INFECTION PREVENTION (INCLUDING

HIV), STANDARD PRECAUTION, BIO

WASTE MANAGEMENT.

Prepared by, MR.

WEBBER A,
 INFECTION
PREVENTION
 Introduction:
⚫Infection is one of the leading
causes of preventable death in
hospitals every year. The centre of
Disease Control and Prevention
estimated that there are
approximately 2 million preventable
infections in hospital every year,
leading to 90,000 unnecessary
deaths.
⚫ Regardless of the work area, preventing
the transmission of organism is concern
of all nurses. One way in which nurse
accomplishes this goal is by asepsis. A
large number of micro-organism live and
multiply on every surface.
⚫ Infection control addresses factors related to
the spread of infections within the
healthcare setting (whether patient-to-
patient, from patients to staff and from staff
to patients, or among-staff), including
prevention (via hand hygiene/hand washing,
cleaning/disinfection/sterilization,
vaccination, surveillance),
monitoring/investigation of demonstrated or
suspected spread of infection within a
particular health-care setting (surveillance
and outbreak investigation), and
management (interruption of outbreaks).
 Definition of infection:

⚫The invasion of bodily tissue by

pathogenic microorganisms that
proliferate, resulting in tissue
injury that can progress to
disease.
⚫ (The invasion and multiplication of
microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, and
parasites those are not normally present within
the body. An infection may cause no symptoms
and be subclinical, or it may cause symptoms and
be clinically apparent. An infection may remain
localized, or it may spread through the blood or
lymphatic vessels to become systemic (body
wide). Microorganisms that live naturally in the
body are not considered infections. For example,
bacteria that normally live within the mouth and
intestine are not infections.)
 Infection prevention:

⚫ Infection prevention refers to policies and

procedures used to minimize the risk of
spreading infections, especially in
hospitals and human or animal health
care facilities.
 Infectious diseases:

⚫ Infectious diseases kill more people

worldwide than any other single cause.
Infectious diseases are caused by germs.
Germs are tiny living things that are found
everywhere - in air, soil and water. Person
can get infected by touching, eating, drinking
or breathing something that contains a
germ.
⚫ Germs can also spread through animal
and insect bites, kissing and sexual
contact. Vaccines, proper hand washing
and medicines can help prevent
infections.
⚫ There are four main kinds of germs:
⚫ Bacteria
⚫ Viruses
⚫ Fungi
⚫ Protozoa
 Types of infection:
⚫ Primary infection:
Initial infection with an organism to host
constitutes primary infection.

⚫ Secondary infection:
When in a host whose resistance is
lowered by pre-existing infection, a new
organism may set up a new infection.
⚫ Local infection:
Infection that is limited to a defined area or
single organ with symptoms that resemble
inflammation (redness, tenderness and swelling.)

⚫ Systemic infection:
Infection that spreads to whole body resulting
in a septicemia.

⚫ Acute infection:
It appears suddenly or lasts for a short time.
E.g. URI
⚫ Chronic infection:
May occur slowly over a long period
and may last months to years.

⚫ Iatrogenic infection:
Infection resulting due to therapeutic
and diagnostic procedures.
⚫ Nosocomial infection:
Also known as Hospital-acquired infection
(HAI) — is an infection that is contracted from the
environment or staff of a healthcare facility. It can
be spread in the hospital environment, nursing
home environment, rehabilitation facility, clinic,
or other clinical settings. Infection is spread to the
susceptible patient in the clinical setting by a
number of means. Health care staff can spread
infection, in addition to contaminated equipment,
bed linens, or air droplets. The infection can
originate from the outside environment, another
infected patient, staff that may be infected, or in
some cases, the source of the infection cannot be
determined.
 Chain of infection:

⚫ The presence of a pathogen does not

mean that an infection will begin. In
order for infectious disease to spread,
several necessary steps must occur.
These steps are known as “chain of
infection”. An infection will develop
only if chain remains intact. These
links are;
 Causative
Agent

Susceptible Reservoir
Host

Portal of Portal of
Entry Exit

Mode of
Transmis
sion
⚫ Causative Agent - the microorganism
(for example bacteria, virus or fungi).
⚫ Reservoir (source) - a host which
allows the microorganism to live, and
possibly grow, and multiply. Humans,
animals and the environment can all
be reservoirs for microorganisms.
⚫ Portal of Exit - a path
for the microorganism
to escape from the
host. The blood,
respiratory tract, skin
and mucous
membranes,
genitourinary tract,
gastrointestinal tract,
and transplacental
route from mother to
her unborn infant are
some examples.
⚫ Mode of Transmission - since
microorganisms cannot travel on their own;
they require a vehicle to carry them to other
people and places.
Infectious diseases and even
certain contagious diseases spread through
the following agencies. Their ways of
spreading is also given along with these
agencies.
 Air-borne transmission
 Contact transmission-direct and indirect
 Vehicle transmission (Water, milk, food
etc.)
 Vector-transmission
 Tran placental transmission
⚫ Portal of Entry - a path for the
microorganism to get into a new host,
similar to the portal of exit.

⚫ Susceptible Host - a person susceptible to

the microorganism
PHASES/STAGES OF INFECTION
STAGES:
Duration
1. Incubation The exact time frame of the incubation
The incubation stage stage varies depending on the
infection. Here are a few examples:
includes the time from
exposure to an infectious
Flu
agent until the onset of The flu virus
symptoms. incubates for 1–4
days, but symptoms
Viral or bacterial can appear as early
particles replicate during as 2 days after the
the incubation stage. virus enters the body.
Salmonella
Salmonella, a common foodborne bacterium,
causes symptoms within 6 hours to 6 days.
They can include:

diarrhea
vomiting
stomach cramps
2. Prodromal During this stage, the
The prodromal stage infectious agent
refers to the period after continues replicating,
incubation and before which triggers the body’s
the characteristic immune response and
symptoms of infection mild, nonspecific
occur. symptoms. These
symptoms can include:
People can also transmit
infections during the low-grade fever
prodromal stage. fatigue
Duration
The duration of the prodromal stage varies
depending on the type of infection.

For example, the flu has a short incubation

period of about 2 days . As a result, the
prodromal stage may overlap with the
incubation stage and the onset of illness.
3. Illness
The third stage of infection is an illness or
clinical disease. This stage includes the time
when a person shows apparent symptoms of
an infectious disease.

Symptoms
The symptoms of infection vary widely
depending on the underlying cause.
In general, people who have an active
infection may experience:

fever
fatigue
headache
muscle aches
swollen lymph nodes
Duration
The exact time frame varies depending on the
type of infection, the number of infectious
microbes in the body, and the strength of a
person’s immune system. Here are some
examples:

Flu
Symptoms can last up to a week for many
viral respiratory infections, such as the flu.
 4. Decline
During the decline stage, the immune system mounts
a successful defense against the pathogens, and the
number of infectious particles decreases.

Symptoms will gradually improve.

However, a person can develop secondary infections

during this stage if the primary infection has
weakened their immune system.

During this stage, the virus can still transmit to other

people.
 5. Convalescence
The final stage of infection is known as
convalescence.

During this stage, symptoms resolve, and a

person can return to their normal functions.

Depending on the severity of the infection,

some people may have permanent damage
even after the infection resolves.
Who is at risk of infection?

⚫ Staff: service provide are at significant risk

for infection because they are exposed to
potentially infectious blood and other body
fluids on daily basis.
⚫ Clients: they are at risk of post procedural
infection when, e.g. service providers do not
wash hands between client and procedure,
when they do not adequately prepare client
for procedure and when used instruments
and other items are not cleaned and
processed correctly.
⚫ Community: it is also at risk of infection,
particularly from inappropriate disposal of
medical waste.
Breaking chain of infection:

⚫ As health professional, we cannot

provide health care services without
some exposure to potentially
infectious materials, but we can
prevent transmission in many cases.
The only way to prevent infection is to
break the chain of infection. The nurse
must follow certain principle and
procedures to prevent infection and
control its spread.
 Breaking the chain 1 of
infection:

1. Rapid and accurate identification of

organism:
⚫ Routinely send blood cultures, urine
culture, skin swabs, throat swabs,
tracheal aspirate culture.
⚫ Send endotracheal tube tip, urinary
catheter tip and central line tip for
culture after removal.
 2. Control or elimination of infectious
agents including:
⚫ Proper cleaning by the water and
mechanical action with or without
detergents.
⚫ Disinfection.
⚫ Sterilization of contaminated objects.
 High level of disinfectants:
⚫ Activated glutaraldehyde (cidex 2%)
⚫ Sodium hypochloride 1%
⚫ Carbolic solution 5%
⚫ Bleaching powder 1%
 Low level of disinfectant:
⚫ Methylated spirit 70%
⚫ Betadine solution 10%
⚫ Savlone 1%
 Breaking the chain 2 of
infection:
⚫

⚫ Measures to control or eliminate of reservoir

of infection.
⚫ Employee health:
⚫ Immunization of health personnel’s e.g.
hepatitis B vaccine
⚫ Regular checkup for early detection of any
communicable disease
⚫ Restriction from work of patient contact
when infected with communicable disease.
⚫
 Environmental disease:
⚫ Cleaning with hospital approved clear
disinfectant, e.g. phenol
⚫ Through cleaning of bed and bedside
equipments before admitting new patient.
⚫ Separate mops should be used for cleaning
of unit. (Twice a day).
⚫ Damp dusting should be done.
⚫ Drains should be patent.
 Handling of linen:
⚫ Keep bed sheets dry and clean.
⚫ Change sheets every day.
⚫ Do not shake blankets and linen.
⚫ Do not throw them on floor.
⚫ Soiled linen counting should be done in
separate place.
 Pest control:
⚫ Measures to be taken to avoid their entry
into unit. E.g. proper cleaning, sealing and
draining.
⚫ Patient’s diet should be kept in covered

containers.
⚫ Keep fly trappers on each bedside of
patient.
⚫ Pesticide spray should be used weekly.
⚫ Visitors control:
⚫ Traffic should be restricted except for doctor,
nurse and supportive staff.
⚫ Allow only one attendant (3-4 hours).
⚫ Keep the doors and windows closed.
⚫ Mobile phones should not be allowed inside
the area.
⚫ Machines (X-rays, echo machines,
ultrasound machine) from outside should be
cleaned with spirit before their use.
 Breaking the chain 3 of
infection:
 Portal of exit:
⚫ Practice aseptic precaution.
⚫ Avoid talking directly into the client’s mouth to
prevent the droplet infection.
⚫ Wearing of mask is compulsory if the nurse is

infected or she is dealing with the patients who

are infected.
⚫ Careful handling of waste like urine, faeces,
emesis and blood is important.
⚫ Disposable gloves should be worn to prevent
direct contact with wastes or infected materials.
 Breaking the chain 4 of
infection:
Mode of transmission:
 Contact Precautions;
⚫ Single patient room.
⚫ Staff to perform hand hygiene, put on
gown/apron and gloves prior to entering
patient room and when anticipating contact
with the patient or their surroundings is.
⚫ Remove gown/apron and gloves and
perform hand hygiene after leaving room.
⚫ Clean and disinfect non-disposable
equipment and items when removed from
patient room.
 Droplet Precautions;
⚫ Single patient room.
⚫ Staff to put on surgical mask when entering
room and remove and dispose of mask after
leaving room and perform hand hygiene.
⚫ Instruct patient about respiratory hygiene
and cough etiquette.
⚫ Limit patient movement outside the room to
medically-necessary purposes.
⚫ Patient to put on a surgical mask when
leaving room.
 Airborne Precautions;
⚫ Single negatively pressured room.
⚫ Door to remain closed.
⚫ Staff to put on N95/P2 mask when
entering patient room and remove and
dispose of mask and perform hand
hygiene after leaving room.
⚫ Instruct patient about respiratory hygiene
and cough etiquette.
⚫ Patient to put on surgical mask when
leaving room.
 Breaking the chain 5 of
infection:

 Portal of entry:
🞄Maintain integrity of skin and mucous
membrane.
🞄Prepare position of tubing, etc. may
prevent injuries and skin breakdown.
🞄Turning and positioning of debilitated
clients.
🞄Ensure the personal hygiene of client
regularly.
🞄Proper disposal of contaminated syringe
and needles.
🞄Proper handling of catheters and
drainage set etc. care should be taken
while collecting and handling specimen.
 Breaking the chain 6 of
infection:
 Protecting susceptible host:
⚫ Protecting the normal defense mechanism
by,
⚫ Regular oral hygiene.
⚫ Maintaining adequate intake.
⚫ Encouraging deep breathing exercise.
⚫ Encouraging proper immunization of
children and adult client.
  Maintaining healing process:
⚫ Promotion of intake of well-balanced diet
containing essential protein, vitamins, fats
and carbohydrates.
⚫ Institution measures to improve appetite of
patient.
⚫ Helping the client to identify methods to
relieve stress.
STANDARD SAFETY MEASURES OR
STANDARD PRECAUTION OR PERSONAL
PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENTS (PPE):
 Introduction:

⚫ Universal precautions refers to the practice, in

medicine of avoiding contact with patients' bodily
fluids, by means of the wearing of nonporous
articles such as medical gloves, goggles, and face
shields. The practice was introduced in 1985–88. In
1987, the practice of universal precautions was
adjusted by a set of rules known as body substance
isolation. In 1996, both practices were replaced by
the latest approach known as standard precautions.
⚫ Under universal precautions all patients
were considered to be possible carriers of
blood-borne pathogens.
⚫ Pathogens fall into two broad categories,
blood borne (carried in the body fluids) and
airborne.
⚫ Standard precaution contains following
things;
⚫ Hand washing
⚫ Gloving
⚫ Gowning
⚫ Mask/ protective eye wear/ cap
⚫ Shoe cover
 Definition:

⚫ Standard precaution is defined as, “a set

of precautionary measures including good
hand hygiene practices and use of
protective barriers during routine patient
care carried out by health care workers
(HCW)”.
 Hand washing:
⚫ Hand washing or hand hygiene is the act
of cleaning one's hands with or without
the use of water or another liquid, or with
the use of soap for the purpose of
removing soil, dirt, and/or
microorganisms.
Steps of hand washing:
 Masks:

⚫When mask is correctly applied, it will

fit snugly and securely over the nose
and mouth.
⚫To protect staff from inhalation of
infectious aerosols or droplets, smoke
or plume or other airborne hazards.
⚫To prevent the spread of micro-
organisms from the nasopharynx of
staff of the patient to others who are
susceptible.
 Types of masks:

⚫ Surgical Mask:
Used in wards,
departments or operating theatres.
⚫ N95 Particulate Mask: Used when caring
for patients with diagnosed or suspected
airborne infectious diseases.
 Gloving:
⚫ Gloves must be available and
accessible in a range of sizes in all
patient care areas.
⚫ Wearing gloves reduces
contamination of hands and minimizes
the risk that a health care worker will
become infected after contact with a
patient’s blood or body substance.
Wearing gloves reduces the likelihood
that staff will transmit micro-organisms
for their hands to patients.
⚫ The type of glove used will depend on
the task involved:

 Non sterile gloves: Non sterile nitrile gloves

are suitable for most situations when contact
with any blood or body substance, mucous
membranes or non-intact skin is anticipated.
 Sterile gloves: Sterile latex gloves shall be
worn for surgical procedures where asepsis
must be maintained. Staff involved with
surgical procedures should double-glove for
added protection
 Eye/ Face Protection:

⚫ Eye/face protection shall be worn in

any situation when splash or splatter
with blood or body substance to the
mucous membrane of the mouth, nose
and or eyes in likely.
Types of eye/face protection:

⚫ Chinlength plastic face

shield
⚫ Goggles Note
 Types of protective
clothing:
⚫ Plastic aprons: In
general, disposable
plastic aprons are
sufficient to provide
protection from
contamination
⚫ Fluid Resistant Gown:
Long sleeved,
disposable fluid
resistant gowns should
be used for contact
isolation or where there
is an elevated risk of
contamination
⚫Managing injuries and exposure in
health
care personal:
⚫ Inhealth care settings, injuries form
needle or other sharp instruments are
the number of one of the cause of the
occupational exposure to blood born
infections.
 Sharps:

⚫ The term sharp refers to any sharp

instruments or object used in delivery
of health care services, including
hypodermic needles, suture needles,
scalpel blades, sharp instruments, IV
catheters and razor blades.
Prevention of injuries from
sharps:
⚫ Use the “handles-free” techniques
when passing sharps during clinical
procedures.
⚫ Do not bend, break, or cut hypodermic
needle before disposal.
⚫ Do not recap the needles.
⚫ Disposal of hypodermic needles and
other sharps properly.
Safe-passing of sharp
instruments:
⚫ Uncapped or otherwise
unprotected sharps
should never be passed
directly from one person
to another. In the
operating theater or
procedure room, pass
sharps instruments in
such a way that the
surgeon and assistant
are never touching the
item at the same time.
This way of passing
sharps is known as the
“hands-free” techniques:
⚫ The assistant
places the
instrument in a
sterile kidney basin
or in designated
“safe zone” in sterile
field.
⚫ The service
provider picks up
the instrument, uses
it, and returns it to
the basin or safe.
Managing injuries and
exposure:
⚫ Studies have shown that cleaning a
wound with an antiseptic or squeezing it
does not reduce the risk of infection. If
you are accidently exposed to blood or
other body fluids, either by needle stick,
an injury from another sharp object, and
a splash of fluid:
⚫ Wash the needle stick injury site or cut
with soap and running water.
⚫ Flush splashes to the nose, mouth or
skin with water.
⚫ Irrigate splashes to the eyes with water
or saline.
Post exposure prophylaxis:

⚫ Post exposure prophylaxis with drugs or

other therapy can reduce the risk of
transmission of some blood borne pathogens.
⚫ For hepatitis B: hepatitis B immune globulin
and hepatitis B vaccine can reduce the risk of
infection after exposure to blood or other
body fluids containing the hepatitis B virus.
⚫ For hepatitis C: there is no post exposure
prophylaxis available for hepatitis C. Neither
immune globulin nor antiviral drugs shown to
reduce the risk of hepatitis C transmission.
Safe disposal of sharps:

⚫ Do not recap, bend or break needle

before disposal, and do not remove
the needle from the syringe by hand.
⚫ Dispose of needles and syringe
immediately after use in a puncture
resistant sharp disposal container.
Sharps disposal containers:

⚫ Puncture resistant sharp disposal

containers should be conveniently
located in any area where sharp
objects are frequently used (such as
injection rooms, treatment room,
operating theater, labor and
laboratories.)
INFECTION PREVENTION
OF HIV:
 Introduction:

⚫ Standard precaution (SP) is the core

concept for the prevention of HIV
transmission in all health care
settings.
⚫ SP encompasses precautions in the
handling of blood, all body fluids,
secretions and excretions; and
avoidance of contamination of non-
intact skin and mucous membrane.
 The setting of infection control
for the prevention of HIV can be;
⚫ In-patient.
⚫ out-patient clinics and Accident and

Emergency Departments,
⚫ Special settings like the dental clinics,
surgical theatres.
 The scope of infection control for HIV
prevention is vast in health care settings.
Apart from SP, there are the following
dimensions:
⚫ Environmental infection control practices.
⚫ Occupational safety and health advice.
⚫ Post exposure management of exposed
HCW.

⚫ “Prevention of Transmission of HIV in

Health Care Settings” edited by the
Scientific Committee of Advisory Council
on AIDS in 1995.
 Principles:
⚫ In the context of infection control,
HIV is treated as a blood borne
pathogen. The recommended
practices therefore apply to HIV as
much as they apply to the control of
other blood borne infections in
health care settings.
⚫ SP is the core practice
recommended for HCW in all
settings in relation to the prevention
of blood borne infections including
HIV and tuberculosis.
⚫ Risk assessment is the most vital tool in
the management of HCW after exposure
to HIV. The provision of post exposure
prophylaxis, including antiretroviral
therapy, should follow thorough risk
assessment and counseling tailored to
the need of the injured.
⚫ A surveillance system should be in place
to monitor the potential risk of HIV
transmission in health care settings. This
would involve primarily the reporting of
needle stick injury.
⚫ Training and education of HCW on
infection control practices.
NOSOCOMIAL
INFECTIONS
Introduction:

⚫ Clientsin health care setting may have

an increased risk of acquiring infection.
HAI results from delivery of health
services in the health care facility. A
hospital is one of the most likely places
for acquiring infection because it harbors
a high population of virulent strains of
micro-organism that may be resistant to
antibiotics. The intensive care unit is one
area in the hospital where that risks of
acquiring a HAI is especially high.
Definition:

⚫ A hospital-acquired infection is usually one

that first appears three days after a patient is
admitted to a hospital or other health care
facility. Infections acquired in a hospital are
also called Nosocomial infections.

 For a HAI, the infection must occur:

⚫ Up to 48 hours after hospital admission.
⚫ Up to 3 days after discharge.
⚫ Up to 30 days after an operation.
⚫ In a healthcare facility when someone was
admitted for reasons other than the infection.
Sites and cause of HAI:

• Urinary tract:
• Surgical and traumatic wounds:
• Respiratory infection:
• Blood stream:
Nursing process in infection
control
1. Assessment:

⚫ Inadequate primary defense: broken

skin or mucosa, traumatized tissues,
use ciliary action, obstructed out flow,
altered peristalsis and reduce mobility.
⚫ Inadequate secondary defense:
reduced Hb level, suppression of
WBC, suppressed inflammatory
response.
 Client’s susceptibility:

 Age:
⚫ An infant has immature defense
against infection.
⚫ The young middle age adult has
refined defense against infection..
⚫ Defense against infection may
changes with aging. The immune
response, particularly cell mediated
immunity declines.
 Nutritional status:
⚫ Reduction in intake of proteins and
other nutrients such as carbohydrates
and fats reduces the body’s defense
against infection and Impairs wound
healing.
 Stress:
⚫ The body response to emotional or
physical stress by general adaptation
syndrome, if stress continued or
become intense, then elevated
cortisone level result in used
resistance to infection.
 Hereditary:
⚫ Certain hereditary conditions impair an
individual’s response to infection.
⚫ For example gammaglobuinemia is
rare inherited or acquired
characterized by absence of serum
antibodies.
 Disease process:
⚫ Client with disease of immune system

are of particular risk for infection.

Leukemia, AIDS, lymphoma and
aplastic anemia are conditions that
compromise a host by weakening
defenses against infectious
organisms.
⚫ Burn client have a very high
susceptibility to infection because of
damage to skin surface.
 Medical therapy:
⚫ Some drugs and
medical therapies
compromise
immunity to infection.
⚫ Cyclosporine and
other
immunosuppressan
t drugs, clients
receiving
radiotherapy and
chemotherapy are
also risk for infection.
 2. Nursing diagnosis:

The following are example

of nursing diagnosis that
may apply;
⚫ Disturbed body image
⚫ Risk of infection
⚫ Risk for injury
⚫ Imbalanced nutrition
less than body
requirements
⚫ Risk for impaired skin
integrity
⚫ Impaired tissue integrity
 3. Planning:

⚫ Preventing
exposure to
infectious
organism.
⚫ Controlling or
reducing the
extent of infection.
⚫ Maintaining
resistance to
infection.
 4. Implementation:

Through practical thinking the nurse

may prevent infection from
developing, spreading by minimizing
the numbers and kinds of organism
transmitted to potential sites.
 5. Evaluation:

⚫ To evaluate whether your client has

achieved the expect outcome and has
remained free of infection.
⚫ Maintain high standard of medical and
surgical asepsis and constantly
monitor the client for sign in infection.
HOSPITAL/ BIO
MEDICAL WASTE
Introduction:

⚫ Hospital
or health care waste is generally
named and popular as Bio Medical
Waste.

⚫ According to bio-medical waste

management and handling rule 1998 of
India:
Bio-medical waste means any
waste which is generated during the
diagnosis, treatment or immunization of
human being o animals or in research
activities.
Sources of bio-medical waste:
 Hospital and health care centers:
 Clinics/ office:
 Medical research center and laboratories:
 Blood bank and collection centers/ donation
camp
 Biotechnology institutes
BLACK- General Wastes- litter,
food remains, packaging materials.
YELLOW- Infectious Wastes:
Gauzes/dressings; used IV/Fluid
lines; used gloves and infusion
sets.
RED- Highly infectious
wastes/Pathological: teeth,
placental, cut/amputated body
parts, specimen containers,
sputum etc
SAFETY BOX: Sharps waste-
blades, needles, broken vials,
suture needles, branulas, scalpels,
broken glasses/slides
Safety boxes/ sharps container
Disposal of biomedical waste
includes three stages:

 Collection and segregation

 Transportation and storage
 Disposal techniques
DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES:

1. Chemical disinfection:

⚫ Solid waste must be disinfected before

they are sent for final disposal.
Chemical disinfection is most
appropriate method for to treat the
liquid waste such as blood, urine, and
stool or hospital sewage.
2. Thermal measures:
⚫ Autoclave (wet thermal treatment):
It is effective method of sterilization for
microbiology and biotechnology waste.

⚫ Hydroclave(dry thermal treatment):

In this method shredded infectious waste
is exposed to high temperature, high
pressure steam like autoclaving. It dries
80% liquid of waste and waste is
reduced to 20-30% in weight.
Adequately trained operators or
technicians are needed for its operation.
 3. Microwave irradiation:
⚫ This technique is also effective like
autoclave in sterilizing infected
disposable waste. Most of micro-
organism destroyed by action of
microwaves.

4. Incineration:
⚫ Itis a high temperature dry oxidation
process that reduces organic,
incombustible matter. It also reduces
the volume and weight of waste.
 5. Inertization:
⚫ Inthis process cement and other
substance are mixed with waste
before disposal. Mixing of cement etc.
reduces risk of migrating toxic
substance into surface water or
ground water. After making
homogeneous mixture, cubes are
prepared at site, and then transported
to final disposable site.
 6. Landfill:
⚫ Itis quite effective, provided practiced
appropriately a sanitary landfill
observing certain rues can be
acceptable choice for disposal of
biomedical waste, particularly in
developing countries like India
⚫ Infectionis one of the leading causes of
preventable death. Regardless of all work area,
preventing the transmission of organism is
concern of all nurses.

⚫ Hospital acquired infection are treat to population

health and are not going away any time soon. It
is responsibility of nurse to keep patient in their
care safe by modeling effective and frequent
hand washing practices and proper use of
personal protective equipment.

⚫ Biomedical wastes are one of the major causes

of infection in hospital settings. So its
responsibility of hospital authority along with
health team to collect, segregates, transport and
store and dispose it off to safeguard the people
from hospital acquired infection.