum values; † Fischer
values; Elektronik
† Fischer SK-661,
Elektronik W ×W
SK-661, H××H L: ×
L: ×500 84 ××84
500 500 mm;
× 500
v=5v
mm; m/s
= 5forced-air cooling;cooling;
m/s forced-air * Fischer* Elektronik
Fischer Elektronik × H × L:
SK-461, WSK-461, W400
×H × ×84L:×400
400×mm;
84 ×v400
= 5 m/s
mm;forced-
v=5
air cooling.
m/s forced-air cooling.

Appendix D
Appendix D
Limiting curve
Limiting curve in
in [42]
[42] (Figure
(Figure 40
40 of
of [42])
[42]) was
was partly
partly redrawn
redrawn as
as shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure A3.
A3.

Figure
Figure A3.
A3. Limiting
Limitingcurve
curvein
in[42]
[42](Figure
(Figure 40
40 of
of [42])
[42]) and
and corresponding
corresponding dv/dt
dv/dtcurve
curvefor
for480
480VVl-to-l-
l-to-l-
rated traction motor voltage as a function of the rise time, trm , of the voltage pulse at the electrical
rated traction motor voltage as a function of the rise time, trm, of the voltage pulse at the electrical
machine
machine terminals.
terminals.

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