12/2/2024

Fuel Cell (FC)

Distributed Generation Fall Semester 2024
and its Integration into  The electrons from the anode side of the cell cannot pass through the membrane
Power System to the positively charged cathode; they must travel around it via an electrical
circuit to reach the other side
of the cell. This movement of
Fuel Cells (FCs) Generator electrons is an electrical
current
 At the cathode, oxygen
Habiburahman Shirani, PhD
combines with electrons and
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering protons (positive hydrogen
Engineering Faculty of Kabul University ions) and form water while
releasing heat

Fuel Cell (FC) Fuel Cell (FC)

 A fuel cell (FC) is an electrochemical  The amount of power
device that works by reverse produced by a fuel cell
electrolysis operation depends upon several
 Produces electricity by the reaction of factors, such as
oxygen (air) and hydrogen (fuel)  fuel cell type,
 A FC converts the chemical energy of  cell size,
a fuel directly into electrical energy  the temperature at
which it operates, and
 The output is DC, it needs inverters  the pressure at which
Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy
so as to convert DC output to AC https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/fuel the gases are supplied
-cell-animation-text-version to the cell

Fuel Cell (FC) Fuel Cells (FCs)

 A single FC is able to produce just less than Electrons
 A single fuel cell consists of an electrolyte sandwiched between two thin one volt of electrical potential Anode Cathode
electrodes (anode and cathode)  To reach higher voltages, FCs are stacked on Hydrogen
Oxygen
top of each other and connected in series
 Hydrogen/hydrogen-rich fuel,  Cell stacks consist of repeating FC units, each
is fed to the anode where a comprised of an anode, cathode, electrolyte,
catalyst separates hydrogen's and a bipolar separator plate
negatively charged electrons
Fuel Cells are stacked in series
from positively charged ions Membrane Electrode
(protons) O2 Assembly
Catalyst layer Electrolyte Gas diffusion
Water
Gas Flow Channels layer
(Carbon supported layer (Electrically

 H2 ions travel through H2 H2

catalyst) conductive fibers)

electrolyte whereas electrons

Endplate FC Stack Video
travel through load from anode Bipolar Plate
O2

to cathode Repeat Unit

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Fuel Cells (FCs) Fuel Cells (FCs) Types

 Uses of FCs in communication networks and also portable applications have been increasing
 With the increasing production of FCs, their price has plummeted
 Division of FCs based on types of fuel and oxidant
 Costs for stationary fuel cell installations
 Hydrogen (pure) – Oxygen (pure) fuel cell
have dropped from about $600,000 per  Hydrogen rich gas – air fuel cell
kW in the 1970s (when fuel cells were  Ammonia – air fuel cell
developed for NASA) to about $4,500
per kW in 2010  Synthesis gas – air fuel cell
https://www.cesa.org/wp-content/uploads/CESA-
fuelcelltechnology-may2010.pdf  Hydro carbon (gas) – air fuel cell
 By 2023 fuel cells were hitting the
 Division of FCs based on operating temperature
market that cost around $ 1500 per kW  High operating temperature FC
https://www.horizoneducational.com/hydrogen-guide-are-
fuel-cell-stacks-really-worth-it/t1429?currency=usd
 Low operating temperature FC

Battery vs. Fuel Cell Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)
 The PEMFC is relatively the most common type of FC,
 Applied for portable devices, automobile industry and DGs.
Battery Fuel Cell
Generate power Generate power
electrochemically electrochemically
Electrodes are the working Gasses are the working
materials materials
Electrodes get consumed Electrodes do not get consumed
Continue to operate as long as
Limited operation
fuel gas is supplied
Storage device Conversion device

Fuel Cells (FCs) Types Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)
 Fuel cells are classified primarily by the kind of electrolyte they
employ. This determines the kind of chemical reactions that take place  The following
in the cell, the kind of catalysts required, the temperature range in equations demonstrate
which the cell operates, the fuel required, and other factors anode, cathode, and
equivalent reactions:
 Division of FCs based on the type of electrolyte
 PEMFC: proton exchange membrane fuel cell
 AFC: alkaline fuel cell
 PAFC: phosphoric acid fuel cell
 MCFC: molten carbonate fuel cell
 SOFC: solid oxide fuel cell

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Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)
 Hydrogen is the main fuel of the PEMFC, but other fuels such as  The PAFC is the first type of FC that has been commercialized
methanol (CH3OH), biomass (CH2O), or the others can be injected  Commercially available in hotels, houses, hospitals, and some power stations in
with an external reformer that refines fuel and delivers pure hydrogen a range from 50 kW to 11 MW
to the PEMFC.  The electrolyte in this FC immobilizes
liquid phosphoric acid in SiC (Silicon carbide)
 The electrolyte in this FC is a solid polymeric membrane placed
 The operating temperature is near to 220°C
between two platinum-catalyzed porous electrodes.  It can work under higher temperature
 PEMFCs typically operate at about 40–80°C, a temperature
determined by both the thermal stability and the ionic conductivity
characteristics of the polymeric membrane.
 To get sufficient ionic conductivity, the proton-conducting polymer
electrolyte requires water

Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC) Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)

 One of the first-developed types of FCs.  Similar to PEMFC, electrodes and catalysts of both models are carbon and
 Air and space and the military are the main areas that use AFCs. platinum, respectively. In addition, the charge carrier in a PAFC is H+, exactly
 AFC can produce both power electricity and drinking water for space crews and like a PEMFC.
astronauts.
 Like other low-temperature FCs, the
 These fuel cells use a solution of
PAFC works with hydrogen and oxygen,
potassium hydroxide (KOH) in water as
it does not have a problem with CO2 and
the electrolyte and can use a variety of
can tolerate <1% of CO.
non-precious metals as a catalyst at the
 However, it needs an external reformer to
anode and cathode.
provide pure hydrogen. So, a PAFC is
more flexible than a PEMFC or an AFC.
 It is expensive because a PAFC needs
platinum and other material that must be
tolerable against the concentrated acid.

Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC) Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)

 High-temperature AFCs operate at  Has a wide range of stationary scale and outdoor uses
temperatures between 100ºC and  Due to high operating temperature, nickel and nickel oxide are applied in anode
250ºC (212ºF and 482ºF). and cathode, respectively.
 More-recent AFC designs operate at  It needs no expensive materials like a PAFC or a PEMFC.
lower temperatures of roughly 23ºC  With a 600–700°C operating temperature,
to 70ºC (74ºF to 158ºF). is categorized as a high-temperature FC.
 The charge carrier in AFC is OH–  Heat is a by-product of a MCFC that has
 Like other low-temperature FCs, AFC myriad uses in industry.
works with hydrogen and oxygen  As opposed to low temperature FCs,
 CO and CO2 poison AFCs and reduce MCFC has an internal reformer instead of
considerably the efficiency of an AFC, an external reformer to use more
so it needs external reformer to provide 𝐶𝑂 + 𝐾𝑂𝐻 → 𝐾 𝐶𝑂 hydrocarbons as fuel
pure hydrogen. Potassium Carbonate

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Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) Advantages of FCs

 MCFC can work with some hydrocarbons such as CO or CH4 as well as H2.  Environmental pollution of FCs is near zero
 Hydrogen and carbon monoxide can be injected directly to a MCFC while  For the remote telecommunication stations. Diesel generators need maintenance
methane needs reformer.  Variety of fuel supplies and approaches to extract fuels that are appropriate for
FCs. Fuel from coal, oil, natural gas, an electrolyzer, etc.
 Efficiency of FCs is reasonable and when they are used as CHP can even reach
to around 80% efficiency
 Hydrogen can be generated with the electrolyzer in any place, so it has a good
 The charge carrier is CO̿3 decentralized potential to provide the fuel.
 The electrolyte of this FC is immobilized  Operating time and endurance of FCs are much longer and better than
liquid molten carbonate in LiAlO2 (lithium aluminium oxide)
conventional or even advanced batteries
 CO2 is needed in the cathode reactions to  Installation and operation of FCs are cost-effective
stabilize the concentration of carbonate in  They can combine heat and power to increase efficiency, especially in high-
the electrolyte temperature FCs.

Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) Disadvantages of FCs

 SOFC is more similar to the MCFC. But, it has a higher operating temperature and can apply  If a FC uses a fuel excluding hydrogen, the efficiency of the FC will be reduced
more hydrocarbons as fuel. because of electrolyte decomposition and catalyst poisoning.
 From sub MW to 100 MW, SOFCs have been commercialized.
 Commonly used in power plants and hybridized with a gas turbine.
 Fuel reforming technology is expensive.
 FCs have noble materials to tolerate corrosion, poisoning, and so on, while they
 Due to the high operating temperature, Co-ZrO2 (cobalt-
must have good conductivity traits. So, they are pricy and it is very difficult to
zirconium dioxide) or Ni-ZrO2 (nickel-zirconium dioxide)
find alternative materials for them.
cermet and Sr-doped LaMnO3(Lanthanum manganite) are
applied in anode and cathode, respectively.  Output of FCs is DC, so FC systems need inverters to convert DC to AC. But,
 The SOFC, with 600–1000°C operating temperature, inverters inject harmonics to the system. So, to overcome this problem, filters
has the highest operating temperature among all kinds (usually low-pass filters) or power factor correction capacitors are applied.
of FCs. However, these power electronic devices make FC units more expensive.
 Like other high-temperature FCs, the SOFC is  FCs need cutting edge and costly technologies to integrate into a network
convenient for power plants and DGs.
precisely and efficiently.
 The electrolyte of this FC is nonporous metal oxide
(ceramic)  Fuel storage of FCs is still critical as they need advanced storage.

Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) FC Applications

 SOFC (like MCFC) works with some hydrocarbons, has an internal reformer, and does not  FCs compared to other generators are flexible and can be used in
need an external reformer
 The charge carrier in this type of FC is O̿ different environments
 The electrolyte of this FC is nonporous metal oxide (ceramic)  Some FCs are suitable for indoor whereas some others are appropriate
 H2, CO without reformer, and CH4 with for outdoor applications
reformer are injected to the SOFC
 FCs can provide power from a few watts up to more than 100 MW
 FCs can be used to provide power to
 Portable devices
 Transportation
 Stationary power generator

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FC Applications FC Applications
Portable Devices Portable Devices
 Portable devices such as computers, cell phones, laptops, and other
electronics devices are regularly used in our everyday lives  FCs are also used in the military portable
devices such as
 Portable devices needs clean power
 FCs are better than batteries for  Communication equipment
portable devices because, they are  Global Positioning System (GPS)
clean, endurable, light and small
 Night vision
 FCs are cleaner, lighter and smaller than
diesel generators and other fossil-fueled  Gun
generators for portable applications

FC Applications FC Applications
Portable Devices Transportation Industry
Fossil Fuel Vehicles
 Comparing Energy Density:  One of the main causes of global
 Compressed H2 (3000psi) battery warming and air pollution is
is 2.4 times smaller and lighter transportation pollutions
than lithium-ion
 Numerous vehicles emit GHGs
 For the same amount of energy,
into the atmosphere FCs (H2) Vehicles
compressed H2 (3000 psi)
battery is  The practical green solution to
 7 times lighter than lead acid
batteries transportation pollutions, is the
 Over 3 times smaller than lead use of FCs in this sector, because
acid batteries FCs exhaust is water + heat

FC Applications FC Applications
Portable Devices Rechargeable batteries for Portable Devices Transportation Industry
 The charge capacity of  Many automakers like Toyota, Nisan, Renault,
rechargeable batteries DaimlerChrysler, Honda, Benz, Volvo, Ford,
decreases after some General Motors, and Volkswagen have been
charge and discharge working these projects with the Ballard Company
 FC doesn’t have charge  These companies use gasoline, methanol, and
capacity degradation and FCs for Portable Devices pure H2 as fuel
can provide power as long
as fuel is supplied to it  Zero emission vehicles use pure H2
 Based on the mentioned  Many of these vehicles use fuel processor to convert
features, FCs are the best hydrocarbons to H2
choice for portable devices

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FC Applications FC Applications
Transportation Industry Stationary Sector
 Since 1970s, FCEVs have been working with  FCs can be used as
 PEMFCs  Grid-connected power generator
 PAFCs  Stand-alone power generator
 AFCs
 Grid-connected FC power generator
 PEMFCs played the main role
in transportation industry  Grid-connected FCs provide primary or backup power for the
system
 The output of FCEVs is clean
 FCs are more reliable than wind turbine generators or PV systems
while their efficiency is greater
than conventional internal  PAFC and PEMFC are more convenient for sub-MW usages
combustion engines (ICEs)
 MCFC and SOFC are suitable for MW uses

FC Applications FC Applications
Transportation Industry Stationary Sector
 FCEVs have more durability than EV that use batteries  Grid-connected FC power generator
 FCEV with 70 and 35 MPa H2 tanks could travel 400 miles with about 280 and
370 fuel liters respectively  When connecting FC generator to grid, some standards
must be met that are critical such as frequency and
 Battery EV with Li-ion,
NiMH (Nickel-metal
voltage of the FC must be equal to the grid
hydride), and PbA (lead-  FCs usually cannot meet transient loads or start-
acid) batteries can travel up current, all these constraints must be
respectively about 355, considered in the FC design
210, and 120 mile with
800 fuel liters

FC Applications FC Applications
Stationary Sector Stationary Sector
 With the rapid increase in power demand, conventional power generators
 Stand-alone FC power generator
cannot meet the huge need of electricity appropriately
 Restructuring must be implemented  Stand-alone backup generators play a strong role in safety and
to overcome the power shortage reliability of systems
 FC can provide power to  Compared to conventional UPSs, FCs are lighter, cleaner, smaller
residential consumers, malls, and have durability and can respond to the interruption and load
hospitals, UPSs, backups, or change quicker
even primary generators,
 In remote areas, FC power plant can provide enough power as long
power to critical loads, and https://www.freepik.com/premium-ai-image/hydrogen-fuel-
as fuel is injected
helping network as DGs cell-power-generator-near-residential-house-clean-energy-
household-as-imagined_351078166.htm

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Initial Designing of a FC Initial Designing of a FC

 For the design of FCs system, many parameters of FC must be Example
considered The output current of each unit is
𝑃 48 kW 48000 W
 The main parameter from an electrical point of view is voltage to be 𝐼 = = = = 222.22 A
𝑉 216 V 216 V
considered before the designing of FC system
Number of series stacks in a unit are
 Prior to design of a FC system, voltage and current should be taken 𝑉 216 𝑉
𝑁 = = =8
into account of each cell to set them properly in series and parallel 𝑉 27 𝑉
together to reach a desirable power level Number of parallel stacks in a unit are
𝐼 222.22 𝑉
 Voltage lost is the worst obstacle in our way to meet the required 𝑁 = = = 12
𝐼 18.5 𝑉
demand and it reduces efficiency considerably
Each unit comprises of 12 parallel
branches with 8 series stacks per branch

Initial Designing of a FC Initial Designing of a FC

Example  The current of a FC can be obtained as
A FC system that is connected to the utility grid should provide 480 kW of power to
𝑖= 𝑗𝑑𝑠 = 𝑗 × 𝐴
the grid. FC system consists of units where a unit is composed of stacks. Assume
that voltage and current of stacks are 27 V and 18.5 amp, respectively and each unit j = current density (Amp/cm2)
can provide 48 kW of power.
There is a boost converter A = area (cm2) of FC
with VDC, o/p = 480 V and  Increasing the FC area the current of the FC can be increased
0.55 duty cycle. Evaluate the
 Vcell is related to several parameters
number of FC units and the
number FC stacks connected  FC max. theoretical potential is 1.229 V (called ideal voltage)
in series and parallel to meet
the desired power  In reality Vcell is around 0.6 – 0.7 V

Initial Designing of a FC P-J and V-I Polarization Curves

Example  The power density rises to one point, but because of voltage drop, which takes
FC units must generate 480 kW where the power of each one is 48 kW. Therefore, place due to
FC power plant should have 10 units each of 48 kW power and connected in voltage losses, it
parallel, and 10 boost converters, one for each unit. goes down at the
Boost converter with VDC, o/p = 480 V and 0.55 duty cycle end of the curve
 FCs are designed to
Input voltage of boost converter is the output voltage of each unit
operate under their
𝑉
=
1
⇛ 𝑉 = (1 − 𝐷)𝑉
max. power density
𝑉 1−𝐷
 The design must not
𝑉 = 1 − 0.55 × 480 = 216 V be done at higher
Converter input or each FC unit output than the max. power
voltage is 216 V density

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Different Types of Voltage Losses in FC Different Types of Voltage Losses in FC

 The cell voltage is calculated from Activation losses Schematic of voltage losses of a low-temp. FC
Schematic of voltage losses of a low-temp. FC  Activation loss occurs as a
𝑉 =𝑉 −𝑉
result of the energy needed
 Vrev = reversible cell potential to start the reaction
or ideal voltage  The better the catalyst,
the less energy will be
 Virev = irreversible cell needed for activation
voltage loss, defined as 3
 Higher temperatures can
major losses
reduce activation energy and
1. Activation potential (ηact) thus lower activation losses
 Activation losses occur in both of the cathode and anode, but because the
2. Ohmic over potential (ηohmic)
cathode reaction (oxygen reduction) is 100 times slower than the anode reaction,
3. Concentration over potential (ηconc) the cathode reaction has a stronger effect on limiting the power density

Different Types of Voltage Losses in FC Different Types of Voltage Losses in FC

 Irreversible cell voltage losses Schematic of voltage losses of a Ohmic losses Schematic of voltage losses of a low-temp. FC
low-temp. FC (e.g., a PEMFC)
can be calculated as  Ohmic losses are due to
𝑉 =𝜂 +𝜂 +𝜂 ionic, electronic, and contact
resistance, occur in
 The theoretical EMF or ideal  Electrodes and
voltage is about 1.2 V electrolyte
 Current collectors
 Activation loss reduces
 Contact resistance
voltage to about 0.8 V
 Interconnects
 Voltage is dropped to well under  It also depends on current
0.5 V by ohmic polarization density, temperature, and on
material that are used in cell and stack in comparison with activation and
 Concentration losses causes voltage collapse at high current concentration losses which depend on cathode and anode

Different Types of Voltage Losses in FC Different Types of Voltage Losses in FC

 For the high-temperature, Concentration losses Schematic of voltage losses of a low-temp. FC
activation losses are not Schematic of voltage losses of high-  Concentration losses relate
serious and concave part of temp. FC (e.g. SOFCs or MCFCs)
to the decrease in
the curve is barely visible performance of a FC due to
the depletion of reactants
 The losses associated (H2 and O2) at electrodes
with mass transport in the during operation
high-temperature FCs are
more important and the  Effects on FC performance
convex part of the curve  Voltage loss: Concentration
will be drawn more to the losses contribute to overall FC Voltage Current
left in comparison with voltage drop in a FC, reducing efficiency Relationship Video
low-temperature FCs.
 Power output: is diminished, particularly at higher loads

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Hydrogen Production Methods Steam Methane Reforming (SMR) Method

 Hydrogen (H2) is needed to generate electricity by FCs  The process is
continued by injecting
 Several methods are used for the production of H2 the product into the
CO2 removal unit
 The common methods for H2 production are:
 Finally, to achieve
 Steam methane reforming (SMR) method higher purity
hydrogen, the
 Gasification method product is fed into
a methanation
 Electrolysis method process

Steam Methane Reforming (SMR) Method Gasification Method

 SMR is the dominant method for the production of H2 from natural gas which is Gasification Process for Producing Hydrogen From Coal
mainly composed of methane (CH4)  41% of electric power is generated by coal plants throughout the world
 SMR can also use other hydrocarbons (gasoline (C8H18) and methanol  Pollution from coal plants is greater than other major power generating methods
(CH3OH)) for H2 production
 Coal power generating technology is not very efficient
 Approximately 75% of the world’s H2 is produced by using methane and natural
 It is possible to replace coal power technology with FC DC generator
gas
 H2 for the FC can be produced from coal by the gasification process
 In case of natural gas, the efficiency of SMR would about 70 %
 During gasification process, beside H2, other lucrative materials can be also
 In case of other sources like methane that contains sulfur or other impurities, the obtained from coal as the by-products that can be used in other industries
efficiency may reduce because there would be need for pretreatment cleanup
 H2 from coal can be supplied to high-temperature FCs such as MCFC and
unit for the purification of fuel to SMR process
SOFC for power generation

Steam Methane Reforming (SMR) Method Gasification Method

 The purification system removes sulfur and other impurities from the fuel
Gasification Process for Producing Hydrogen From Coal
1. Crushed coal is fed into gasifier where it is combined with steam at high
 Purified hydrocarbons react with steam at 850ºC and 1.5 Mpa to produce syngas
pressure and temperature to convert it into gaseous components
including CO, CO2 and H2O
𝑚 𝐶(𝑠) + 𝐻 𝑂(𝑔) ⟶ 𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻
𝐶 𝐻 + 𝑛𝐻 𝑂 ⟶ 𝑛𝐶𝑂 + ( + 𝑛)𝐻
2
2. The produced syngas contains
 Using methane, the equation
impurities such as sulfur
will be changed to
compounds, particulates, etc.,
𝐶𝐻 + 𝐻 𝑂 ⟶ 𝐶𝑂 + 3𝐻
which need to be removed
 Syngas is injected to water shift 3. After the removal of all
reaction unit where CO react with impurities (valuable for other
water to produce more H2 applications), pure syngas is
𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻 𝑂 ⟶ 𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻 obtained

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Gasification Method
Gasification Process for Producing Hydrogen From Coal
4. Just like SMR, syngas should be fed into the water gas shift unit where CO
reacts with water to produce more H2

End of FCG
𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻 𝑂 ⟶ 𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻

5. The process is completed

by reomoving CO2 from
the product

6. Rich H2 can be applied

in power plants,
transportation, and FCs

Electrolysis Method
Electrolysis Process for Producing Hydrogen From Water
 The electrolysis process is separating H2 and O2 from water by electrical energy
 Electrolysis is different from other methods (SMR and gasification), because it
needs electrical energy
 This method is useful to produce H2 if there is extra power (light demand) and
during heavy loads at peak times, the stored H2 is supplied to FCs for power
generation

 Electrolysis is expensive than gasification and SMR, this method is used for
producing H2 by sustainable approaches such as wind, sun, geothermal, and
hydro

Electrolysis Method
Electrolysis Process for Producing Hydrogen From Water

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