IMAGE PRODUCTION

AND IMAGE EVALUATION

IMAGING ACCESSORIES

Radiographic Film- (image receptor)

- the medium that converts x-ray
beam into a visible image.
FILM CONSTRUCTION
DOUBLE EMULSION FILM
PARTS OF A RADIOGRAPHIC FILM

Base- the foundation for radiographic film;

supports the emulsion
Properties
a. transparent and clear
b. flexible and sturdy
c. slight blue tint
d. polyester (flexible and transparent)
FILM BASE

 Purpose:
 Provide rigid structure onto which the emulsion can
be coated
 Should be flexible but unbreakable to allow easy
handling
 Should be sturdy/ strong to maintain size and shape
during use and processing (Dimensional Stability)
 Should be nearly transparent to light so there will be
no unwanted pattern or shading on the film caused
by the base (Uniform Lucency)
 Thomas Edison
Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen

 Nov, 8, 1895- Wilhelm

Conrad Roentgen

Michael Pupin
 1895 – photographic plates
 1914 – single coated cellulose nitrate films

 Cellulose nitrate film is extremely dangerous. It catches

fire very easily and once alight is difficult to put out. Fires
involving cellulose nitrate burn extremely quickly with a
hot, intense flame and the smoke is particularly toxic,
containing large quantities of poisonous gases.
 1924 – cellulose acetate film base
 1960’s – polyester film base and film for rapid
processing
X-RAY FILM
 1895 – photographic plates

 1914 – single coated cellulose nitrate films

 1924 – cellulose acetate film base

 1960’s – polyester film base and film for rapid

processing
 1918 – duplitized films
1933 – tinted film base

IS
 1940 – film suitable for both direct and indirect
exposure
 1958 – fast light-sensitive film
What is the color of the radiographic film
base to minimize the effect of ambient
light passing through large unexposed
areas of the radiograph?

A. Tinted blue
B. Tinted green
C. Tinted blue - green
D. Tinted yellow – orange
T YPES OF FILM BASE

Glass Plate
Cellulose Nitrate
Cellulose Triacetate
Polyester (1960)
 1895 – photographic plates
 1914 – single coated cellulose nitrate films
 1918 – duplitized films
 1924 – cellulose acetate film base
 1933 – tinted film base
 1936 – direct film exposure
 1940 – film suitable for both direct and indirect
exposure
 1958 – fast light-sensitive film
 1960’s – polyester film base and film for rapid
processing
Advantages of Polyester
 More resistant to warping with age and
stronger than cellulose triacetate,
permitting easier transport through
processor
Thinner compared to all other bases
(175 µm) compared to cellulose
triacetate (200µm) but just as strong
EMULSION

Emulsion- the heart of x-ray film. It is the

material in which x-rays or light photons
from the screen interact and transfer
information.
The emulsion consists of homogenous
mixture of gelatin and silver halide
crystals.
 Gelatin- mixture where the silver halide
crystals are suspended. The main function of
the gelatin is to provide mechanical support
for the silver halide crystals by holding them
uniformly dispersed in place.
Properties:
 Clear, so that it transmits light
Porous- to penetrate the silver halide
crystals during processing
 Silver Halide Crystals- the active ingredient of the
radiographic emulsion.
 These are flat triangular and approximately 1µm on
a side. The arrangements of atoms are in cubes.
 The shape and lattice structure of the silver halide
crystals are not perfect, and the imperfections
result in the imaging property of the crystals.
 The type of imperfection thought to be responsible
is a chemical contaminant, usually Silver Sulfide,
and this contaminant is named sensitivity specks.
 The crystals are made by dissolving the metallic
silver (Ag) in nitric acid (HNO 3) to form Silver
Nitrate (AgNO 3).
The light-sensitive Silver Bromide (AgBr) crystals
are formed by mixing silver nitrate with
Potassium Bromide (KBr).
 Silver Bromide- 95%
 Silver Iodide- 5 %

 AgNO 3 + KBr → AgBr ↓ + KNO 3

Film Grain- clumping of the silver halide
crystals. In actuality, these silver halide
crystal during manufacturing are
dispersed through-out the gelatin. During
manufacture, film speed is determined
and controlled by adding the right
amount of dyes to the film emulsion.
CUBIC ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS IN THE
CRYSTAL
 LAYERS OF FILM

1. Top Coat
2. Emulsion
3. Adhesive Layer
4. Base
LAYERS OF INTENSIFYING SCREEN

1. Protective Layer
2. Phosphor Layer
3. Reflective Layer
4. Base
 FILM CONSTRUCTION

Super coat– is a durable protective layer

that is intended to prevent damage to the
sensitive emulsion layer underneath it.
 2. EMULSIONS - IS THE RADIATION
SENSITIVE AND LIGHT SENSITIVE LAYER OF
THE FILM.
It consists of:
a. Silver Halide crystals – recording
medium

silver bromide (AgBr) 90% to 99%

silver iodide (AgI) 1% to 10%

b. Gelatin –suspension medium

  3. Adhesive layer– between the emulsion layer and the base.
It simply adheres one layer of the film to another.
- Made of pure gelatin glue
 FILM CONSTRUCTION (CON’T)

4. Base – polyester (plastic) that gives the film

physical stability.
 FILM CONSTRUCTION

Super Coat / Top Adhesive

Emulsion Base
Coat Layers
The heart of x-ray film:

A. Emulsion
B. Base
C. Phosphor
D. Structural line
Which of the following ingredients is NOT normally found
in the film emulsion?

A. Silver iodide
B. Silver nitrate
C. Silver halide
D. Silver bromide
The emulsion consists of approximately how many percent
of silver chloride or silver iodide?

A. 95%
B. 5%
C. 20%
D. 60%
The foundation of the IS:

A. Base
B. Active layer
C. Blur
D. Unrecognized
What is the active ingredient of the radiographic film
emulsion?

A. Polyester
B. Gelatin
C. Silver nitrate
D. Silver halide
 Supercoat- durable protective layer that is intended to prevent
damage to the sensitive emulsion layer underneath it

 Adhesive Layer- binds the emulsion to the base of the film

LATENT IMAGE FORMATION

Latent Image
Refers to the image that exists on film after
that film has been exposed but before it has
been processed.

Manifest Image
Refers to the image that exist on film after
exposure and processing. The manifest image
typically is called radiographic image.
 Gurney-Mott Theory of Latent Image Formation:
 Before exposure, silver halide (AgBr and AgI) is
suspended in gelatin in the emulsion layer.
Sensitivity specks exist as physical imperfections in
film lattice.
 Exposure to x-rays and light ionizes the silver halide.
 Negatively charged electrons and positively charged
silver ions float freely in the emulsion gelatin.
 Sensitivity specks trap electrons
Sensitivity specks serves as the focal point
for the development of latent image
centers.
After exposure, these specks trap the free
electrons and then attract and neutralize
the positive silver ions.
After enough silver is neutralized, the
specks become a latent image center and
are converted to black metallic silver after
chemical processing.
T YPES OF FILM:

Screen Film- photographic film used in

conjunction with intensifying screen.
This is also known as indirect exposure film.
This type of film reacts to light. The use of a
screen film together with intensifying screen
greatly reduces patient dose up to 95%.
Blue Sensitive
Green Sensitive
 Non-Screen Film- film used without intensifying screen.
This is also known as direct exposure film.
 This type of film reacts to x-rays.
 This film provides better sharpness of the image but with
higher patient dose compared to screen film.
 The emulsion is thicker and contains higher
concentration of silver halide crystals to enhance direct
x-ray interaction.
 The direct exposure film is usually used together with a
cardboard film holder, although some are available in
individually packaged paper wrappings.
 GENERAL T YPES OF FILM

Direct Exposure Indirect Exposure

1. Mammographic film
– for radiography of the breast.
- Fine grain; single emulsion; greater detail
2. Therapy localization film
- given acceptable radiographic detail under a
wide range of exposures to x-rays and gamma
rays.
-
3. Dental x-ray film
 Intraoral films :
a. periapical film
b. bitewing or inter proximal film
c. occlusal film
3. Dental x-ray film
 Extraoral film – panoramic film
4.Video film – single emulsion film
 exposed in a device called multiformat
camera or a laser camera.
5. Photofluographic film – single coated film
 for photography of the image on the fluorescent
screen by a camera in area chest x-ray
examination.
6. Cine film – single emulsion film with
sprocket holes.

Tagarno 35 AX Cine Projector

 DICOM VIEWER

 DVD is very cheap in

comparison with cine
film.
Spot Film
- Fluorospot camera
- Sizes 70, 90,105 mm (roll film)
7. Copy or duplicating film –
single – emulsion film
 exposed to ultraviolet light through existing
radiograph to produce a copy using a
ultraviolet lamp or BLB bulb.
8. Dosimeter film ( personnel monitoring film)
 measures radiation absorbed dose.
9. Automatic Serial Changer film
 For serial radiography such as angiography
 Has special protective coating
 Elema Schonander and Franklin Film Changer
10. Industrial film
 For high energy
radiography
 MeV
11. Polaroid radiographic film – paper –based
12. Laser film
- Laser printer uses digital electronic signal from
an imaging device.
- High-contrast single-emulsion film with extreme
fine grain (IR film).
- Silver halide film sensitized red light or laser
light.
- M.R.I and CT-Scan
 T YPES OF FILM ACCORDING TO USE

Mammographic Duplicating
Therapy Localization
Dosimeter
Dental Automatic Serial Changer

Video Industrial
Photofluographic Polaroid
Cine Laser
Which of the following color region a calcium tungtates emit
light?

A. Pink to white
B. Violet to blue
C. Red to green
D. Green to white
Panchromatic emulsions are sensitive to which of the
following wavelengths:
1 . Whole visible spectrum
2. Shorter wavelength
3. Wavelength less than 620 nm

A. 1 only
B. 1 and 2
C. 1 and 3
D. 1 ,2 and 3
A . Storing Unexposed Film
 Unexposed film should be stored in its original packaging.
A . Storing Unexposed Film
 Film boxes should be stored vertically or, not horizontally
A . Storing Unexposed Film
 Film should be stored at temperatures ranging from 50º to
70ºF (10º to 21ºC) and a relative humidity of 40% to 60%.
Information that is very important to note in order to have film
quality is:

A. Expiration date
B. Film speed
C. Types of film
D. Name of the manufacturer
 Possible Consequences of Storing Unexposed
Film in Environments with Improper
Temperature and Relative Humidity

Storage Environment Possible Consequence

Problem
Temperature too high Increased fog level

Temperature too low Increased static discharge

Humidity too high Increased fog level

Humidity too low Increased static discharge

 QUESTION

The artifacts that are caused by low humidity and improper

handling of film is called:

A. Static electricity
B. Fogging
C. Scratches
D. Sensitized marks
Which of the following IS phosphor intensify green color?
1 . Gadolinium oxysulfide
2. Lanthanum oxybiomide
3. Calcium Tungstate

A . 2 & 3 only
B. 2 only
C. 1 only
D. 1 , 2 & 3
Refers to the film with emulsion on two sides is:

A. Radiographic
B. Duplitized
C. Emulsified
D. Duplex
B. Packaging of film
 polyethylene bag
 metal foil

 photo-inert leaves of
paper.
C. Storage precautions
 Films must be protected from:
 Heat
 Radiation
 Chemical fumes
 Pressure
D. Expiration date
 Adhere to “first in, first out (FIFO) system”
 Last in, last out (LILO)
 FEFO
The film stock rotation is practice in order:

A . To avoid rough handling and pressure that can cause

bruising
B. To comply with the conditions sell -out above expiry date
and shelf-life
C. To indicate which film is to be used
D. To keep the film under specified conditions
FILM CHARACTERISTICS:

Film Speed- the degree to which the emulsion

is sensitive to x-rays or light.
The greater the film speed of a film the more
sensitive it is. This increase in sensitivity
results in less exposure necessary to produce
a specific density.
Screen film is also available in film speed. In
general, the thicker the emulsion, the more
sensitive is the film and therefore, higher the
speed
 . Most extremity examination now employ fine -grain,
high detail screens and single-emulsion film as
image receptor. In general, large-grain emulsions are
more sensitive than small-grain emulsions.
 Current emulsions contain less silver yet produce the
same optical density per unit exposure.
 This more efficient use of silver is termed as the
covering power of the emulsion.
 Films are commonly double emulsion to maximize
speed, which provides twice speed than of a single -
coated film.
Factors Affecting Film Sensitivity:

Number of silver halide crystals

The size of silver halide crystals
Film Contrast- the ability of the
radiographic film to provide a ceratin
level of image contrast.
Most manufacturers provide screen films
with two or more contrast levels.
High contrast film produces a very black-
and-white image, whereas a low -contrast
film image is more gray.
The screen-film also have exposure
latitude, the difference is the volume
distribution and size of the silver
halide crystal.
It is the inherent ability to record
minute differences in density across
the film
Light Sensitivity/ Spectral Response-
use green sensitive film with a green
emitter intensifying screen and Blue
sensitive film with a blue emitter
intensifying screen
Orthochromatic (Green Sensitive)
Panchromatic (Blue Sensitive)
Crossover- a problem that is unique to
double-emulsion film used with
intensifying screens.
Crossover refers to light that has been
produced by an intensifying screen that
exposes one emulsion and then crosses
over the base layer of the film to expose
the other emulsion. (decreases recorded
detail on the radiograph)
 Spectral Matching
 Refers to the color of light to which particular film is
most sensitive. In radiography, there are generally
two categories of spectral sensitivity films:
 blue sensitive
 b. green sensitive (orthochromatic)
 When radiographic film is used with intensifying
screens, it is important to match the spectral
sensitivity of the film with spectral emission of the
screens.
Spectral emission – refers to the
color of light produced by a
particular intensifying screen.
Spectral matching – refers to
correctly matching the color
sensitivity of the film to the color
emission of the intensifying screen.
HANDLING AND STORAGE

 Radiographic film is pressure sensitive, so rough

handling or the imprint of any sharp object will
produce an artifacts.
 Creasing the film before processing will produce
line-like or fingernail-appearing artifact
 Dirt on hands or intensifying screens will result
in a specular-type of artifacts
 In dry environment, static electricity can cause
characteristics artifacts like tree-like branching,
smudge and crown.
HEAT AND HUMIDIT Y

Temperature should not exceed

20⁰C (68⁰F). 10⁰C (50⁰F) of
temperature can make storage
time longer to about 1 year.
Relative Humidity should be
maintained at 40%.
 Light
 Any photographic film should not be exposed to any form of light.
All films should be handled in the darkroom.

 Radiation
 Films should be stored away from the source of radiation.

 Shelf Life
 Take note of the expiration date.

 FIFO- Stocks that came first should be used first. (Fir st In, Fir st Out)
 Films should be stacked in ver tical rather than horizontal to avoid
any pressure marks.
 For ty -five days is a reasonable maximum storage time for
radiographic film.
Handling:

Hands should be clean and dry

Do not lay in cabinets
Do not slid across surfaces
Open only in darkroom
Storage:
Keep in cool and dry place ( 50o F
and 5% humidity)
Keep away from radiation sources
Note expiration date
Stack upright
P O SSIBLE C O N SE QUENC ES O F S TORI NG U N E XPOSE D F I LM I N
E N VI RONME NT W I TH I M P ROPE R T E MP ERATURE A N D R E LATI VE
H U M IDIT Y :

Storage Environment Problem Possible Consequences

Temperature too High Increased fog levels
Temperature too Low Increased static discharges
Humidity too High Increased fog Levels
Humidity too Low Increased static Charges
INTENSIFYING SCREENS
 Is a device found in radiographic cassettes that
contains phosphors that convert x-ray energy to
light, which then exposes the radiographic film.
 Intensify or amplify the energy to which they are
exposes.
 With screens, the total amount of energy to
which the film is exposed is divided between x-
rays and light. Approximately 90% to 99% of the
total energy to which the film is exposed is light.
X-rays account for the remaining 1% to 10% of
the energy.
 INTENSIFYING SCREEN

 Is a device found in radiographic cassettes that

contain phosphor that convert x-ray energy
to light , which then exposes the radiographic
film.
 Intensify or amplify the energy to which they
where exposed.

 90% to 99% of the total energy light . a

 1% to 10% X-ray energy.
LAYERS OF INTENSIFYING SCREEN

1. Protective Layer
2. Phosphor Layer
3. Reflective Layer
4. Base
LAYERS OF INTENSIFYING SCREEN
 Helps prevent static
 Gives physical protection to the delicate
phosphor layer
 Provides a surface which can be cleaned
without damaging the phosphor.
 Active layer of I.S that emits light during
stimulation by x-ray.
A. Characteristic of a good phosphor:
1. quantum detection efficiency
2. conversion efficiency
3. spectral matching
4. minimum after glow
B. Phosphor materials
1. Calcium Tungstate (CaWO4)
2. Barium lead sulfate – used for high kVp
techniques
3. Zinc sulfide – for low kVp
4. Rare earth crystals
INTENSIFYING SCREENS PHOSPHOR MATERIALS
AND THEIR SPECTRAL EMISSIONS

Phosphor Spectral Emissions

Calcium Tungstate( CaWO4) Blue

Rare earth elements
Lanthanum oxybromide ( LaOBr) Blue
Yttrium tantalate Ultraviolet blue
Gadolinium oxysulfide ( Gd2O2S) Green

Others
Barium Lead Sulfate Blue
Barium Strontium sulfate Blue
 Intercepts light photons headed in other
directions and redirects them to the film.
 Made of high grade cardboard or
polyester which provides support to
the phosphor layer.
 Must be rugged and moisture
resistant
 Must not suffer radiation damage
nor discoloration
 Must be chemically inert and not
interact with the phosphor layer
 Must be flexible
 Must not contain impurities that
would be imaged by x-rays
 LAYERS OF
INTENSIFYING
SCREEN

Protective Layer Reflective Layer

Phosphor Base
 LUMINESCENCE

 Is the emission of light from the screen when stimulated by

radiation.
 LUMINISCENCE

Fluorescence

Phosphorescence
 FLUORESCENCE

 Refers to the ability of phosphors to emit visible light only

while exposed to x-rays .

BEFORE AFTER
 PHOSPHORESCENCE

 Occurs when screen phosphors continue to emit

light after the x-ray exposure has stopped . It is also
called screen lag or af terglow.
Screen Speed
 The capability of the screen to produce visible
light.

Screen Speed and light Emission

 The faster an intensifying screen, the more

light emitted for the same intensity of x -ray exposure.

 Type of phosphor used

 Thickness of the active layer

 Size of the phosphor
 Reflectance of the screen bucking
Which of the following do NOT af fect the speed of an
intensifying screen?

A. Thickness of active layer of phosphor

B. Reflectance of cardboard
C. Screen contact
D. Size of phosphor crystal
 INTENSIFICATION FACTOR

 The intensifying action of the screen.

 The intensification factor (IF) can be stated as follows:

IF Exposure required without screens

Exposure required with screens
 SPEED VALUE

 The most common method of designating screen speed.

 The Speed value can be stated as follows:

New Old mAs X Old speed value

mAs New relative speed value
FORMULA FOR SCREEN SPEED:

mAs 1 Relative screen speed 2

=
mAs 2 Relative Screen speed 1
The foundation of the IS:

A. Base
B. Active layer
C. Blur
D. Unrecognized
The determining value of the Quantum Detection Ef ficiency is:

A. The x-ray photon energy spectrum

B. The material in the screen
C. The thickness of the screen
D. All of the above
 SUMMARY OF EFFECT OF SCREEN FACTORS ON
SCREEN SPEED, RECORDED DETAIL, AND PATIENT
DOSE

Screen factor Screen Recorded Patient

speed detail Dose
Thicker phosphor layer increase decrease decrease

Larger phosphor crystal increase decrease decrease

size
Reflective layer increase decrease decrease

Absorbing layer decrease increase increase

Dye in Phosphor layer decrease increase increase

 QUANTUM MOTTLE

When a very low number of photons are

needed by the intensifying screens to
produce appropriate image density, the
image appears mottled or splotchy. This
appearance can be described as “ salt and
pepper look.”
 SCREEN MAINTENANCE

The maintenance of intensifying screens is

significant because radiographic quality
depends on a large part on how well the
screens are continuously maintained. Two
important procedures should be performed
on the intensifying screens:
1. regular cleaning
2. check cassette for film screen contact
 Worn contact felt
 Loose, bent or broken latches
 Loose, bent or broken hinges
 Warped screens caused by excessive moisture
 Warped cassette front
 Sprung or cracked cassette frames
 Foreign matter under the screen
 Film Cassettes

Cassette Front Lead Foil

Contact Felt Cassette Back

 Cassette front – made up of radioluscent (low
Z) material as bakelite
 Contact Felt/ compression layer – maintains
proper film-screen contact.
 Lead foil – absorbs
secondary radiation (
backscatter)
 Cassette back – made
up of steal of lightweight
metal such as
magnesium.
 Phototimer cassette –
have a radioluscent back
to permit the radiation
reaching the film to
continue on the automatic
exposure control ( AEC)
 GURNEY-MOTT THEORY OF LATENT
IMAGE FORMATION

 Before exposure, Silver Halide (AgBr and AgI) is

suspended in gelatin in the emulsion layer.
Sensitivity specks exists as a physical imperfections in
the film lattice.
 Exposure to x-rays and light ionizes the silver
halide.
 Negatively charged electrons and positively charged
silver ions float freely in the emulsion gelatin.
 Sensitivity Specks trap electrons
 Each trapped electrons attracts a silver ion
 Silver clumps around the sensitivity specks
 SENSITIVITY SPECKS AND LATENT
IMAGE CENTERS
Sensitivity Specks serves as the focal point for
the development of latent image centers. After the exposure,
attract and
these specs trap the free electrons and then
neutralize the positive silver ions. After enough
silver is neutralized, the specks become a latent image
center and are converted to black metallic silver after
chemical exposure.
FILM HOLDERS
 Since light rays affect film emulsions much as do x -
rays, it is necessary to contain the x -ray films in
lightproof holders.
Types:
 Cardboard film holders
 designed for non-screen film
 It is simply constructed and may be either stiff or flexible.
 These holders consist of two pieces of cardboard
connected either at one end or at one side by some
flexible material.
 The holders are made in various sizes.
Parts:
 The back side contains a thin lead foil sheet to absorb the
backscatter to prevent fogging of the film by secondary rays.
Backscatter increases with higher voltages; a piece of leaded
rubber should be placed beneath all film holders during table
radiography.
 An envelope to case the film is glued to the inside of the
back.
 A clamping device is placed at the end or side opposite the
flexible connection between the two cardboards.
 The total radiographic ef fect upon the film exposed in a
cardboard holder is from the x -ray energy.
Cassettes

 designed for screen film.

 Thin and light tight container slightly larger than the
film, it is intended to hold the film.
 It should be light-proof and provides uniform contact
between the film and the screen over the entire area
of the film.
 Usually made of aluminum as some other equally
radioluscent substance supported within a strong
metal framework.
CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW OF CASSETTE:
PARTS OF A CASSETTE:

 Aluminum / Tube Front- made up of a material with low

atomic number like plastic or cardboard (Bakelite). It
should be thin as possible but sturdy. Attenuation
(reduction in energy) of the x-ray beam by the front of the
cassette is undesirable.

 Metal Back – usually made up heavy metal to minimize

back scatter. Can be with an Aluminum or Magnesium.

 Hinge- ensures that the tube front and metal back will
always be in placed
 Metal Locks- to ensures that metal back and tube
front is closed and the film is not exposed and
ensures film-screen contact.
 Felt Padding/ rubber pad- ensures flat contact of the
screen and film
 Metal Frame
 Metal Ring
 Thin Lead foil – contained at the back to prevent
backscatter.
 Intensifying Screen- converts x-ray beam to visible
light