CHAPTER-2 SOLUTIONS

Mixture –

brass -(mixture of copper and zinc)

German silver- (mixture of copper, zinc and nickel)

bronze (mixture of copper and tin);

1 part per million (ppm) of fluoride ions in water prevents tooth decay,

1.5 ppm causes the tooth to become mottled and high concentrations of fluoride ions can be
poisonous (for example, sodium fluoride is used in rat poison);

intravenous injections are always dissolved in water containing salts at ionic concentrations
that match with blood plasma concentrations and so on.

Solution : A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more than two components.

SOLUTE + SOLVENT = SOLUTION
Solvent: The component present in the largest quantity.
Solute: It is the component of a solution which is present in relatively small proportion.

Type of solutions Gas solutions, Liquid solutions, Solid solutions

Expressing Concentration of solutions

1)Mass percentage of a component (w/w)=Mass of component in the solution x 100
Total mass of the solution

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 • eg.10% of glucose in water. [10g of glucose is dissolved in 90 g of water resulting in a 100 g
solution.]
• commercial bleaching solution contains 3.62 mass percentage of sodium hypochlorite in
water.

2) Volume percentage of a component(v/v)=Volume of component in the solution x 100

Total volume mass of the solution
• 10% ethanol solution in water means that 10 mL of ethanol is dissolved in water such that the
total volume of the solution is 100 mL
• 35% solution of ethylene glycol , [an antifreeze is used in cars for cooling the
engine.]
At this concentration the antifreeze lowers the freezing point of water to 255.4K (-17.6 o C)

➢ Antifreeze solutions --Water is used in radiators of vehicles as cooling liquid.

➢ If the vehicle is to be used at high altitudes where temperature is sub-zero. water would
freeze in radiators.
➢ To avoid this problem. a solution of ethylene glycol in water is used in radiators which will
lower the freezing point lower than zero.

3) Mass by volume percentage (w/v): Mass of component in the solution x 100

Total volume of the solution
• commonly used in medicine and pharma

4) Parts per million = Mass of one component x 106 OR mass % of the solute x 104
Total mass of the solution
• eg : con. of pollutants in water or atmosphere is often expressed in terms of ppm or μg
mL 1
•
A litre of sea water (which weighs 1030 g) contains about 6 × 10–3 g of dissolved oxygen (O2 ).
Such a small concentration is also expressed as 5.8 g per 106 g (5.8 ppm) of sea water.

BQ4)DefineMole fraction (X ) [UNIT LESS]

It is defined as the ratio of the number of moles of a component to the total number of moles of
all the components.
For a binary solution, if the number of moles of A and B are nA and nB respectively, the mole
fraction of A will be A = nA A+ B =1
nA+ nB

5)Molarity (M) It is the number of moles of solute present in 1L of the solution.

a) M = number of moles of solute / volume of solution (L)

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 b)M = mass of solute (in gram) * 1000 / mol. mass. of solute x volume of solution (in mL)
c) Dilution law, M1 V1 = M2 V2 (for dilution from volume V1 to V2)
d) For reaction between two reactants, M1 V1 / n1 = M2 V2 / n2
e) Molarity = mass % X Density X 10
Molar mass of solute.
Molarity varies with temperature due to change in volume of solution

6) Molality (m)It is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of the solvent.
a)Molality = mass of solute in gram * 1000 / mol. mass. of solute * mass of solvent (in g)

Q) Molality is independent of temperature because it depends mass , and mass does not
depend on temperature.
Mass %, ppm, mole fraction and molality are independent of temperature

Relation between molarity and molality.

Molality = Molarity x 1000
(1000 x Density )-( Molarity x Molar mass of the solute )

Q)Which is more concentrated 1M glucose or 1m glucose ?Why ?

1M glucose. 1M glucose is 1 mole in 1L of solution.
1m is 1 mole in 1000ml of solvent. So more diluted.

Relation between Molality and mole fraction of the solute.

B = m A- solvent , B -solute
m + 1000
MMA
SOLUBILITY
Solubility :Solubility of a substance is its maximum amount that can be dissolved in a specified
amount at a specified temperature.It depends upon the following factors :
1) Nature of solute, 2)nature of solvent,3)temperature 4)pressure
Solubility of a solid in a liquid.
Saturated solution,crystallization,,unsaturated solution, (refer pg 38)

Qn) Sodium chloride, Sugar dissolve readily in water,naphthalene,anthracene do not.(Y)

But naphthalene and anthracene (non polar solutes) dissolve in benzene(non-polar solvent)
but sodium chloride and sugar do not.Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents and non polar
solutes in nonpolar solvents. A solute dissolve in asolvent if the intermolecular forces are
similar.( Like dissolves like)

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Dissolution :When a solid solute is added to the solvent,some solute dissolves and its
concentration increases in solution.
Crystallisation : Some solute particles in solution collide with the solid solute particles and get
separated out of solution. This process is known as crystallisation.

A stage is reached when the two processes occur at the same rate. Under such conditions,
number of solute particles going into solution will be equal to the solute particles separating
out and a state of dynamic equilibrium is reached.

Saturated solution:A solution which no more solute can be dissolved at the same temperature
and pressure
unsaturated solution is one in which more solute can be dissolved at the same temperature.
Effect of Temperature on solubility of solids in liquids
: In a nearly saturated solution,
• if the dissolution process is endothermic (ΔH > 0) , the solubility increases with
temperature ( Le Chatelier”s principle )
• if the dissolution process is is exothermic (ΔH < 0) , the solubility decreases with
temperature ( LeChatelier”s principle)

Solubility of a Gas in a Liquid

BQ)State Henry’s Law and its application.
It states that the partial pressure of a gas in vapour phase (p) is proportional to the mole fraction
of the gas ( ) in the solution.
P = KH is the Henry”s law constant.

Significance of KH :The higher the value of KH at a given pressure, the lower is the solubility
of the gas in the liquid.

[Another statement : The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial
pressure of the gas present above the surface of the liquid or solution. ]

KH values for both N2 and O2 increase with increase of temperature indicating that the solubility of
gases increases with decrease of temperature.

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Mole fraction of HCl in its solution in cyclohexane.

BQ)Applications of Henry’s Law

• To increase the solubility of CO2 in soda water,and soft drinks, the bottle is sealed under high
pressure.
• To avoid bends( the toxic effect of high concentration of in the blood ) the tanks used by
scuba divers are filled with air diluted with helium.( due to low solubility of helium)
(11.7% helium, 56.2% nitrogen and 32.1% oxygen).
• At high altitudes,the partial pressure of oxygen is less than that at the ground level.This leads
to low concentrations of oxygen in the blood and tissues of people living at high altitudes or
climbers .Low blood oxygen causes climbers to become weak and unable to think clearly,
symptoms of ca ondition known as anoxia.

Q)What is the Effect of Temperature on Solubility of a gases ?

Solubility of a gas in liquids decrease with increase in temperature.(As dissolution is an
exothermic process, the solubility should decrease with increase of temperature.)

BQ) Aquatic species are more comfortable in cold waters rather than warm water.Why?
Solubility of gases increase with decrease in temperature.So in cold water the concentration of
dissolved oxygen is high.

Vapour pressure of liquid solutions

Vapour pressure of liquid-liquid solutions.
Vapourpressure :It is the pressure exerted by the vapour phase on the surface of the liquid
phase when the liquid phase and the vapour phase are in equilibrium
Vapour pressure depends on two factors
a)Nature of the liquid :Liquids having weak Intermolecular forces are volatile and therefore
have greater vapour pressure.
b)Temperature : Vapour pressure increases with increase in temperature..

RAOULT’S LAW (1)

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BQ)State Raoult’s law for a solution of volatile solute /volatile liquids
It states that for a solution of volatile liquids the partial pressure of each component is directly
proportional to its mole fraction.
Mathematically pA ∞ A,, pA =p0A A,
PB ∞ B, pB = p0B B
pAandpBare the partial vapour pressure of A and B
p0A andp0Bare the vapour pressure of the pure components A and B.

Derive PTOTAL = p0A +( p0B -p0A) B

If PTOTALis the total vapour pressure then according to Dalton”s law of partial pressure,
PTOTAL =pA + pB
= p0A A + p0B B , A + B =1

=p0A(1- B) + p0B B
0 0 0
PTOTAL =p A +( p B -p A) B where A is a solvent, B is a solute.

Relation between PTOTAL and mole fraction of the components in the vapour phase
If yAand yB are the mole fraction of component A and B in the vapor phase ,then
pA=yAPTOTAL, pB= yBPTOTAL

Raoult”s law as a special case of Henry’s law.

BQ)What is the relation between Raoult’s law and Henry’s Law ?

The Henry's law is given by: P = KH

where p is the partial pressure of the gas and is the mole fraction of the gas in the solution
KH is the proportionality constant Henry's Constant

The Raoult’s law is given by: ,pA = p0A A,

where pA is the partial pressure and
x is the mole fraction.
p0A is the vapor pressure of the pure component.
So, Raoult’s law is a special case of Henry's law when kH = p0A

RAOULT’S LAW (2)

BQ)Raoult’s law in general form (For a solution )

It is stated for any solution partial vapour pressure of each volatile component in the solution is
directly proportional to its mole fraction.
Mathematically pA =p0A A, , pB = p0B B

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Vapour pressure of Solutions of solids in liquids.

Q) Vapour pressure of a solution containing non-volatile liquid is lower than that of pure
solvent. why ?
• When a non volatile solute is added to a pure volatile solvent ,the vapour pressure of
the solution is lower than that of the pure solvent.
• In the solution a part of the surface is occupied by non-volatile solute , hence
evaporation takes place from a lesser surface area.
• Number of solvent molecules escaping from the surface decreases And this results
decrease of vapour pressure.
[In a pure liquid fig(a) the entire surface is occupied by the liquid molecules.Hence vapour
pressure of the solution is from solvent alone ]

Ideal Solution.
A solution which obeys Raoult’s law over a wide range of concentration at a specified
temperature.
Characteristics : a) ΔmixH =0 [ no heat absorbed or evolved )
b) ΔmixV =0
[ volume of the solution would be equal to the sum of volumes of the two components ]
For an ideal solution p = pA +pB = p0A A +p0B B

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Reason for formation of ideal solution -If the intermolecular force of attraction between
molecules of A and that of molecules of B is nearly equal to those between A-B, this leads to the
formation of ideal solution.
Eg. Solution of n-hexane and n-heptane, bromoethane and chloroethane,
benzene and toluene

Non-ideal solution :A solution which does not obey”s Raoult”s law over a wide range of
concentration at a specified temperature.Characteristics : a) ΔmixH≠ 0 b) Δmix V ≠0c)pA≠p0A A

, pB≠p0B B

A non-ideal solution show positive or negative deviation

Positive deviation: When the partial pressure of each component and the resultant total pressure
are greater than the pressure predicted by Raoult’slaw , such a solution shows positive deviation.
The intermolecular forcesof A-B interactions are weaker than those between A-A and B-B .
FA-B <FA-A & FB-B
Characteristics:a) ΔmixH>0 ( heat is absorbed, positive) ( endothermic)
• b) Δmix V >0 ( Increase in volume after mixing) c)pA>p0A A , pB>p0B B
eg.Ethanol and acetone , ethyl alcohol and water, acetone and carbondisulphide,

Negative deviation :When the partial of each component and the resultant total pressure are less
thanan the pressure predicted by Raoult’s law , such a solution shows negative deviation.
The intermolecular forces of A-B interactions are stronger than those between A-A and B-B .
FA-B > FA-A & FB-B
Characterisitcs: a) ΔmixH< 0 ( heat is given out, negative) (Exothermic)
b) Δmix V <0 ( decrease in volume after mixing) c)pA<p0A A , pB<p0B B
eg.Chloroform and acetone, phenol and aniline, nitric acid and water

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Draw a graph to show the vapour pressure and molefraction of an ideal solution.

BQ)Azeotrope :They are binary mixtures having the same composition in liquid and vapour
phase and boil at a constant temperature
.( Not possible to separate the components by fractional distillation)

BQ)Minimum boiling azeotrope:They are binary mixtures whose boiling point is less than
either of the two components.The solutions which show a large positive deviation from Raoult”s
law.
eg. 95 % Ethanol and 5% water by volume

BQ)Maximum boiling azeotrope :They are binary mixtures whose boiling point is more than
either of the two components.The solutions which show a large negative deviation from
Raoult”s law.
Eg. 68% Nitric acid and 32% water by mass.

1)What type of deviation from Raoult’s law is shown by chloroform and acetone .Why ?
A) Negative deviation. This is because chloroform molecule is able to form H-bond with
acetone molecule.

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2)Why is an increase in temperature observed on mixing chloroform and acetone ?
A) chloroform molecule and acetone have dipole dipole interaction.On mixing chloroform with
acetone it is able to form stronger H-bond with acetone molecule. Hence there is negative
deviation from Raoult’s law and an increase in temperature.

3)What type of deviation is shown by a mixture of ethanol and acetone ?what type of
azeotrope is formed by mixing ethanol and acetone.?
A) positive deviation. Minimum boiling azeotrope.

4)On mixing liquid X and liquid Y , volume of the resulting solution decreases.What type
of deviation from Raoult’s law is shown by the resulting solution.What change in
temperature would you observe after mixing liquids X and Y ?
A) Negative deviation.Temperature will rise.

5) What type of non-ideality is observed when

a)phenol and aniline is mixed b) CHCl3 and acetone is mixed.

6) 2 liquid A and B at 25 0C are mixed. The temperature of the solution became 26 0 C. what
type of non-ideality is observed. why ?
A)

Q7)Why does a solution of ethanol and cyclohexane show positive deviation from Raoult’s
law ?
A)On adding cyclohexane to ethanol , its molecules get in between the molecules of
ethanol.Thus breaking the hydrogen bond and reducing ethanol-ethanol interaction. This will
increase the vapour pressure and result in positive deviation.

Q8)Liquids X and Y boils at 100 0C and 180 O C respectively. Which one has higher vapour
pressure at 50 0C ?
Liquid X with lower boiling point is more volatile .Hence have higher pressure at 50 0 C.

Q9)∆ H is positive for positive deviation .Why ?

Intermolecular force of attraction after mixing is weaker than the intermolecular force
before mixing.Energy released in the formation of new bond is less than the energy
required.Therefore ∆ H is positive. Hence the process is endothermic.Temperature
drops.

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BQ2024)

Colligative properties : Those properties which depend on the number of solute particles
but not upon their nature .
1)Relative lowering of vapour pressure of the solvent.
Derive a relation between partial pressure of a solvent and a nonvolatile solute.
Consider a solution containing solvent A (liquid) and a nonvolatile solute B (solid)
PTOTAL =pA + pB
If solute B is nonvolatile then p = pA
OR pA =p0A A
pA =p0A A
pB = p0B B A+ B =1
pA = p0A(1- B)

PA =1- B
POA
P0A –PA= B = nB
P0A nA +nB
The relative lowering of vapour pressure of a volatile solvent over a solution is equal to mole
fraction of a non volatile solute which is present in the solution. .
For dilute solutions nB<<nA hence neglecting nB in the denominator.
P0A –PA= nB = wB x MMA
P0A nA MMB xwA
RAOULT’S LAW (3)

BQ)State Raoult”s law for a solution containing a non volatile solute and volatile solvent.
It states that the relative lowering of vapour pressure of a volatile solvent over a solution is
equal to mole fraction of a non volatile solute which is present in the solution. .
[ A –solvent , B – non volatile solute ]
Mathematically P0A–PA= B
P0A
BQ 2024)

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 A) 0.80 B) 0.725 C)0.15 D) 0.225

2)Elevation of boiling point of the solvent

[ Boiling point is the temperature at which vapour pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure.]
When a non volatile solute is added to the volatile solvent the vapour pressure of the solution
decreases. To equalize the vapour pressure of the solution with the atmospheric pressure,the
boiling point of the solution should be raised above the boiling temperature of the pure solvent

.
Formula
∆Tb = Tb –T0b is known as the elevation in boiling point
Tb - Bp of the solution T0b - Bp of the pure solvent
∆Tb = K b m m-molality /, K b - Molal elevation constant/ Ebullioscopic constant.
∆Tb = K b x 1000 x wB x 1000
MMB x wA (gm)
Qn)Define ebullioscopic constant/Molal elevation constant.
It is defined as elevation in boiling point when one mole of a non-volatile solute is
Dissolved in one kilogram(1000g) of the solvent.
OR
It is the elevation in boiling point of one molal solution.
The unit is K Kg mol-1OR oC Kg mol-1

3)Depression of freezing point of the solvent (Kf )

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Freezing point is the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the substance in its liquid state
is equal to the vapour pressure in the solid phase. When anon volatile solute is added to the
volatile solvent the vapour pressure of the solution decreases. To equalize the vapour pressure
of the solution with the atmospheric pressure,the freezing point of the solution should be
lowered below the freezing point of the pure solvent.
Formula
∆T f = T0f -Tf is known as the depression in freezing point
Tf- Freezing pont of the solution
T0f - Freezing point of the pure solvent
∆Tf =Kf m m-molality /, K f - Molal depression constant/Cryoscopic constant.
∆Tf =Kf x 1000 x wB x 1000
MMB x wA(gm)

FORMULA TO CALCULATE Kf and Kb [ value depends on the nature of solvent ]

Kf = R x MMA X (Tof)2
1000 x ∆𝒇𝒖𝒔 𝑯

Kb = R x MMA X (Tob)2
1000 x ∆𝒗𝒂𝒑 𝑯

Qn)Define Cryoscopic constant (K b )/MOLAL DEPRESSION CONSTANT

It is defined as the depression in freezing pointwhen one mole of a non-volatile solute
is dissolved in one kilogram(1000g) of the solvent.
OR
It is defined as the depression in freezing point of one molal solution.
The unit is K Kg mol-1 OR oC Kg mol-1

4)Osmotic pressure of the solution.(𝝅)

Semipermeable membrane :(SPM) : A membrane through which only solvent molecules can pass
but not the solute ones .
eg: Cellophane, parchment paper, wall of living cell , pig’s bladder, cellulose acetate.

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Osmosis –Is the phenomenon of movement of solvent molecules from higher
concentration(OF SOLVENT ) to lower concentration ( OF SOLVENT ) through a
semipermeable membrane

OR
Is the phenomenon of movement of solvent molecules from dilute solution to concentrated
solution through a semipermeable membrane.
Osmotic pressure of a solution is the excess pressure that must be supplied to the solution to
prevent osmosis

.
𝝅 = CRT ( C- concentration, R – gas constant )
𝝅 = nB RT= wBRT
V(L) MMB V (l)
Principle of measuring osmotic pressure.

OR
The pressure in excess of osmotic atmospheric pressure that must be applied to the solution to
prevent it from rising in the tube is the osmotic pressure.This will also be equal to hydrostatic
pressure ( pressure that is exerted by a fluid at equilibrium ) of the liquid column of height , h.
solution

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BQ) Osmotic pressure is considered as the best colligative property to calculate the molar mass
of solute. ( Advantage of osmotic pressure)
a)It can be carried out at room temperature .
b)themolartiy of solution is used instead of molality.
c)Compared to other colligative properties ,its magnitude is large even for dilute solutions.

BQ)Reverse osmosis :
If is the pressure larger than osmotic pressure is applied to the solution side, the pure
solvent flows out of the solution through SPM.
Application – Is used to desalinate water. SPM is cellulose acetate.

Isotonic solution – Two solutions are said to be isotonic when they exert the same osmotic
pressure because they have same molar concentration
eg. All IV injections (0.9% , (m/v) NaCl )are isotonic with body fluid.

For isotonic solutions, 𝝅 1= 𝝅2

Eq. (ii) holds good only for those solutes which neither possess the tendency to get associate nor
dissociate in solution, e.g
BQ 2024)

Hypotonic solutions – A solution having lower osmotic pressure than the other. Solution is said
to be hypotonic with respect to the other.
Eg.solution containing NaCl concentration .less than 0.9% , (m/v)water moves in the cell.The
cell swells up.

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Hypertonic solution – A solution is having higher osmotic pressure than the other. Solution is
said to be hypertonic with respect to the other.
Eg.solution containing NaCl concentration more than ( 0.9% , (m/v)water flows out of the
cell.The cell shrinks

1) What happens when we place the blood cell in water. (Hypotonic solution)Give reason.
A)Due to osmosis water enters into the cell and blood cell swell.

2)Blood cells are isotonic with 0.9% sodium chloride solution.If we place blood cells in a
solution containing
a)1.2% sodium chloride solution
b)0.4 % sodium chloride solution

A)a)Water will flow out of the cell and they would shrink
b) Water will flow into the cell and they would swell.
Application qn (Give reason )

a)A raw mango placed in concentrated salt solution shrivel into pickle ?
A) It loses water via osmosis and shrivel into pickle.

b) Wilted flowers revive when placed in fresh water ?Water will move into them
through osmosis.
c) Limped carrot becomes firm again when placed in water. ? Because of water lost
into the atmosphere can be placed into the water making it firm once again. Water will
move into them through osmosis.

d)What is edema ? People taking a lot of salt or salty food experience water retention in
tissue cells and intercellular spaces because of osmosis..The resulting puffiness or swelling
is called edema.
e)The preservation of meat by salting and of fruits by adding sugar protects against
bacterial action .?
A)Through the process of osmosis , a bacterium on salted meat or candid fruit loses water ,
shrivels and dies.

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Abnormal molar mass In order to get the correct molar mass , two conditions should be obeyed.
a) Solution should be dilute b) Solution should not associate or dissociate.
Association
In some solvents solute particles undergo association.Hence total number of molecules in the
solution, will be lower than the number of particles we added. Hence colligative property will be
lower (CP œ 1/MM.). Hence observed molar mass will be greater than the actual molar
mass.
The molar mass calculated on the basis of this ΔT b or ΔTf will, therefore, be twice the expected value.
Such a molar mass that is either lower or higher than the expected or normal value is called as
abnormal molar mass.

a)acetic acid in benzene b) Benzoic acid in benzene

undergoes dimerisation , i =after/before = 1/2

If trimerisation , i =1/3, if tetramerisation , i =1/4

Dissociation :
When ionic compound (electrolytes) when dissolved in water dissociates into cations and
anions.Hence total number of particles will be greater than what we added .Since colligative
property depends on the number of solute particles , value of colligative properties increases.(CP
œ 1/MM. Hence observed molar mass will be lower than the actual molar mass.

When there is dissociation of solute into ions, the experimentally determined molar mass is always
lower than the true value.
eg. a)KCl in water ,
Note : If solute undergoes complete dissociation i =n

BQ)Define Van” hoff factor (i)

It represents the extent of association or dissociation of the solute particles in the solution.

i = Normal molecular massOr i = Observed colligative property

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 Observed molecular mass Calculated colligative property
OR i =Total no. o f particles after association/dissociation
, Total no.of particles before association.

Degree of dissociation(𝜶) =i-1 (n is the no.of ions produced per formula of the compound.)
n-1
Degree of association. 𝜶 = 1-i ( n. is the no of particles before association)
1-1/n

EXTRA QUESTIONS:
BQ 2024)

Q4)Why a person suffering from high blood pressure is advised to take minimum quantity
of common salt. ?
A) Osmotic pressure a colligative property is directly proportional to the concentration of the
solute. On taking a large amount of common salt, Na + and Cl- ions enter into the body fluid
thereby raising the concentration of the solutes.As a result osmotic pressure increases which
may rupture the blood cells

Q5)Out of 0.1 molal solution of glucose and KCl which one will have a higher boiling point
. Why? .A) 0.1M KCl. KCl dissoicates to K+ and Cl –

ASSIGNMENT
1)Calculate the freezing point of solution when 1.9 g of MgCl2 (M = 95 g mol−1 ) was
dissolved in 50 g of water, assuming MgCl2 undergoes complete ionization.
(Kf for water = 1.86 K kg mol−1 )

2)Out of 1 M glucose and 2 M glucose, which one has a higher boiling point and why?

3)What happens when the external pressure applied becomes more than the osmotic
pressure of solution?

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4) When 2.56 g of sulphur was dissolved in 100 g of CS2 , the freezing point lowered by 0.383
K. Calculate the formula of sulphur (Sx ). (Kf for CS2 = 3.83 K kg mol−1 , Atomic mass of
sulphur = 32 g mol−1 ]

5) 1·00 g of a non-electrolyte solute dissolved in 50 g of benzene lowered the freezing point of

benzene by 0·40 K. Find the molar mass of the solute. (Kf for benzene = 5·12 K kg mol−1)
6) 15.0 g of an unknown molecular material is dissolved in 450 g of water. The resulting solution
freezes at − 0.34°C. What is the molar mass of the material?
(Kf for water = 1.86 K kg mol− 1)
.7) A solution of glycerol (C3H8O3 ) in water was prepared by dissolving some glycerol in 500 g of
water. This solution has a boiling point of 100.42° C. What mass if glycerol was dissolved to make this
solution? (Kb for water = 0.512 K kg mol−1 )

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