SCIENCE NOTES 2.

Nitrification It is a process by rich

ammonia or ammonium ions. From nitrogen

JHS 3 fixation, they are converted into nitrates by

bacteria such as Nitrosomonas and
Nitrobacter.
NITROGEN CYCLE
1. Assimilation It is a process by which
It is the circulation of nitrogen in various plants take up nutrients from the soil
forms through nature, OR it is the loss of through their roots and incorporate
nitrogen from the soil into the atmosphere them into their nucleic acid proteins
and back into the soil. It is the process and chlorophyll, and animals
whereby ammonia is converted to nitrogen consume plants; they obtain nitrogen
gas. in the form of protein and other
Stages involved in the nitrogen cycle organic compounds.

1. Nitrogen fixation It is a convention 4. Denitrification is a process by which

of atmospheric nitrogen gas into nitrogen compounds make their way back
ammonia. This process can occur in into the atmosphere by a conversion of
three main processes: an industrial nitrate into nitrogen gas. This is in the
process, a chemical process, and a absence of oxygen and by nitrifying bacteria
biological process. such as Clostridium species and Planococcus
species.
i. Biological fixation Certain bacteria called
rhizobium species live in the root nodules of 5. Ammonification It is a decomposition of
leguminous plants, where they convert dead plants and animals and their excreta by
atmospheric nitrogen. In soil air to ammonia decomposers releasing ammonia back into
the environment.
ii. Chemical fixation It is a result of
lightning, which is OK in the atmosphere. The relationship between the nitrogen
Energy release from lightning converts cycle and the environment
nitrogen gas in the air into nitrogen 1. Nitrogen is required by organisms
compounds that dissolve in rain and wash for the formation of molecules such
into the soil. as nucleic acid, protein, chlorophyll,
iii. Industrial fixation: It involves a etc. Nitrogen in the atmosphere is not
combination of nitrogen and hydrogen to usable by living organisms. Nitrogen
form ammonia fertilizer, which can be is the only means by which rich
applied to the soil to be used by plants in the living organisms can obtain nitrogen.
form of ammonium ions of nitrate. This is 2. A true nitrogen cycle plan to obtain
also called the Haber-Bosch process. nitrogen in the form of nitrates: Animals
obtain nitrogen by feeding on plants. It
means about diversity and balancing the atmosphere whilst nitrogen in the soil is
ecosystems. reduced.

1. When plants and animals die, the Elements

nitrogen in them is given back to the
environment through the An element is any substance that is made up
decomposition of animal waste and of the same kind of atoms and cannot be
also contributes to nitrogen in the broken down into simpler substances by
environment. chemical means.

Importance of the nitrogen cycle in the Chemical symbol Elements are represented
environment by some chemical symbols; these are one or
two letters, usually the 1st letter of the
1. It provides a source of nitrogen for English, Latin, or Greek name of the
living organisms for the formation of element.
nucleic acid proteins and other
molecules.
2. It provides a source of nitrogen for
living organisms. Like plants to
produce chlorophyll for
photosynthesis
3. It ensures nitrogen does not
accumulate in toxic levels in the
atmosphere, soil, or water; this is
called nitrogen balance.

Activities that interrupt the nitrogen cycle

1. Leaching is a process by which rich

nutrients are soluble in water hours and
beyond the reach of soil nutrients.

1. Bush burning is when vegetation

burns nitrogen in organic matter is
released into the atmosphere as Atomic structure
nitrogen gas. All elements are made up of atoms. An atom
Effect of Bush Burning has subatomic particles, which are protons,
neutrons, and electrons.
It prevents enough nutrients from being
recycled back into the soil to support new
plant growth. Nitrogen gas accumulates in
 Sodium = 11 electrons =2,8,1 =Na+ Charge
=+1 valency =1

Isotopes

Isotopes are atoms of the same element that

have the same atomic number but with
different mass numbers owing to the
different numbers of neutrons and have
identical chemical properties, but they have
the same number of electrons; however, they Valency
have different physical properties because
It is a combining power of an element; it is
they have different numbers of neutrons,
the number of charges of all the ions of an
therefore different mass numbers. Example:
element or radical.
carbon = C126C146
A radical or polyatomic ion is a group of
Electronic configuration
atoms that stay together as a charged unit.
Electronic configuration is the arrangement
Molecules
of electrons in the shell of an atom.
A molecule is the smallest particle of an
formation of ionsAn iron is an electrically
element or compound that exists by itself or
charged atom; it is a positively or negatively
as a separate unit. It consists of two or more
charged atom. A positively charged atom is
atoms that are chemically combined.
known as a cation. A cation is formed when
Examples of atoms that form molecules of
an atom loses electrons.
the same elements are oxygen gas and water.
A molecule is said to be monoatomic when
it contains one atom, for example, helium,
neon, or argon. A molecule is said to be
diatomic when it contains 2 atoms; examples
include oxygen, nitrogen gas, and chlorine
gas. A molecule is said to be triatomic when
it contains 3 atoms, examples: ozone, water,
and carbon dioxide. news of Sanskrit ion sulfate. Table salt, or
sodium, moist water, and chlorine, which is
poisonous. However, this element forms a
harmless compound with unique properties.
Because a compound has different properties
from the element that we have to form, there
are two types of chemical compounds. They
are: 1. Molecular compounds 2. Ionic
compounds
1. Elements are arranged in increasing
Molecular compounds It is made up of
order of their atomic number on the
discrete units called molecules. The
periodic table.
molecules consist of a small number of
#2. Moving from left to right in each period nonmetal atoms held together by covalent
of the element charge from metal to bonds. Examples of nonmetals are H, C, O,
nonmetal. and N.

#3. In each group of the periodic table, the Ionic compounds

elements have similar properties. Group One
They are formed by the chemical
elements are called alkali metals, Group 2
combination of metal and nonmetal ions. It
elements are called alkaline earth metals,
consists of cations and anions held by the
Group One elements are called halogens,
electric force of attraction. Example: NaCl,
Group Eight elements are called rare gases,
CaCl, MgO
stable gases, and inert gases, and four
elements are called semi-metals. Binary compounds
#4 Boron and silicon are metalloids. They They are a compass made up of only two
are called metalloids because they have elements. Example: CH₄, CO₂, H₂O.
properties like metals and some like
nonmetals. The following are steps that can be used in
writing the formula of a compound: 1. The
#5. The most reactive metals are those in symbol of the element or polyatomic ion
Group 1. The most reactive nonmetals are involved is written. 2. The balances of the
those in Group One. Boron is in Group 3 but elements of polyatomic ions are indicated.
is a semimetal along with silicon. The valence is therefore interchanged.
Example Aluminum oxide (Al₂O₂) = Al₂O₃ / water = H₁
Compounds The compound is a pure subset
02 Chemical bonding The joining of atoms
that is formed from the chemical
together is called bonding. Interatomic bond
combination of two or more elements. The
refers to the process by which atoms come
compound has different properties from
together to form molecules or compounds
those of the elements that combine to form
through the interaction.
the compound. For example, when iron and
Types of chemical bonding 1. Ionic or
sulfur are chemically combined. To inform a
electrovalent bonding: Ionic or electrovalent each of the participating or bonding atoms
bonding is a type of bond formed when there contributes electrons to be shared; an
is a complete transfer of one or more example is a chlorine molecule. 1 electron
electrons from one atom to another. each from the chlorine atom is donated to
Formation of a bond. The formation of the form a pair of electrons that is shared
bone is as a result of the strong attraction of between them. This is a single covalent
charged ions. The positive ions called bond.
cations and the negative ions called anions Acids, bases, and salts;
are pulled together by a strong attraction for The word acid is derived from a Latin word,
a squad electrostatic force. This type of bond acidus or acere, which means sour. An acid
is likely to be formed between a metal and a is a substance that produces hydrogen ions
nonmetal where the electrons are donated to or protons when dissolved in water; such
the nonmetal. Compounds formed as a result acids are called Bronsted-Lowery acids.
of ionic bonding are called ionic Examples:
compounds.

Acid name

Formula

Ionic Formula

Hydrochloric acid

HCl

H⁺(aq) Cl⁻(aq)

Sulfuric acid

H₂SO₄

2H+(aq) SO42-(aq)

Nitric acid

HNO₃

H⁺(aq) NO₃⁻(aq)
Covalent bonding A covalent bond is
Acids can also be defined as: 1. A substance
formed when a pair of electrons is shared
that contains hydrogen and can be fully or
between two atoms, both of which need to
partially replaced by metal. 2. A substance
gain electrons to complete an octet to
that has replaceable hydrogen atoms. 3. An
achieve stability in each atom contributing
acid is a proton donor.
electrons to be shared. For covalent bonding,
NB: Not every compound containing 5. Strong acids conduct electricity
hydrogen is an acid. Methane It's not an effectively in an aqueous solution. 6. They
acid because its hydrogen atoms are not react with bases to produce salt and water.
replaceable.

example: hydrochloric acid, nitric acid,

carbonic acid, phosphoric acid.
Types of acids
1. Organic acids: These are acids that occur
naturally and are found in plants and
animals. All organic acids are weak acids
and less harmful to humans; they are not
corrosive.
inorganic acids; they are chemically
manufactured in a laboratory. They are
obtained from inorganic matter. Some
inorganic acids are strong acids that are very
harmful or dangerous to mankind. example:
sulfuric acid, sulfuric acid, concentrated bases
nitric acid, carbonic acid, and hydrochloric According to the Bronsted-Lowry concept, a
acid. base is defined as a substance that is capable
of accepting one or more protons from an
acid. It can also be defined as a substance
that produces hydroxide ions when dissolved
in water. NB: Water is both a proton donor
and a proton acceptor. Or hence, water acts
as both an acid and a base. Its base is a
proton acceptor. When you have a stomach
upset, you take antacids; they react to the
acid in your stomach. hydroxide of
magnesium. this is Examples of basis
include; potassium hydroxide, sodium
hydroxide, calcium hydroxide magnesium
hydroxide
properties of acids Types of bases:
1. Acids have a sour taste. There are two types of bases, which are
2. Strong or concentrated acids are organic bases and inorganic bases. Organic
corrosive. bases are bases that occur naturally in plants
3. They turn the bullet's paper most red. and animals. And other living organism
4. They react with metals to produce examples are salt. Petri, Cocoa peeds, Wasp
hydrogen ions. strings NB: Alkalis are bases that are soluble
in water, but not all bases are alkalis, not my chloride, basic magnesium chloride basic
example. sodium hydrogen potassium magnesium chloride #3 double salt; a double
hydrogen calcium hydroxide salt is formed when 2 solutes of a certain salt
are mixed in their right proportion. example:
iron 3 ammonium alums, aluminum
potassium alums #4 acid salt; it is a type of
salt in which part of the replaceable
hydrogen ions are replaced. Example:
sodium hydrogen potassium hydrogen

specialized cells;
there are cells that have developed particular
characteristics to perform certain functions.
Being specialized means that they differ in
Inorganic basis shape and size depending on their role in the
They are bases that are prepared in the plant or animal body; they are formed
laboratory, for example. potassium through the process of differentiation of
hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, calcium unspecialized cells. Differentiation is a
hydroxide process by which unspecialized become
Properties of bases specialized to carry out distinct functions.
1.bases have a bitter taste and specialized cells are also called stem
2. Bases have a pH greater than 7. cells. Mitosis and meiosis are types of cell
3. They turn red litmus paper blue. divisions. A stem cell has the potential to
4. Strong or concentrated acids are divide into many types of specialized cells.
corrosive. What makes a stem cell differentiated into
5. Bases react with acid to form salt and specialized cells are the proteins, for
water. example, enzymes that are formed from
Salt: specific genes of DNA of the nucleus.
An assault is formed when part or all During sexual reproduction in humans, the
replaceable hydrogen ions of an acid are fertilized egg first divides into unspecialized
replaced by a metal. A salt can also be said cells. Each specialized cell has the same
to be a product of the reaction of an acid DNA and has the ability to divide into any
with a base. e.g., zinc chloride, sodium type of specialized cells. Fertilization is a
chloride And calcium Tetraoxosulphate fusion of the male and female gametes to
Types of salt: produce a zygote. Segments of DNA
#1 normal salt; it is a salt in which the produce specific proteins that determine
replaceable hydrogen atoms of an acid have what the cell becomes. When a gene
been replaced by metal examples: sodium produces its protein, it is expressed or has
chloride, zinc chloride. #2 basic salt; they been turned on. If a gene does not produce
are formed when insufficient acid is present heat protein, we see the gene is turned off.
to neutralize in a given base. basic zinc During differentiation into specialized cells,
some genes produce their own proteins causes the stomata to close; they also help to
while others do not. A selective expression stop water from escaping when plant levels
of the specific gene in the DNA of are low.
specialized cells leads to the formation of 2. When plenty of light and water are
specialized cells in both humans and available, such as during the day, water
dicotyledonous plants. When a cell passes into the gas cell by osmosis. This
differentiates, it undertakes major changes in makes the guard cell swollen.
its shape and metabolic activities or Root hair cells
wholesales in a human body. Have the same Root hair cells are epidermic cells on the
DNA but function differently because they surfaces of roots of plants; they have long
express different genes. extensions called root hairs.
Functions of root hair cells
Function of specialized cells in Root hair cells create a large surface area for
dicotyledonous plants absorbing water and minerals from the soil.
As the plant grows from the seed, its sales : #1. Xylem tubes are made of dead cells.
multiplier can become specialized from a #2 There is no cytoplasm in these cells.
range of different functions.
Epidemic cells #3 Cell wars are made from strong
They are generally Giving protection to the substances.
surface of plant cover and protecting all the
young plants. #4 The cell wall is impermeable to water.
Characteristics of epidemic cells #5 Xylem is formed in the root stem and the
1. they are flat list of dicot plants
#2 they form a single layer of flat functions of xylem vessels .
NB: Epidermal cells may have more It transports water and dissolves substances
specialized characteristics depending on the from plant roots to all parts of the plant. The
function of the part of the plant that covers, movement of water to all parts of the plant is
for example, guard cell root hair cell called the transpiration stream.
Guard cells Guard cells are specialized Characteristics of phloem cells
plant cells in the epidermis of stems and 1. It's two, consisting of living cells.
organs that are used to control gas exchange.
They are produced in pairs with a gap 2. The cells have porous and worse
between them that forms a stomatal pore and
#3 The porous ends are joined to one
are located in the leaves of the epidermis.
another to form a sieve plate. Deceived two
Function of the guard cell
have no nucleus, consisting of two cell
1. Guard all control the opening and closing
types. 1- companion cells 2- sieve tubes.
of the stomach and water loss when
Function of the phloem cell
conditions for photosynthesis are poor, such
It transports dissolved sugar. The movement
as when it is dark, water passes. Out of
of sugar around the plant is called
guard cells, this makes them pleased and
translocation. from the cell to the nerve cell
Characteristics of Cambium Muscle cells
Cells Muscle cell Also known as myocytes, they
They are living cells. are long tubular cells. Muscle cells from
2. They are small with little or no vacuum. muscle tissue, which enable body movement
3. They are constantly dividing and There are three types of muscle cells, which
producing more xylem and phloem. are skeletal muscle cells, cardiac muscle
cells, and smooth muscle cells .
Functions of cambium cells Skeletal muscle
It undergoes all division to allow an increase
in the circumference or depth of the plant It's attached to born to facilitate voluntary
cell in the system. The vascular tissue, movement; these cells are converted by
namely xylem and phloem, is arranged connective tissue, which protects and
together in compact masses called vascular supports fiber bundles. It has a cylindrical,
bundles. Usually the xylem is situated in the straight shape.
inner part of each bundle near the stem Cardiac muscle
center, where the phloem flows towards the They are found only in their heart. They
outer surface of the stem between 2 of the found only involuntary muscles, or muscles
cambium cells. Palisade cells that do not require conscious effort to
Chlorophyll is a substance present in operate; they contract to cause the heart to
chloroplasts, a component of plant cells. A pump blood.
component of a plant cell is responsible for Smooth muscle
photosynthesis. Chlorophyll is found in the cells are long, stray cells that contract and
cell found in the mesophyll of the upper cause involuntary movements of smooth
epidermis; they play a vital role in muscles in the internal organs, such as the
photosynthesis. kidneys, intestines, and blood vessels.
Functions of specialized animal cells Sperm cell
1.nerve cell; a nerve cell is also known Stem cells are a mirror product, so that is
as a neuron. It is mainly involved in released along with salmon when a man
receiving and transmitting information from ejaculates in human spermatozoa determines
the brain to different parts of the body. The the gender of a baby to be male or female.
nerve cell, or neuron, is the main structure This means they can carry X or Y
and functional unit of the nervous system. chromosomes. It is the testis that secretes the
The next cell consists of three main parts sperm; they are stored in the epididymis. Do
namely body cell nerve process and axon. you have the shape of a tadpole? They are
Functions of the three main parts the smallest in the body; they are mobile;
1. Nerve process receives information from they move using tails, which are packed
neurons. with energy-giving mitochondria; they
2. The cell body contains a nucleus and is cannot be divided; they carry only a copy of
essential for the life of the nerve cell. their chromosomes, which is half of their
3.Axon transmit electrical signals to and genetic material, which is required to form a
fertilizer. The sperm cell consists of the 2. They do not contain hemoglobin.
following part: I. Head I I. Middle piece I I 3. They have granules.
I. and the tail. The head contains a nucleus
that carries the genetic information of the Life cycle for grasshopper
sperm. The algorithms of the head contain The life cycle of a grasshopper involves
enzymes that digest the membrane of the these stages: from the egg, nymph, and
egg of a female so that the sperm can adult. This life cycle is An incomplete
penetrate during fertilization. The middle metamorphosis. The stages involved in the
piece is packed with mitochondria to release life cycle of a grasshopper 1 .
energy needed for the sperm to fertilize the Egg stage:
egg. The tail enables the sperm to swim. Groups of eggs are surrounded by pots. The
Function of the sperm cell: number of eggs is led by a single female
The sperm cell fertilizes the egg of the during the egg-laying. It is about 7 to 30,
female to form a zygote [embryo] during each pot containing about 8 to 30 eggs
sexual intercourse. depending on the species. Eggs of most
species remain in the cold before hatching
Blood cells are cells for transporting oxygen into a nymph. Few species hatch around the
throughout the body to fight against time during the weather. During the dry
infection. Blood cells are formed from bone season, the eggs remain under the Nissan,
marrow. There are 3 types of blood cells, and leaves fuel tests and hatches the nerve at
which are red blood cells. white blood cells the exit. The grasshopper is active and does
blood platelets. not exhibit any visible behavior.
The red blood cells
The red blood cells are formed in the bone Nymph:
marrow of bones and are released into the It starts feeding immediately after hatching.
blood. The red blood color is a result of It feeds on the plants and animals. The name
hemoglobin in the red blood cells. resembles the adult grasshopper, but as
Hemoglobin is an iron compound that smaller black swings, they cannot lay eggs
combines oxygen to form oxyhemoglobin. or produce and have limited reserves. Unlike
Every blood cell is formed of eggs, the nymph is vulnerable to adverse
oxyhemoglobin. Tissue all over the body, weather conditions.
oxyhemoglobin gives up oxygen when it Adult stage :
reaches tissue that has low oxygen. It is the only stage where it has wins and
concentrated Red blood cells are also known readily feeds more. Action female
as erythrocytes; they have a nucleus. They grasshoppers begin to lay eggs about one to
are biconcave. They do not have a nucleus three weeks after reaching the stage; it can
and are bigger than platelets and smaller leave about two to three months later.
than white blood cells. Activities of a grasshopper
Characteristics of red blood cells 1.They feed on crop plants such as maize
1. They don't have a nucleus. wheat Millet
2. They shed their exoskeleton
 and form new ones through the process Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling
called molting. and solidification of hot.... Magma erupted
3. They go on long migrations to find new from the center of the earth. There are two
supplies of food. types of igneous rocks, which are plutonic
and volcanic.
Harmful activities of the grasshopper
1. The damaged crops and vegetables Characteristics of igneous rocks:
2. The cause is used for vegetables. 1. They are crystalline in structure.
Benefits of the grasshopper 2. Generally resistant to erosion.
3. They are not stratified.
1. Help humans and the ecosystem by the 4. They are heavy and shiny
decomposition of plants and the regrowth sedimentary rocks.
of plants. Sedimentary rocks are referred to as
Activities to reduce the destruction of the stratified rocks. They are also formed by the
grasshopper accumulation of pre-existing rocks; they are
generally composed of secondary minerals
1. Chemical control such as gypsum and clay and minerals. They
2. Practicing grasshopper-resistant are formed from the deposition of sediments
crop farming from other wedded rocks. The sediments are
3. Introducing predators at the egg accumulated into layers. One on top of the
and nymphal stage other, and after a long period of time, they
rocks. become broadened by compression to form
A rock is defined as a large mass of sedimentary rocks, mechanically formed
stone of mineral material found in sedimentary rocks.
the earth's crust. Rocks are made up Weathering
of aggregates, which are important It is also called a biological region because it
sources of minerals and natural is caused by living organisms. Biological
wealth. The manual composition of weathering involves the disintegration of
rocks includes gold, diamond, rocks into smaller particles due to the
aluminum, and iron. activities of plants, animals, and other
microorganisms.
types of rocks
The causes of biological weather include
There are three types of rocks, which are
igneous rocks. metamorphic rocks 1. Human activities such as farming,
sedimentary rocks. building, and road construction
Igneous rocks
are generally massive, crystalline, and hard 2. Stress from growing roots of plants 3.
with broken joints. They are composed Burrowing action and feeding habits of
mainly of primary minerals such as animals
honeyblend and quartz. soil
formation of igneous rocks
Soil is the uppermost layer of the earth; it is
a mixture of broken rocks and minerals.
formation of Soil :
The formation of soil happens over a long
period of time. Soil is formed by the
weathering of rocks into tiny pieces near the
earth's surface.

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