Data Presentation and

Collection
Biostatistics
Methods of Data Collection
• There are two ways to collect data
• Direct Methods
• Indirect Methods
Direct Method
• Interview Method
• It is a method where there is person-to-person interaction, an exchange of
idea between the one soliciting information (interviewer) and the one that is
supplying the information (interviewee).
• This method is applicable to a small sample or population size.
• Registration Method
• A documentary analysis, wherein data are gathered from fact or information
on file, examples are births, death, licenses, land titles, company registration
etc.
Direct Method
• Observation Method
• A scientific method of gathering data that makes possible use of all senses to
measure or to obtain results from the subject of the study.
• Experiment Method
• A method of collection of data wherein effort is made to control the factors
affecting the variable in question. It examines the cause and effect of certain
phenomena.
• Questionnaire
• This method is also known as paper and pencil method, an alternative to
interview method and utilized questionnaire (a list of question intended to
elicit answer to a given problem).
Indirect Method
• Taking any information from any filled- up questionnaire, thesis,
dissertation etc.
• Downloading information from internet
Sampling
• In statistics, sampling is technique of drawing sample from the population.
• Sampling is being applied once that the entire elements of the population
is not available or the population size is too large.
• In Statistics, population is commonly studied through the sample taken
from it.
• Generally, this method is done by inference wherein conclusion is drawn
based on the sample that represents the population.
• Hence, it is very critical that the sample taken is accurate and reliable
enough to determine the characteristic of the population it represent
otherwise; it only leads to a flawed result.
Determination of the Sample Size
• Percentage
• Generally, percentage is arbitrary in
nature, since it is based on the notion of
the researcher of what percentage of
the population is to be considered.
• However, this method suggests that for a
very large population, 10% is of the total
elements is to be considered and at least
20% of the population if it’s small.
Determination of
the Sample Size
• Through a derived formula
• Where:
• n = sample size
• N = population size
• e = margin of error (
the probability of
Committing an error
in selecting the
sample size, which
usually range from
1% to 10%)
Generation of the Elements of the Sample
• This pertains to the method of selection of elements of the sample.
• There are two sampling procedures
• Probability sampling (also known as unbiased or random)
• Nonprobability sampling (also known as biased or unrandom)
Probability Sampling
• Each element of the population can become a part of the sample.
• Types of the probability sampling
• Simple random Sampling
• Systematic Sampling
• Stratified Sampling
• Multi-stage Sampling
• Cluster Sampling
Simple Random
Sampling
• Elements of the sample are
selected by lottery.
• Every element of the sample
are selected one by one.
• In this technique, each
element of the population
has the same or equal
chances to become part of
the sample.
Systematic
Sampling
• This method of sampling is
done by taking every element
in the population through
assignment of number as a
part of the sample.
• That is the researcher may
choose the entire member of
the population which has an
even number, or those which
has an odd number, or every
kth element of the set as the
member of the sample.
Stratified
Sampling
• In this method, the
population is subdivided into
at least two different
subpopulations (or strata)
that share the same
characteristics and then the
elements of the sample are
drawn from its stratum
proportionately.
• After computing for the
sample size for entire
population, the samples can
then be distributed on a per
group basis
Multi-stage
sampling
• This technique is referred to
as selection of samples in
several stages of sampling.
Example, a survey is
conducted every month
before the presidential
election for a period of 5
months.
Cluster
Sampling
• Population under this
technique is being divided
into sections (or clusters),
randomly select some of
these clusters as the member
of the sample size.
• Unlike with stratified
sampling, all elements of the
chosen clusters are
automatically the member of
the sample in this technique.
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Non-probability sampling
• Types of Non-probability sampling
• Purposive Sampling
• Quota Sampling
• Convenience Sampling
Purposive Sampling (Judgmental Sampling)
• Under this technique, elements of the sample are being selected
according to the criteria or rules set. If the element meets the criteria
set, then it can be counted as part of the sample.
• The criteria is set by the researcher based on their own assessment or
opinion, and this can result in inaccuracy or bias.
• Example: collection of methane samples at the deepest parts of the
lakes.
Merits and Demerits of Purposive Sampling
• Merits
• Flexible
• Simple
• Facilitates the purpose of the study
• Demerits
• Biased
• Unreliable
• Inaccurate
Types of Non-probability sampling
• Quota Sampling
• In this technique, the sample size is limited on the required number of subject
in the study.
• Convenience Sampling
• Elements of the sample are being selected from a particular place at specified
time preferred by the researcher.
Vital Statistics
• Include vital events which include birth, death, marriage, and divorce
• These are the numerical records of vital events being measured and
studied in the community.
• Branch of biometry that focuses on mortality, morbidity, and
demography.
Purpose of Vital Statistics
• Community Health – describe the level of the community health,
diagnose community illness, discover solutions to health problems
• Administrative Purpose – provide clues for administrative action to
create administrative standards of health activities
• Health-programmed organization – determine success or failure of
health programs or undertake overall evaluation of public health work
• Legislation Purpose – promote health legislation at local, state, and
national level
• Government Purpose – develop policies and procedures.
Sources of Vital Statistics
• Civil Registration System
• Source of information related to vital events as well as separation, adoption,
annulments due to compulsory registration.
• Census/National Sample Survey
• Provides information about the population’s characteristics.
• Health Surveys
• Serves as surveillance of the population related to the different health
programs conducted by the government at the local and national level.
Important Health Statistics
• Crude Death Rate
• (Total deaths/average population or the population at midyear)X1000
• Age-specific Death Rate
• (Number of Deaths at age y/average or midyear population at age y)X1000
• Infant Mortality Rate
• (infant death per year/infant births per year)X1000
• Neonatal Mortality Rate
• (Deaths under one month/infant births per year)x1000
Important Health Statistics
• Post-neonatal Mortality Rate
• (Deaths between first and 11 complete month/number of live birth)X1000
• Maternal Mortality Rate
• (number of deaths of mothers due to maternity/number of live birth)x1000
Vital Statistics
• Sex Ratio - defined as the total number of male population per 100
female population
• Child to Woman ratio - ratio of the number of children under 5 years
of age to the number of women in the childbearing age group (usually
15-49).
 • Dependency ratio - describes the relation between the potentially self-
supporting portion of the population and the dependent portions at the
Vital Statistics extremes of age.
Measures of Fertility
• Crude Birth Rate - the number of live births in a year per 1000 mid
year population in the same year.

• General Fertility Rate - is the number of births in a specified period

• Total Fertility Rate - the sum of all age specific fertility rates for each year of
age from 15-49 years.
• used as a standardized index for the over all fertility level and measures the total
number of children a cohort of women will have at the end of their reproductive age
Measure of Fertility
• Gross Reproduction Rate - the total fertility rate restricted to female
births only

• Net Reproduction Rate – takes into consideration that not all women
live to the end of reproductive age
Population Growth
• Crude Population Growth = Number of births – number of deaths
• Crude rate of natural increase = (Number of births – number of
deaths) x 1000
Demography
• a science that studies human population with respect to size,
distribution, composition, social mobility and its variation with
respect to all the above features and the causes of such variation and
the effect of all these on health, social, ethical, and economic
conditions.
Terms in demography
• Size
• is the number of persons in the population at a given time
• Distribution
• the arrangement of the population in the territory of the nation in
geographical, residential area, climatic zone, etc
• Composition (structure)
• the distribution of a population into its various groupings mainly by age and
sex.
• Change
• refers to the increase or decline of the total population or its components.
The components of change are birth, death, and migration.
Sources of demographic information
• Census
• Surveys
• Registration of vital events
Census
• Direct canvass of each person or household, which is a large and
complicated undertaking
• De jure vs de facto census
• De jure: The enumeration ( or count) is done according to the usual or legal
place of residence
• De facto: The enumeration is done according to the actual place of residence
on the day of the census.
• Information to be collected
• Sex, age, marital status, educational characteristics, economic characteristics,
place of birth, language, fertility mortality , citizenship ( nationality), living
conditions (e.g. house-ownership, type of housing and the like), religion, etc..
Essential features of a Census
• Separate enumeration and recording of the characteristics of each
individual
• It should refer to people inhabiting a well-defined territory
• The population should be enumerated with respect to a well-defined
point in time
• It should be taken at regular intervals (usually every ten years)
• In most countries the personal data collected in a census are not used
for other than statistical purposes.
• The compilation and publication of data by geographic areas and by
basic demographic variables is an integral part of a census.
Uses of Census
• gives complete and valid picture of the population composition and
characteristics
• serves as a sampling frame
• provides with vital statistics of the population in terms of fertility and
mortality.
• Census data are utilized in a number of ways for planning the welfare
of the people
Surveys
• a technique based on sampling methods by means of which we try to
obtain specific information from part of the population liable to be
considered as representative of the whole.
Registration of vital events
• The registration of vital events (births, deaths, marriages, etc) is a
system by which all births, deaths, etc. occurring nationwide are
registered, reported to a control body and compiled centrally.
• A certificate is issued for every death and birth.
• The four main characteristics of vital registration are
comprehensiveness, compulsory by law, compilation done centrally
and the registration is an ongoing (continuous) process.
Population
Pyramid
• Presentation of age-sex
distribution of the population
• Males are shown on the left
of the pyramid, females on
the right, young persons at
the bottom, and the elderly
at the top.
• It shows any gross
irregularities due to special
past events (such as a war,
epidemic or age-selective
migration), fluctuations of
fertility, etc..
Different ways of
presenting data
• Textual Form
• Data are in sentences or
paragraphs
• used when the data is
not large and can be
easily comprehended by
the reader just when he
reads the paragraph. This
data format is useful
when some qualitative
statement is to be
supplemented with data.
Different ways of
presenting data
• Tabular presentation of data
• Data presented in rows
and columns
• a table that helps to
represent even a large
amount of data in an
engaging, easy to read,
and coordinated manner.
Different ways of presenting data
• Examples include
• Line graph – tracks changes over a period
• Bar graph – used to compare things between different groups
• Pie or circle graph – trying compare parts to the whole
• Pictograph - whenever you want to make simple data more visually
interesting, more memorable, or more engaging
• Map graph - compare values and show categories across geographical regions