MEE 463: Energy

Conversion Systems
H. A. Ajimotokan (PhD)
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
1 .
 Course Outline
Week/
Module Course Contents
Introduction and Basic Concepts of Energy Conversion Systems
General Considerations; Energy Conservation and Transformation; History of Energy
1 Conversion Systems; The Concept of Energy Conversion; and Basic Energy Systems and
Conversion Terminology: Convectional Energy Sources, Alternative and Renewable Energy
Sources, etc.
Energy and Interconvertibility
Kinds of Energy; Forms of Energy; Types of Energy; Energy Sources: Primary and Secondary
2-5 Energy Sources and Interconvertibility; Alternative and Renewable Energy Conversion
Systems: Magneto-Hydrodynamic Power Systems, Wind Power Systems, Geothermal Power
Systems, Solar Power Systems, Hydropower Systems, etc.
Fuels for Energy Conversions
6&7 Principal Fuels for Energy Conversions: Fossil Fuels; Nuclear Fuels; Hydrogen Fuels; Solar
Radiation; Hydro Energy; Wind Energy; Biomass; Geothermal Energy; Tidal Energy; etc.
8 Mid-Semester Examination and Review
Conversion of Primary Energy
9&10 Direct Conversion of Primary Energy: Batteries, Solar Cells, Thermionic Converters,
Thermoelectric Converters, Magneto-Hydrodynamic Generators, Fuel Cells; and Indirect
Conversion of Primary Energy
11-13 Power Station Economics, Power Load Estimation and Forecasting
14&15 Quiz (including Quiz Assignments), Tutorials, Term Paper Presentations, and Revisions
16-18 SEMESTER EXAMINATIONS 2
1. Introduction to Energy Conversion Systems

q Energy conversion – a process of transforming

energy from available forms provided by nature into
suitable useful form that can be distributed,
consumed and or stored

q Over the centuries, a number of devices or systems

have been developed for energy conversion.
q Several of these systems are simple energy converter such
as windmills

q While other energy conversion systems are more

complex, in particular, those for generating
electricity from primary energy
q Systems of this system kind involve several processes,
where the energy is required to undergo a whole series of
transformations. 3
1. Introduction to Energy Conversion Systems
Contd.

q Many of the energy conversion systems generally

require the transformation of thermal energy into
electric power.

q 1.1 General Considerations

q Energy is simply defined as the ability or capacity of a
physical system to do work.

q The dimensional analysis of energy is that of work,

defined in classical mechanics as the product of mass
(m) and the square of ratio of length (l) to time (t), i.e.

E = m l^2/t^2 (1)
4
1.2 Energy Conservation and Transformation

q A fundamental law, which has been observed to hold

for all natural phenomena is the conservation of
energy
q The law applies not only to nature as a whole but also to
closed or isolated systems.

q Therefore, if the boundaries of a system can be

defined such that no energy addition or removal, then
energy must be conserved

q Energy could exist in numerous forms within a system,

and can be converted from one form to the other
q These different forms include gravitational, kinetic,
thermal, elastic, electrical, chemical, radiant, nuclear, and
mass energies. 5
1.3 History of Energy Conversion Technologies

q Early humans, in an effort to exploit natural forms of

energy, made first controlled usage of a non-animate
energy source when fire was discovered
q With the combustion of dried organic matter, energy
from biomass was used for heating and cooking.

q The earliest machines were windmills and

waterwheels, initially utilised for grinding grains; and
later adopted to drive sawmills and pumps

q Until the development of steam engines at the end of

the 18th century, waterwheels were the primary
means of mechanical power generation
q The rapid growth of industry informed the necessity for
novel sources of producing mechanical power, in
particular, those autonomous of location
6
1.3 History of Energy Conversion Technologies Contd.

q This situation, coupled with other factors, set the

stage for the development and utilisation of
steam engines

q While the steam engine remained dominant,

series of efforts were began to develop other
sources of energy conversion systems.
q One of the most important of these was the internal-
combustion (IC) engine.

q By the early 1900s, the IC engine had replaced the

steam engine.
q Because of its higher thermal efficiency, low-weight,
reasonably compact, and self-contained power plant. 7
 1.4 The Concept of Energy Conversion

q There are many conversion processes, which

occur as a routine phenomenon in nature, e.g.
the evaporation of water by solar energy, etc.

q Technologically, the term is more typically

applied to operations that transform energy into
useable form
q e.g. the combustion of petrol or diesel fuel in spark
or diesel engines

q Typically, the predominant objective of energy

conversion systems is to convert the raw energy
into electricity.
8
1.5 Basic Energy Systems and Conversion Terminology

q Associated basic terminologies with energy

systems and their conversion techniques include
q conventional, alternative and renewable energy
sources, turbomachinery, etc.

q Conventional energy source refers to forms of

energy sources that cannot be regenerated after
utilisation in a short time.
q Examples include fossil fuels such as crude oil,
natural gas or coal, and nuclear fuels.

q Alternative energy source, often called the non-

traditional energy source includes waste heat,
hydrogen fuels, and fuel cells, among others.
9
1.5 Basic Energy Systems and Conversion
Terminology Contd.

q Renewable energy source refers to forms of energy

sources that can be regenerated after utilisation in
a short time.
q Examples include hydropower, wind energy, biomass,
solar energy, and tidal energy.

q The term turbomachinery describes machines that

transfer energy between a fluid and a rotor
q Examples of turbomachines are turbines, pumps,
compressors, etc.

q While the turbine is a turbomachine that transfers

energy from a fluid to a rotor, the pump and
compressor transfer energy from a rotor to a fluid.
10
1.5 Basic Energy Systems and Conversion Terminology Contd.

q Also, the pump transfers energy from a rotor to a fluid

(typically a liquid), the turbine and compressor usually
work with a gas or vapour.

q A turbomachine is any of a class of devices that extracts

energy from or imparts energy to a continuously
moving stream of fluid.

q In detail, a turbomachine is any of a class of power or

head-generating machines that uses the dynamic
action of a rotor to transforms the energy level of the
continuously flowing fluid

11
 Summary

q Energy conversion is the transformation of energy from

available forms provided by nature to forms that can be
utilised by humans.
q Energy could exist in numerous forms within a system
and can be converted from one form to another within
the limitation of the conservation law.
q These include gravitational, kinetic, thermal, elastic,
electrical, chemical, radiant, nuclear, and mass energies.
q The IC engine had replaced the steam engine as the
most broadly applied power-generating system not only
because of its higher thermal efficiency but also because
it provided a low-weight, reasonably compact, and self-
contained power plant.
q The predominant objective of energy conversion systems
is to convert raw energy into electricity.
12
2. Energy and Interconvertibility

q The planet is full of primary energies, though

they need to be harnessed and transformed into
power

q The converted energy might be transmitted in

one of these three forms as:
q heat, shaft work and electrical power with their
associated potentials of thermal, mechanical and
electrical energies, respectively.

q These potentials can exist in processes or

systems, which in them do not guarantee that
energy being transmitted.
13
 2.1 Kinds of Energy

q Kinds of energy are

q kinetic and potential energies.

q Kinetic energy – the energy a body possesses by

virtue of being in motion or movement of
matter.
q E.g. energy possessed by wind, falling and flowing
water, etc.

q Potential energy – the energy a body possessed

by virtue of its position relative to the other.
q E.g. energy possessed by water in a reservoir at
certain height.
14
 2.2 Forms of Energy

q In the kinetic or potential state, energy may exist

in one of these basic forms:
q chemical, thermal (heat), mechanical, electrical and
radiation energies

q Chemical energy – the energy that results from

changes in the chemical structure of substances
during combustion.
q Wood, coal, oil and all other materials that are
combustible contain energy in chemical form.

qThermal (heat) energy – the energy that results

from heat being applied to matter
15
 2.2 Forms of Energy Contd.

q Mechanical energy – the energy of a rotating shaft that

results from a force due to movement of liquid, solid or
gaseous matter.
q The amount of energy available depends on the flywheel of the
shaft, i.e., on the power, which makes the shaft rotate.

q Electrical energy – the energy that results from the motion

of electrons and protons in a stream called electrical
current.
q Dynamo or generator, and battery or fuel cell deliver electrical
energy.

q Radiation energy – the energy that results from solar and

electromagnetic radiations or radiation from light or fire.

q Nuclear fission – a spontaneous or induced splitting of an

atomic nucleus into smaller parts, accompanied by a
significant release of energy. 16
 2.3 Types of Energy

q Types of energy are

q primary and secondary energies.

q Primary energy – an energy form (of potential

energy) found in nature that has not been
subjected to any conversion process.
q E.g. energies contained in raw fuels and other forms of
energy received as input

q Secondary energy includes all forms of potential

energy generated from primary energy forms,
typically requiring thermal, mechanical, chemical
or nuclear processes to transform them
17
 2.3.1 Energy Sources

q Energy source refers to the energy form required to

provide the supply of energy for generating
enthalpy, shaft work, or electric power.

q Energy sources can either be

q primary or secondary energy sources.

q Primary energy source refers to the energy forms

required by the energy sector to generate the
supply of energy carriers into useable energy form.
q Examples primary energy sources are

18
 2.3.1 Energy Sources Contd.

q Solar radiation, i.e., the radiant energy from the Sun,

converted through solar thermal devices or photovoltaic
(PV) cells;

q Hydro resources, i.e., the energy from falling and flowing

water (reservoirs, streams, etc.), converted by
waterwheels or hydro turbines;

q Wind energy, i.e., the kinetic energy from wind,

converted by wind turbine to generate electricity;

q Ocean energy, i.e., the energy from ocean heat, current

or waves, converted by ocean heat, ocean current or
wave energy conversion systems;

q Geothermal energy, i.e., the energy contained in the

form of heat in the earth;
19
 2.3.1 Energy Sources Contd.

q Biomass, i.e., the organic matter such as woody

biomass, non-woody biomass, crop residues, and
animal dung, harnessed through processes such as
combustion, pyrolysis, or gasification;

q Animate energy, i.e., the energy delivered from work

done by humans and animals;

q Fossil fuels, i.e., the energy derived from coal or

petroleum such as peat, crude oil and natural gas; and

q Nuclear energy, i.e., the energy derived from splitting

of the nuclei of a heavy element such as uranium,
thorium, lithium, or beryllium, among others.
20
 2.3.1 Energy Sources Contd.

q Examples of secondary energy sources include

q Bioenergy, i.e., the energy generated from biomass

sources through processes such as combustion or
pyrolysis;

q Electric energy, i.e., the energy generated from power

generating plants, fuel cells, and batteries among
others;

q Nuclear energy, i.e., the energy generated from

nuclear fission; and

q Fossil fuel, i.e., the fuel derived from

q coal (such as coke, char, and tar) or
q petroleum (such as petrol, diesel, kerosene, and liquefied
natural gas)
21
2.3.2 Primary and Secondary Energy and Interconvertibility

q Primary energy sources should not be confused

with the energy carriers (secondary energy),
which are converted by energy systems.

q Primary energy sources are transformed through

energy conversion processes to more convenient
forms of usable energy

q Electricity is one of the most common energy

carriers, being transformed from various primary
energy sources such as coal, natural gas, and
solar

22
2.3.2 Primary and Secondary Energy, and Interconvertibility
Contd.

Table 2.1: Primary energy sources and their interconvertibility

23
2.4 Alternative and Renewable Energy Conversion
Systems

q Predominant alternative and renewable energy

conversion systems include
q magneto-hydrodynamic, wind, geothermal, solar, and
hydro power systems, among others.

q The advantages of these systems include the

q availability of energy sources in large quantities for their
conversion;
q they do not (or minimally) pollute the environment; and
q are well suited for decentralised power generation.

q Magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) power generator – any of

a class of devices that generate electric energy from the
interaction between a moving fluid and a magnetic field.
24
2.4.1 Magneto-hydrodynamic Power Systems

q MHD power systems present a great potential for

large-scale electricity generation with reduced
environmental impact.

q Typically, the fundamental principle of operation

for an MHD power generation involves
q a hot gas, accelerated by a nozzle, and injected into a
channel, where a powerful magnetic field is set up
across the channel.
q In conformity with Faraday’s law of induction, an
electric field is established, which acts in a direction
perpendicular to both the gas flow and the magnetic
field.

25
2.4.1 Magneto-hydrodynamic Power Systems Contd.

q The walls of the channel parallel to the magnetic

field serve as electrodes, i.e. anode and cathode,
enabling electric current to be delivered to an
external circuit.

Figure 2.1: Simplified diagram of an MHD generator 26

 2.4.2 Wind Power Systems

q Wind power – the power obtained from the kinetic

energy of the wind, harnessed through the wind
turbine

q Wind power, a renewable energy, is categorised

into three major types:
q utility-scale, distributed, and offshore wind powers

q Utility-scale wind power – a group of wind energy-

generating turbines, providing more than 100 kW,
designed to power the grid or system operators;
q Distributed or small wind power – a group of wind
energy-generating turbines, providing 100 kW or less,
designed to power a home, farm or small business; and
27
 2.4.2 Wind Power Systems Contd.

q Offshore wind power – a group of wind energy-

generating turbines erected in bodies of water.

q Wind turbines comprise

q a set blade or rotor, and an enclosure called a nacelle,
which contains a transmission – speed increaser,
q drive shaft, and
q clutch, among others

q Large wind turbine (generating as much as 1.8

MW of power) could have a blade length of over
40 m, placed on a tower 80 m tall.
28
 2.4.2 Wind Power Systems Contd.

Figure 2.2: Pictorial cut-away diagram of a wind turbine power plant

29
 2.4.2 Wind Power Systems Contd.

q Wind farm – an area of land with a group of wind

power-producing turbines that supplies a large
total electric power source.

q Wind resources are estimated based on

q average wind speed and distribution of wind speed
values occurring within a particular area.

2.4.2.1 Types of Wind Turbines

q Different types of wind turbine designs are:
q horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWTs) and vertical-
axis wind turbines (VAWTs)

30
 2.4.2.1 Types of Wind Turbines Contd..

q HAWT – a type of wind turbine, consisting of

two, three, or a disk containing many blades
(i.e., multi-bladed type), characterised as either
high- or low-solidity devices.

q HAWTs provide the highest efficiency in electric

power generation, which typically feature rotors
with two or three long blades, resembling the
aircraft propellers.
q They operate on similar aerodynamic principles, i.e.,
as the airflow over the airfoil-shaped blades, it
generates a lifting force, which turns the rotor.
31
 2.4.2.1 Types of Wind Turbines Contd..

q VAWT – a type of wind turbine design, typically

made with blades that revolve about a vertical
pole, capable of exploiting wind blowing from all
directions

q Three predominant rotor categories of VAWTs,

based on their aerodynamic and mechanical
characteristics are
q Savonius, Darrieus, and H-Darrieus rotors.

q Two predominant types of VAWTs are

q Savonius and Darrieus.
q Others are the H-type and V-type VAWTs.
32
 2.4.2.1 Types of Wind Turbines Contd..

a.) Horizontal-axis wind turbine

(b) Vertical-axis wind turbine

Figure 2.3: Types of wind turbine designs, showing the horizontal-
axis wind turbine in (a) and vertical-axis turbine (Darrieus type) in (b) 33
 2.4.2.1 Types of Wind Turbines Contd..

q Savonius – a drag type VAWT, consisting of a S-

shaped vertical surface that rotates around a
central axis by drag forces of the wind pushing
the blade

q Darrieus – a type VAWT, consisting of blades

similar to those HAWTs, which rotates around a
central axis.

q The Darrieus VAWT that utilises curved blades in

a curved arch design became the most common
VAWT in the early 21st century.
34
 2.4.2.2 Wind Turbine Performance

q The power delivered by the wind turbine rotor PR is

a fraction of the available maximum power !"#$ ,
defined by the coefficient of performance CoP, i.e.:

()
%&! = (2.1)
(*+,

q The available maximum power in the wind !"#$ ,

can be computed as follows:

-
!"#$ = /01 2 (2.2)
.

q where 0 is the density of the air, A is the capture area

and V is the wind speed.
35
2.4.2.2 Wind Turbine Performance Contd..

q Thus, Equation (2.1) can be written as:

%&
!"# = ' (2.3)
(
)*+ ,

q The maximum theoretical value of the !"# is

0.593, a value determined by a fluid mechanics
constraint known as the Betz limit.

q Yet, the actual !"# of wind turbines are less than

this limit, due to various aerodynamic and
mechanical losses.

36
2.4.2.2 Wind Turbine Performance Contd..

Figure 2.4: Simplified diagram of a wind turbine, indicating

maximum power available from the wind 37
 Example 2.1:

q A homemade wind turbine having 3 blades with 2 m long

each is installed in a home at sea level with air density of
1.23 kgm-3 and wind speed of 24 ms-1. If the turbine is
connected to a multimetre and it is found to generate 12
amps and 33 volts, calculate the
q i.) Theoretical power output of the wind,
q ii.) Actual power output of the turbine, and
q iii.) Coefficient of power of the turbine.

q Solution
q Given:
q Length of blade of the wind turbine, L = 2 m; Air density, !
= 1.23 kgm-3, Wind speed, " = 24 ms-1; Turbine’s current, I =
12 amps; Voltage, V = 33 Volts.

q i.) Theoretical power output of the wind, #$%& = ?

q Therefore, '$%& = )*+!" ,
38
 Example 2.1 Contd.:

# $
Capture area, ! = "
$
q Where % is the diameter of the capture (or swept) area =
2L = 4 m
q ! = 12.57 m2

q Thus, &'() = +,!-. /

q = 106,867.12 W

q ii.) Actual rotor power, &0 = ?

&0 = 12
q Thus, &0 = 396 W

q iii.) Turbine’s coefficient of performance, 34& =?

56
q Therefore, 34& =
5789
q = 0.0037 = 0.37%
39
 2.4.3 Geothermal Power Systems

q Geothermal energy – an energy form that is generated

from terrestrial heat, harnessed for electric power
generation, process and space heating.

q Different types of geothermal fields include:

q hot water, wet steam and superheated steam fields

q Hot water field – a geothermal area that possesses

water at a temperature range of 50 to 100oC, used for
domestic, agricultural or industrial process heating;

q Wet steam field – a geothermal area that possesses

pressurised water at temperatures above 100oC and
small quantities of steam in shallower, lower pressure
parts of the reservoir; and

40
 2.4.3 Geothermal Power Systems

q Superheated steam field – a geothermal area similar

geologically to the wet steam field in which water
and steam coexist, with the steam as the
continuous predominant phase

q Classes of geothermal energy use are

q direct-use applications, geothermal heat pumps, and
electric power generation.

2.4.3.1 Geothermal Electric Power Generation

q Based on the temperature and fluid or steam flow,
geothermal energy could be employed to
generate electric power in different modes:
q dry steam, flash steam and binary-cycle geothermal
power systems.
41
2.4.3.1 Geothermal Electric Power Generation Contd.

q The dry steam geothermal power plants simply

collect rising steam from the ground. In such ‘dry
steam’ operations, the heated water vapour is
channelled directly into a turbine

Figure 2.5: Schematic diagram of dry steam geothermal power plant 42

2.4.3.1 Geothermal Electric Power Generation Contd.

q In flash steam power plants, pressurised high-temperature

water is drawn from beneath into a surface container,
called flash tank, where the sudden decrease in pressure
causes the liquid water to ‘flash’ into steam

Figure 2.6: Schematic diagram of flash steam geothermal power

plant 43
2.4.3.1 Geothermal Electric Power Generation Contd.

q The binary-cycle power plant uses steam driven off a

secondary working fluid contained within a closed loop of
pipes to power the turbine-generator. In this process,
water heated by geothermal energy is drawn up and much
of its stored energy is transferred to the working fluid

Figure 2.7: Schematic diagram of binary-cycle geothermal power

plant 44
 2.4.4 Solar Power Systems

q Solar energy – the renewable radiant energy

harnessed from the Sun, capable of generating
heat or electricity, or causing chemical reactions

q Solar radiation, being the cleanest and most

reliable renewable energy source, is commonly
used in energy systems for heating and cooling
of fluids.

q The earth receives 16 x 1018 units of energy from

the Sun annually, about 20,000 times the
requirement of mankind.
45
 2.4.4 Solar Power Systems Contd.

q Solar power systems can be used to generate

power in two modes:
q concentrating solar-thermal and solar electric
(PV) power.

q Concentrating solar-thermal power – the

power generated using concentrated solar
collector to produce steam or vapour from
heated fluid

q Solar electric (PV) power – the power

generated from direct conversion of sunlight
into electrical power.
46
 Summary

q Energy might be transmitted in one of these three forms:

q heat, shaft work and electrical power with the associated
potentials of thermal, mechanical and electrical energies
respectively.
q The two kinds of energy are kinetic energy - energy a body
possesses by virtue of being in motion or movement of
matter, and potential energy - energy a body possessed by
virtue of its position relative to the other
q In the kinetic or potential state, the different forms energy
may exist include chemical, thermal, mechanical,
electrical, and radiation energies and nuclear fission
q The two predominant types of energy are primary and
secondary energies
q Energy sources refer to the energy forms required to
supply energy for generating enthalpy (heat), shaft
work or electric power. 47
 Summary Contd.

q Energy sources can either be primary or secondary energy

sources.
q Examples of primary energy sources include solar energy,
hydro resources, wind energy, ocean energy, biomass,
animate energy, fossil fuels, and nuclear energy.
q Examples of secondary energy sources include bioenergy,
electric energy, nuclear energy, and fossil fuel.
q The different forms of alternative and renewable energy
conversion systems include magneto-hydrodynamic
(MHD), wind and geothermal power plants
(generators), among others.
q MHD generator is any of a class of devices that generate
electric energy from the interaction between a
moving fluid and a magnetic field.
q Wind power is the power obtained from the kinetic energy
of the wind, harnessed through the wind turbine to
provide shaft work for driving electric generator.
48
 Summary Contd.

q Wind power, a renewable energy, is categorised into

q utility-scale, distributed or small, and offshore wind power.
q A wind farm is an area of land with a group of wind power-
generating turbines that supplies a large total electric
power source.
q The two types of wind turbines based on the orientation of
the axis of rotation are horizontal-axis wind turbines and
vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWTs).
q The three predominant rotor categories of VAWTs, based on
their aerodynamic and mechanical characteristics include
Savonius, Darrieus, and H-Darrieus rotors.
q The two predominant types of VAWTs are Savonius and
Darrieus.
q The actual wind turbine’s coefficient of performance is less
than Betz limit due to various aerodynamic and
mechanical losses.
49
 Summary Contd.

q Geothermal energy is an energy form derived from

terrestrial heat, harnessed for electric power
generation, process and space heating.
q The three different types of geothermal fields are
q hot water, wet steam, and superheated steam fields.
q Geothermal energy use can be classified into:
q direct-use applications, geothermal heat pumps and
geothermal electric power generation.
q Geothermal power systems can generate electricity in
three different modes:
q dry steam, flash steam and binary-cycle geothermal power
plants.
q Solar energy is the renewable radiant energy harnessed
from the Sun, capable of generating heat or
electricity, or causing chemical reactions.
q Solar power systems generate electricity in two modes:
q concentrating solar-thermal and solar electric (PV) power 50
 3. Principal Fuels for Energy Conversion

q Principal fuels for energy conversion include

q fossil fuels, nuclear fuels, hydrogen fuels, solar energy,
hydropower, wind energy, biomass, etc.

q Fossil fuel – a finite, non-renewable natural fuel,

formed from the remains of living organisms
q Examples are coal, crude oil or natural gas.

q Fossil fuels can be harnessed through indirect

energy conversion processes for electricity
generation.
q The chemical energy released during combustion of
these fuels generates heat
51
3. Principal Fuels for Energy Conversion Contd.

q Nuclear fuel – a finite, non-renewable energy source,

harnessed through nuclear fission or fusion.
q The two basic forms of nuclear energy are fission and
fusion. Since the fusion reaction has never been
performed, only the fission reaction is established

q The fission reaction involves the splitting of the nuclei

of a heavy element. The heat output from this
reaction powers a steam turbine-generator

q Hydrogen fuel – a zero emission fuel, generated when

hydrogen is burnt in the presence of oxygen.
q It can be used in fuel cells or internal combustion
engines.
52
3. Principal Fuels for Energy Conversion Contd.

q In the flame of pure hydrogen gas, the hydrogen

reacts with oxygen to form water and a spontaneous
energy release, i.e.:

2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (g) + Energy (3.1)

q Solar radiation – a renewable radiant energy source,

emitted by the Sun, harnessed through direct energy
conversion processes

q Solar radiation, a free gift of nature, includes radiant

energy that manifest in various forms.
q These are radiant energy used directly as intercepted
solar radiation; or
q indirectly as wind resulting from heated air masses and
rains from evaporation of the oceans, which forms rivers
and provides hydropower.
53
3. Principal Fuels for Energy Conversion Contd.

q Hydro resource – a renewable energy source derived

from the energy of the mass of flowing and falling
water or fast running water

q In a hydropower plant, the potential energy of the

mass of flowing and falling water from a reservoir at
a distance above the stream bed is converted into
kinetic energy by flowing through a hydraulic turbine.
q The resulting shaft work of the turbine drives an electric
generator

q Hydropower is available wherever a suitable site

exists, having enough stream flow, potential drop and
area.
54
3. Principal Fuels for Energy Conversion Contd.

q Wind energy – a renewable energy harnessed

from the kinetic energy of wind through an
indirect energy conversion process

q Wind energy is also a form of indirect use of

solar radiation, which produces wind by heating
the air.

q Wind turbines are site-specific because a

sustained wind speed of about 20 km/h is
required.
q So as to meet this condition, the bulk of wind turbines
are located on the mountain passes or at the coast.
55
3. Principal Fuels for Energy Conversion Contd.

q Biomass – any organic matter such as woody biomass,

non-woody biomass, agricultural residues and animal
dung, generated through photosynthesis or other
biological processes

q Biomass are harnessed through process such as

q combustion, pyrolysis, gasification, anaerobic digestion or
biogasification and transesterification.

q Geothermal energy – an energy form generated from the

terrestrial heat for electric power generation, process and
space heating

q Geothermal energy can be recovered and harnessed for

human use, and it is available anywhere on the Earth’s
surface.
q Predominantly, the radioactive decay of thorium and uranium in the
Earth crust and mantle, and likewise by friction produced along the
margins of continental plates generate the terrestrial heat.
56
3. Principal Fuels for Energy Conversion Contd.

q Tidal energy is a renewable energy obtained from tides,

which is harnessed into useful forms of power, in
particular, electricity.

q Tidal energy, a form of hydropower utilises the tidal

flow of oceans to run a hydropower plant for electricity
generation.

Summary
q The principal fuels for energy conversion are
q fossil fuel – a finite, non-renewable natural fuel, formed
from remains of living organisms;
q nuclear energy – a finite, non-renewable energy that is
released during nuclear fission or fusion, in particular,
when harnessed to generate electricity;
q hydrogen fuel – a zero emission fuel, generated when
hydrogen is burnt in the presence of oxygen. 57
 Summary Contd.

q solar radiation – a renewable radiant energy source that is

emitted by the Sun, harnessed for generating heat or
electricity, or causing chemical reactions;
q hydro resource – a renewable energy source derived from
the energy of the mass of flowing and falling water or fast
running water;
q wind energy – a renewable energy harnessed from the
kinetic energy of wind to generate electricity using the wind
turbines;
q biomass - is any organic matter such as woody biomass, non-
woody biomass, agricultural residues and animal wastes, used
as an alternative fuel
q geothermal energy – an energy form generated from the
terrestrial heat, harnessed for electric power generation,
process and space heating; and
q tidal energy – a renewable energy obtained from tides,
harnessed into useful forms of power, in particular,
electricity.
58
4. Direct and Indirect Conversion of Primary Energy

q The two basic energy conversion processes are

q direct and indirect energy conversion

q 4.1 Direct Energy Conversion

q Direct energy conversion process – a single-step
energy conversion process or technique for
transforming available primary energy directly
into electricity
q Examples include the photovoltaics, electrochemical,
thermoelectric, piezoelectric, etc.

59
4. Direct and Indirect Conversion of Primary Energy Contd.

q Nearly all of the direct energy converters, also

known as static energy-conversion devices,
utilise electrons as their working medium instead
of steam or vapour

q Devices utilised for direct energy conversion

techniques can be classified into
q batteries, solar cells, thermionic converters,
thermoelectric converters, magneto-hydrodynamic
generators, and fuel cells.

q Battery – any of a class of devices that converts

chemical energy directly into electric power.
60
4.1 Direct Energy Conversion Systems Contd.

q A battery or an electrochemical cell has two

electrodes, made of two different chemicals.

q Typically, its principle of operation involves

chemical reactions, which take place as
electrons are released from the anode to
the cathode through an external circuit.
q These process continues until the circuit is
interrupted or one of the reactants is exhausted.

61
4.1 Direct Energy Conversion Systems Contd.

Figure 4.1: Simplified diagram of the basic component for an

electrochemical cell

q Batteries are generally grouped into primary

and secondary batteries.
62
4.1 Direct Energy Conversion Systems Contd.

qPrimary battery – a battery designed for usage

until the supplied voltage is too low to operate a
given device

qSecondary battery – a battery designed such that

their electrodes are made of specific materials
that allow the battery to be reconstituted.
q After an incomplete or full discharge, batteries
might be reconstituted by the application of DC
voltage.
q Though the original state is typically not
completely restored, the loss per recharging cycle
is simply a fraction of 1%
63
4.1 Direct Energy Conversion Systems Contd.

qSolar cell – any device that directly converts the

energy in sunlight into electric energy through
the photovoltaic effect.

qA great amount of the solar cells are made from

silicon – with increasing efficiency and lowering
cost, and the materials range from amorphous to
crystalline or polycrystalline

qUnlike the batteries, fuel cells, or

electromechanical generators, solar cells do not
require chemical reactions, any fuel, or rotating
components to generate power.
64
4.1 Direct Energy Conversion Systems Contd.

q In a solar cell, its operation is achieved when radiant

energy drives electrons across a potential difference
at a semiconductor junction with different
concentrations of impurities on the two sides.

Figure 4.2: Simplified diagram of a solar cell 65

4.1 Direct Energy Conversion Systems Contd.

q Thermionic converter – any of a class of

devices that convert heat directly into
electricity using thermionic emission

q In a thermionic converter, there are two

electrodes.
q Typically, the thermionic converter operates by
raising the temperature of one of the electrodes
to an appropriately high temperature

q While the other electrode is operated at a

significantly lower temperature. The two
electrodes are interconnected to an external load
to complete the circuit.

66
4.1 Direct Energy Conversion Systems Contd.

q The thermal energy might be supplied by chemical,

solar, or nuclear energy sources.
q Though thermionic converters are solid-state devices
with no moving parts, the discharge of electrons by the
emitter is similar to the liberation of steam particles

Figure 4.3: Simplified diagram of a basic thermionic converter 67

4.1 Direct Energy Conversion Systems Contd.

q Thermoelectric converter – any of a class of devices

that either transforms heat energy directly into
electric power or electric energy into thermal power
through thermoelectric effects.

Figure 4.4: Schematic diagram of a thermoelectric converter 68

4.1 Direct Energy Conversion Systems Contd.

q Generally, the thermoelectric converter operates by

generating electric current when electrons are driven by
thermal energy across a potential difference

q Magneto-hydrodynamic generator – any of a class of

devices that generate electric energy from the interaction
between a moving fluid and a magnetic field.
q (See section 2.4 for further reading).

q Fuel cell – any class of devices that converts chemical

energy into electric power without the intermediate
conversion step
q In detail, a fuel cell is any class of electrochemical
cell that converts the chemical energy of a fuel
(often hydrogen) and an oxidiser (often oxygen) into
electricity
q Unlike the batteries, the fuel cells render a practical
mean of attaining a nearly reversible chemical reaction
and the free energy-containing substance is not stored
within it but flows into the cell. 69
4.1 Direct Energy Conversion Systems Contd.

q Continuous operation is achieved in a fuel cell by

feeding the fuel and oxygen to the cell, and
eliminating the products of their reaction.

Figure 4.5: Schematic diagram of a fuel cell 70

4.2 Indirect Energy Conversion Systems

q Indirect energy conversion process – a multi-

step energy conversion process or technique for
generating mechanical work from available
primary energy sources

q The indirect energy conversion system

comprises processes that transform energy
from one form to an intermediate form before
conversion into electricity.
q Indirect energy conversion systems include coal-
fired, hydro and wind power plants

q E.g. in a coal-fired power plant, the chemical

energy released as heat through the
combustion of coal is employed for heating the
working fluid, e.g. water into steam and
transformed by a steam turbine-generator
71
 Summary

q The two basic processes for converting primary energy into

electricity are direct and indirect energy conversion
processes.
q The direct energy conversion process is a single-step energy
conversion process or technique for transforming available
primary energy directly into electricity
q The devices for direct conversion could be classified into
q batteries, solar cells, thermionic converters, thermoelectric
converters, magneto-hydrodynamic generators, and fuel cells
q An indirect energy conversion process is a multi-step energy
conversion process or technique for generating mechanical
work from available primary energy sources

72
Students’ Assignment/ Term Paper/ Group Project

q Assignment
q With schematic diagrams, write a short note (not less
than 500 words or more than 1,500 words) on
Hydropower System, highlighting its theory (types,
principles of operations, etc.) and applications.

q Term Paper/ Group Project

q Write a short essay, which is at least 1,500 words but
not more than 2,500 words on the topic: Power
Station Economics or Power Load Estimation and
Forecasting.

73
 k yo u
Th a n
for e
d i e n c
u r a u
yo

MEE 463: Energy Conversion

Systems ain’t one of them

74