EECE 310L - Report - Lab 4

Group 1:

• Mayssa Hajj Hassan

ID: 202421556
Email: [email protected]
• Zora Banbouk
ID: 202300180
Email: [email protected]
Section: #1
Date: Tuesday, 17 October
Title: RC and RLC Circuits
Objectives:
• Investigate the frequency response and time response of RC circuits.
• Investigate the frequency response of series RLC circuits.
• Use the oscilloscope to do frequency, time, and phase measurements.
Equipment used:
- Resistors (of resistances 20 Kohm and 1 Kohm)
- Capacitors (of capacitances 1 nf and 0.1 uf)
- Function Generator
- Oscilloscope
- Wires
- Cables
- Breadboard
Components used:
The components used are resistors 1 Kohms, 20 Kohms
Theoretical Value Measured Value % error
1 Kohms 0.99 Kohms 1%
20 Kohms 19.88 Kohms 0.6%
Experimental Procedure and Discussion:
A. Phase shift measurements
A.1. Circuit diagrams

A.2. Detailed experimental procedure

i) Measurement settings
There are two standard ways to measure the phase difference between two sinusoids of the
same frequency by using an oscilloscope. The first method, which requires a dual trace scope,
exploits the fact that a phase difference is equivalent to a time shift. The second one relies on
the well-known Lissajous pattern using the X-Y mode of the oscilloscope. Using the function
generator, apply a sinusoidal voltage (Vaf = 6 V peak-to-peak) of frequency 5 kHz to the input of
the circuit shown in Fig. A-1. Apply VBA to CH 1 of the oscilloscope and VDA to CH 2.

- First way: phase shift measurements using time shift

Superpose the two traces of VBA and VDA to have the same horizontal axis and adjust the
VOLT/DIV and SEC/DIV settings to get stable traces. Measure the phase difference φ on the
oscilloscope.

- Second way: phase shift measurements using Lissajous figure

Leaving the connections, the same as in Part A.i., set the sweep rate to X-Y mode. VBA and VDA
will be connected to the X and Y channels of the oscilloscope. An ellipse (called the Lissajous
figure) will be observed on the oscilloscope screen resulting from the superposition of two
perpendicular sinusoidal signals VBA and VDA. Adjust the VOLTS/DIV controls of X and Y and use
the vertical and horizontal POSITION knobs to center the ellipse symmetrically
It can be shown that sin 𝜑 = 𝐵 / 𝐴

Change the frequency of the input and observe how the shape of the ellipse changes with
frequency.

ii) Assumptions
The phase angle can be calculated using the formula: tan𝜑 = 𝑋𝐶 𝑅 where 𝑋𝐶 = 1 𝜔𝐶 = 1 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
Calculate the phase angle with f = 5 KHz, C = 1 nF and R = 20 KΩ. The answer is 57.85 deg.
 A.3. Measurements and Results including
i) Tables

Phase shift measurements

Y-T Format ∆t=32 usec T=202 usec Ɵ=57.03 degrees
Lissajous Figure 2B=5 2A=6 Ɵ=56.442 degrees

ii) Graphs
In the lab, we first used Y-T format on the oscilloscope and saw a sinusoidal wave and
determined the phase shift by using the formula Ɵ = (∆t/T)*360 degrees
Second, we switched to Lissajous Figure, observed an ellipse and determined graphically A and B
(by counting the divisions). Then we calculated the phase shift using the formula sin Ɵ = 𝐵 / 𝐴

A.4. Discussions
1. How does the Lissajous figure look like at very low frequencies?
At low frequencies, we observe a circle centered at the origin. In fact, at low frequencies (w
tends to 0) the phase shift tends to 90 degrees. Then sin Ɵ = sin 90 = 𝐵 / 𝐴 = 1 which leads to
A=B, so the Lissajous Figure will be a circle.

2. How does the Lissajous figure look like at very high frequencies?
At high frequencies, we observe a straight increasing line passing through the origin. In fact, at
high frequencies (w tends to infinity) the phase shift tends to 0 degrees, which means they are
in phase.

B. Lag networks
B.1. Circuit diagrams

B.2. Detailed experimental procedure

i) Measurement settings
Starting with a frequency of 100 Hz on the function generator, apply a sinusoidal wave input of
amplitude 1 V to the lag network. Observe the input and output waveforms on the oscilloscope
and record the results. Repeat for sinusoidal waves with frequencies of 1 KHz and 10 KHz.
Apply a square waveform of 100 Hz frequency and 1 V peak-to-peak amplitude to the lag
network and measure the amplitude of the output voltage on the oscilloscope. Repeat for
frequencies of 1 KHz and 10 KHz.

ii) Assumptions

1
By voltage divider rule, we calculate Vout pk-pk= Vin pk-pk at different frequencies as
√1+ (𝑤𝑅𝐶)2
shown in the table below.

Lag Network
Frequency Input Voltage Output Voltage milli-Vpk-pk
100 Hz 1 Vpk-pk 998 mVpk-pk
1 KHz 1 Vpk-pk 846 mVpk-pk
10 KHz 1 Vpk-pk 157 mVpk-pk

B.3. Measurements and Results including

i) Tables

Sinusoidal signal
Lag Network
Frequency Input Voltage Output Voltage milli-Vpk-pk
100 Hz 1 Vpk-pk 1060 mVpk-pk
1 KHz 1 Vpk-pk 860 mVpk-pk
10 KHz 1 Vpk-pk 152 mVpk-pk

Square signal (Duty cycle = 50%)

Lag Network
Frequency Input Voltage Output Voltage max Output Voltage min
100 Hz 1 Vpk-pk 580 mV -500 V
1 KHz 1 Vpk-pk 540 mV -460 V
10 KHz 1 Vpk-pk 120 mV -118 V

ii) Graphs

Sinusoidal signal
1. Graph when frequency is 100 Hz
2. Graph when frequency is 1 KHz

3. Graph when frequency is 10 KHz

Square signal (Duty cycle = 50%)

1. Graph when frequency is 100 Hz

2. Graph when frequency is 1 KHz

3. Graph when frequency is 10 KHz

I. Given a Lag network with a sinusoidal input:

1. Calculate the cutoff frequency the network.
Fc =1/(2pi*R*C) = 1591.55 Hz

2. Explain the shape of the output waveforms of various frequencies, with particular reference
to filter perspective.
As frequency increases, the waveform of the output is shifted to the right which means the
output lags the input and the amplitude is decreasing. In fact, at low frequencies the capacitor
becomes an open circuit, so the output is equal to the input. However, at high frequencies, the
capacitor becomes a short circuit, so the output is equal to 0.
Therefore, this circuit acts like a low pass filter.

3.What should be the relationship between the RC time constant and the frequency of the
input so that the filter does not introduce appreciable attenuation?
For the filter to not introduce attenuation, the capacitor should have enough time to charge and
discharge. This time is the time constant τ=RC, which means that the frequency should be
significantly lower than 1/ τ for the output not to attenuate.

4. Explain the shape of the output waveforms of the lag network to sinusoidal wave inputs in
terms of phase shift.
At frequency 100 Hz, the input and output waves are in phase. As frequency increases, the
waveform of the output is shifted to the right which means the output lags the input. At a very
high frequency like 10 KHz, the output is shifted by 90 degrees which is the maximum phase
shift.

II. Given a Lag network with a square input:

1. Explain the shape of the output waveforms of various frequencies, with particular
reference to the fundamental property of a capacitor charging/discharging functions.
At low frequency, the capacitor is fully charging with a small time constant (Ƭ is smaller than
T=1/f). As frequency increases, the period of the input decreases, thus the capacitor doesn’t
have enough time to fully charge (Ƭ is bigger than T=1/f).
2. Explain the shape of the output waveforms of various frequencies, with particular
reference to filter perspective and Fourier theorem of periodic signals.
At low frequencies, the filter passes the input almost unchanged. As frequency increases,
the filter starts to remove the harmonic components of the input signal which are
responsible of the details of the wave shape. Therefore, the output signal is no more a
square wave and keeps only a general form which is the triangular. And the circuit is clearly
a low pass filter.
3. What should be the relationship between the RC time constant and the frequency of the
square input so that the lag network does not introduce appreciable attenuation?
Compare to that of the sinusoidal signal.
To the lag network does not introduce appreciable attenuation, the period of the square
wave should be much higher than the time constant RC (like 2.5 times bigger), so the
capacitor can fully charge.

4. The lag network acts as differentiator or integrator? At which frequencies with respect to
RC time constant? Verify by calculation and from the output waveform shape that
function of the lag network.
At high frequencies, where the input frequency is much bigger than 1/RC, the lag network
acts more like an integrator. In this case, the capacitor charges and discharges rapidly,
leading to the integration of the input signal. We can see that when the frequency is 10 KHz,
the square signal becomes triangular which is the integration of the square signal.

C. Lead networks
C.1. Circuit diagrams

C.2. Detailed experimental procedure

i)Measurement settings
Starting with a frequency of 100 Hz on the function generator, apply a sinusoidal wave input of
amplitude 1 V to the lead network. Observe the input and output waveforms on the oscilloscope
and record the results. Repeat for sinusoidal waves with frequencies of 1 KHz and 10 KHz.
Apply a square waveform of 100 Hz frequency and 1 V peak-to-peak amplitude to the lead
network and measure the amplitude of the output voltage on the oscilloscope. Repeat for
frequencies of 1 KHz and 10 KHz.
ii) Assumptions
1
By voltage divider rule, we calculate Vout pk-pk= Vin pk-pk at different frequencies as
√1+ (1/𝑤𝑅𝐶)2
shown in the table below.
Lead Network
Frequency Input Voltage Output Voltage milli-Vpk-pk
100 Hz 1 Vpk-pk 62.7 mVPk-pk
1 KHz 1 Vpk-pk 532 mVpk-pk
10 KHz 1 Vpk-pk 987 mVpk-pk

C.3. Measurements and Results including

i) Tables

Sinusoidal signal
Lead Network
Frequency Input Voltage Output Voltage
100 Hz 1 Vpk-pk 72 mVpk-pk
1 KHz 1 Vpk-pk 552 mVpk-pk
10 KHz 1 Vpk-pk 1040 mVpk-pk

Square signal (Duty cycle = 50%)

Lead Network
Frequency Input Voltage Output Voltage max Output Voltage min
100 Hz 1 Vpk-pk 920 mV -880 mV
1 KHz 1 Vpk-pk 960 mV -920 mV
10 KHz 1 Vpk-pk 640 mV -580 mV

ii) Graphs
Sinusoidal signal
1. Graph when frequency is 100 Hz
2. Graph when frequency is 1 KHz

3. Graph when frequency is 10 KHz

Square signal (Duty cycle = 50%)

1. Graph when frequency is 100 Hz

2. Graph when frequency is 1 KHz

3. Graph when frequency is 10 KHz

 I. Given a Lag network with a sinusoidal input:
1. Calculate the cutoff frequency the network
Fc =1/(2*pi*R*C) = 1591.55 Hz

2. Explain the shape of the output waveforms of various frequencies, with particular reference to
filter perspective.
As frequency decreases, the waveform of the output is shifted to the left which means the
output leads the input and the amplitude is decreasing. In fact, at low frequencies the capacitor
becomes an open circuit, so the output is equal to 0. However, at high frequencies, the capacitor
becomes a short circuit, so the output is equal to the input.
Therefore, this circuit acts like a high pass filter.

3. What should be the relationship between the RC time constant and the frequency of the input
so that the filter does not introduce appreciable attenuation?
For the filter to not introduce attenuation, the capacitor should not have enough time to charge
and discharge. This time is the time constant τ=RC, which means that the frequency should be
significantly bigger than 1/ τ for the output not to attenuate.

4. Explain the shape of the output waveforms of the lag network to sinusoidal wave inputs in
terms of phase shift.
At frequency 10 KHz, the input and output waves are in phase. As frequency decreases, the
waveform of the output is shifted to the left which means the output leas the input. At a very low
frequency like 100 Hz, the output is shifted by 90 degrees which is the maximum phase shift.

II. Given a Lag network with a square input:

1. Explain the shape of the output waveforms of various frequencies, with particular reference
to the fundamental property of a capacitor charging/discharging functions.
At high frequency, the capacitor has no enough time to charge and discharge (time constant Ƭ is
bigger than T=1/f). As frequency decreases, the period of the input increases, thus the capacitor
has enough time to fully charge and give the resistor a 0 voltage (Ƭ is smaller than T=1/f).

2. Explain the shape of the output waveforms of various frequencies, with particular reference
to filter perspective and Fourier theorem of periodic signals.
At high frequencies, the filter passes the input almost unchanged. As frequency decreases, the
filter starts to remove the fundamental and some of the first harmonic components of the input
signal which are responsible of the main information of the wave shape. Therefore, the output
signal is no more a square wave and gets rid of the details of the shape which leads to see
impulses with double the amplitude of the input (because the capacitor discharge in the
resistor). And the circuit is clearly a high pass filter.

3. What should be the relationship between the RC time constant and the frequency of the
square input so that the lag network does not introduce appreciable attenuation? Compare to
that of the sinusoidal signal.
To the lead network does not introduce appreciable attenuation, the period of the square wave
should be much smaller than the time constant RC (like 2.5 times smaller), so the capacitor
couldn’t charge.
4. The lag network acts as differentiator or integrator? At which frequencies with respect to RC
time constant? Verify by calculation and from the output waveform shape that function of the
lag network.
At low frequencies, where the input frequency is much smaller than 1/RC, the lead network acts
more like a differentiator. In this case, the capacitor fully charges and discharges, leading to the
differentiation of the input signal. We can see that when the frequency is 100 Hz, the square
signal becomes an impulse which is the differentiation of the square signal.