Class Requirements: Lecture

• Exams (midterm/final) - 40%

• Quizzes - 30%
• Class Participation (30%)
➢ Problem Sets/Research Works - 15%
➢ Notebook - 10%
➢ Attendance - 5%
----
Total- 100%
Passing Grade = 60%
Problem Sets/Notebook
➢ Timeliness = 40%
➢ Completeness & accuracy = 30%
➢ Neatness = 30%
-----
100%

𝑀𝐺+𝐹𝐺
Semestral Grade =
2

Notebook – soft bound A4 bond paper with ORANGE cover

Portfolio – contains all the requirements, ORANGE folder
Problem Sets – long bond paper with cover
INTRODUCTION:
Mechanics – is a physical science that deals
with the behavior of bodies under the influence
of forces

Categories:
* Mechanics of Rigid Bodies
* Mechanics of Deformable Bodies
* Mechanics of Fluids

Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

- deals with how forces are distributed inside
bodies and with the deformations caused by
these internal force's distributions
- these internal forces produces “stresses” in
the body, which could result in the failure of
the material itself
Units Used:
DESCRIPTION METRIC ENGLISH
WEIGHT Kg, Grams, Ton Pound (lb), kilo-pound (kip)
LENGTH mm, m, km Inch, feet, miles
FORCE N, kN Lb, Kip

ACCERATION DUE TO 𝑚Τ𝑠 2 ; 9.81𝑚Τ𝑠 2 𝑓𝑡Τ𝑠 2 ; 32.2 𝑓𝑡Τ𝑠 2

GRAVITY, g
AREA 𝑚𝑚2 , 𝑚2 𝑖𝑛2 , 𝑓𝑡 2

Load Classifications:

1. Dead Load 6. Snow Load

2. Live Load
3. Wind Load
4. Seismic/Earthquake Load
5. Rain load
Point Load – is a force applied at a single
infinitesimal point at a set distance from
an origin or end.
Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL)- is a load
that is distributed or spread across the
whole region of an element of the same
intensity.
Uniformly Varying Load (UVL)- is a load
which consists of zero intensity at one end
and linearly varies to the other end.
Couple or Moment- is a pair of forces, equal
in magnitude, whose line of action of force
is not the same. Moment of couple is equal
to the product of either forces and the
perpendicular distance between the forces.

Simple Stresses:
- is an expression as the ratio of the
applied force divided by the resisting area;
or the expression, force per unit area
Categories:
* Normal Stresses
* Shear Stresses
* Bearing Stresses
NORMAL STRESSES:
- is developed when a force is applied perpendicular to
cross-sectional area of the material
- it is the strength of material per unit area or unit
strength
Two Types of Normal Stresses

* Tensile Stress – tends to pull the material

* Compressive Stress – tends to compress the

material
Illustrative Problem:

For the truss as shown in the figure, determine the

stresses in members CE, DE and DF. The cross-sectional
area of each member is 1.8 𝑖𝑛2 . Indicate whether tension (T)
or compression (C).
Illustrative Problem:
Determine the largest weight W that can be supported
safely by the structure as shown in the figure. The
working stresses are 16000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 for the steel cable AB and
720 𝑝𝑠𝑖 for the wood strut BC. Neglect the weight of the
structure. The area of steel cable AB is 0.5 𝑖𝑛2 and the area
of the strut BC is 16 𝑖𝑛2
Illustrative Problem:
Determine the smallest allowable cross-sectional areas of
members BD, BE and CE of the truss as shown. The working
stresses are 20 𝑘𝑠𝑖 in tension and 12 𝑘𝑠𝑖 in compression.
A reduced stress in compression is specified to reduce
the danger of buckling.
Illustrative Problem:

A two-member truss supports a block of weight W as shown

in the figure. The cross-sectional areas for the members
are 800 𝑚𝑚2 for AB and 400 𝑚𝑚2 for AC. Determine the safe
value of W if the working stress are 110 𝑀𝑃𝑎 for AB and
120 𝑀𝑃𝑎 for AC.
Illustrative Problem:

A composite bar consists of aluminum section rigidly

fastened between a bronze section and a steel section as
shown in the figure. Axial loads are applied at the
positions indicated. Determine the stresses in each
section and indicate whether tension (T) or compression
(C).
Illustrative Problem:
The homogeneous bar ABCD as shown in the figure is
supported by a cable that runs from A to B around the
smooth peg at E, a vertical cable at C and a smooth
inclined surface at D. Determine the mass of the heaviest
bar that can be supported if the stress in each cable is
limited to 100 𝑀𝑃𝑎. The area of cable AB is 250 𝑚𝑚2 and
that of cable at C is 300 𝑚𝑚2 .
Problem Set:
1. The rigid beam AB is pin supported at A and supported
by a cable BC as shown in the figure. Determine the
required area of cable BC if the stress is limited to
15 Ksi.
Problem Set:
2. The thrust bearing is subjected to the loads as shown
in the figure. Determine the average normal stress
developed in each cross-section.
Problem Set:
3. The truss is subjected to the loads as shown in the
figure. Determine the required cross sectional area in
members AB, BC and CE if the axial stresses are limited to
15 Ksi in compression and 20 Ksi in tension.
Problem Set:
4. A uniform cylinder is supported by a rigid bar AB and
cable BC as shown in the figure. If the stress in the
cable is not to exceed 7.25 ksi and diameter of 0.50
inches, determine the mass of the heaviest cylinder.
Neglect friction and the weight of the rigid bar AB
SHEARING STRESSES:

- it is caused by forces acting along or parallel to the

area resisting the forces, and it is also called as
tangential stress.
Shearing Stresses:
Illustrative Problem:

A 6-mm diameter pin is used at connection C of the pedal

as shown in the figure. If a load 𝑃 = 500 𝑁 is applied to
the pedal, determine the shearing stress in the pin.
Illustrative Problem:

A hole is to be punched out of a plate having a shearing

strength of 40 𝑘𝑠𝑖 as shown in the figure. The compressive
stress in the punch is limited to 50 𝑘𝑠𝑖,
a) determine the maximum thickness of the plate from which
a hole 2.5 inch in diameter can be punched
b) determine the diameter of the smallest hole that can be
punched if the plate is 0.25 inches thick
Illustrative Problem:

The members of the structure in the figure weighs 200 𝑙𝑏 𝑝𝑒𝑟

𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡. Determine the smallest diameter of a single shear pin
that can be used at A if the shearing stress is limited to
5000 𝑝𝑠𝑖
Illustrative Problem:

A load 𝑃 is applied to a steel rod supported as shown by an

aluminum plate into which a 15-mm diameter hole has been
drilled. If the shearing stress must not exceed 126 MPa in
the steel plate and 70 MPa in the aluminum plate, determine
the largest load P that may be applied to the rod.
Problem Set:

1. The frame is subjected to the load of 200 lb. Determine

the average shear stress in the bolt at A. The bolt has a
diameter of 0.25 inches and in single shear.
Problem Set:
2. The frame is subjected to the load of 1.5 kips. Determine
the required diameter of the pins at A and B if the
allowable shear stress for the material is 6 Ksi. Pin A is
subjected to double shear whereas pin B is subjected to
single shear.
Problem Set:
3. The wishbone construction of the power pole supports
the three lines, each exerting a force of 800 lb on the
bracing struts. The struts are pin connected at A, B and C
of diameter 3/4 inches. Determine the shear stress in the
pin at B
Problem Set:
4. The beam is supported by a pin at A and a short link BC
Determine the average shear stress in the pins at A, B and
C. All pins are in double shear and has a diameter of 18 mm.
Bearing Stress:
- it is produced by the contact of separate bodies, examples
are the soil pressure beneath piers and foundations and the
forces on bearing plates
Bearing Stress:
Illustrative Problem:

The lap joint shown in the figure is fastened by four 3/4

inch diameter rivets. Determine the maximum safe load P that
can be applied if the shearing stress in the rivets is
limited to 14 Ksi and the bearing stress in the plates is
limited to 18 Ksi. Assume the applied load is uniformly
distributed among the four rivets.
Illustrative Problem:

A 6-mm diameter pin is used at connection C of the pedal

as shown in the figure. If a load P=750 N is applied to
the pedal, determine (a)the bearing stress in the pedal at
C and (b)the bearing stress in each support bracket at C.
Solution:

Consider the FBD of the pedal;

Illustrative Problem:

In the figure; assume that a 20-mm diameter rivet joins

the plates that are 110-mm wide. The allowable stresses
are 120 MPa for bearing in the plate materials and 60 MPa
for shearing of rivets, determine a) the minimum thickness
of each plate, b)the largest average tensile stress in the
plates.
Illustrative Problem:
The axial force in the column supporting the timber beam
as shown is 𝑃 = 75 𝑘𝑁. Determine the smallest allowable
length L of the bearing plate if the bearing stress in the
timber is not to exceed 3 MPa.
Problem Set:
1. The assembly consists of three disks A, B and C that
are used to support the load of 140 kN. Determine the
smallest diameter d1 of the top disk, the diameter d2
within the support space and the diameter d3 of the hole
in the bottom disk. The allowable stresses for the
materials are 350 MPa for bearing and 125 MPa for shearing
Problem Set:
2. The compound wooden beam is connected together by a
bolt at B. Assuming that the connections at A, B, C and D
exerts only vertical forces on the beam, determine the
required diameter of the bolt at B and the required outer
diameter of its washers if the allowable tensile stress
for the bolt is 150 MPa and the allowable bearing stress
for the wood is 28 MPa. Assume that the hole in the
washers have the same diameter as the bolt.
Problem Set:
3. A 40 kN axial load is applied to a short wooden post
that is supported by a concrete footing resting on
undisturbed soil. Determine a) the maximum bearing stress
on the concrete footing, b) the size of the footing for
which the average bearing stress in the soil is 145 kPa.
Problem Set:
4. If the allowable bearing stress for the material under
the supports at A and B is 400 psi, determine the maximum
load P that can be applied to the beam. The bearing plates
A’ and B’ have square cross-sections of 2”x2” and 4”x4”
respectively
THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS:

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- A tank or pipe carrying a fluid or gas under a pressure

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is subjected to tensile forces, which resists bursting,
develops across longitudinal and transverse directions.

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 S
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𝜌𝑖 − 𝜌𝑜 𝐷
E

𝜎𝑡 =
2𝑡
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SPHERICAL SHELLS:

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Illustrative Problem:
A cylindrical steel pressure vessel 400 mm in diameter with

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a wall thickness 0f 20 mm is subjected to an internal

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pressure of 4.5 MPa. Determine;
a) the tangential stress in the steel

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b) the longitudinal stress in the steel
c) to what value may the internal pressure be increased if

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the stress in the steel is limited to 120 MPa

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Illustrative Problem:

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Illustrative Problem:

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Illustrative Problem:

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A penstock pipe 1.5 m in diameter is composed of wooden

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staves bound together by steel hoops 60mm x 5mm and is used

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to conduct water from a reservoir to a powerhouse. If the
maximum stress in the steel hoops is limited to 130 MPa,

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determine the spacing of hoops under a head of water of 30
m.

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Problem Set No.01:

A water tank is 8 meters in diameter and 12 meters high. If

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the tank is to be completely filled, determine the minimum

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thickness of the tank plating if the stress is limited to

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40 MPa.

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Problem Set No.02:

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A pipe carrying steam at 3.5 MPa has an outside diameter of

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450-mm and a wall thickness of 10-mm. A gasket is inserted
between the flange at one end of the pipe and a flat plate
E
used to cap the end. How many 40-mm diameter bolts must be
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used to hold the cap on if the allowable stress in the bolts
is 80 MPa of which 55 MPa is the initial stress. What
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circumferential stress is developed in the pipe?

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Problem Set No.03:
A spiral riveted pen stack 1.5-m in diameter is made of

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steel plate 10-mm thick. The pitch of the spiral or helix is

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3-m. The spiral seam is a single riveted lap joint

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consisting of 20-mm diameter rivets. Using a shear stress of
70 MPa and bearing stress of 140 MPa, determine the spacing
of the rivets along the seam for a water pressure of

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1.25 MPa. Neglecting the end thrust, what is the
circumferential stress.

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Problem Set No.04:

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The undersea research vehicle Alvin has a spherical pressure
hull 1 m radius and shell thickness of 30 mm. The pressure
E
hull is steel having a yield point of 700 MPa. Determine the
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depth of submergence that would set up the yield-point

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stress in the spherical shell. Consider sea water to have

specific weight of 10.27 kN per cubic meter
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STRAIN:
- is the deformation of a material from stress. It is simply

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a ratio of the change in length to the original length.

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Deformations that are applied perpendicular to the cross

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section are normal strains, while deformations applied
parallel to the cross section are shear strains

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SIMPLE STRAIN:
* Also known as unit deformation, strain is the ratio of the
change in length caused by the applied force, to the

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original length

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NORMAL STRAIN:

In deformation of volumes under pressure, the normal strain,

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expressed mathematically, is equal to the change in volume

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divided by the original volume. In the case of elongation,

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or lengthwise compression, the normal strain is equal to the
change in length divided by the original length.

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❖ Average Normal Strain:

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∆𝑠 ′ − ∆𝑠

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𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
∆𝑠

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❖ 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛:
∆𝑠 ′ − ∆𝑠

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𝜀 = lim
𝐴→𝐵 ∆𝑠

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Where: ∆𝑠 ′ ≈ 1 + 𝜀 ∆𝑠

❖ Unit: no unit YN
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❖ Normal strain cause
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a change in volume
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not in shape
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Stress – Strain Diagram:

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Proportional Limit (Hooke’s Law)
* Stress is directly proportional to strain
* The stress-strain curve is a straight line

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* First notice by Sir Robert Hooke in 1678

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* The constant of proportionality, k, is called the modulus

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of elasticity or Young’s modulus, is equal to the slope of

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the stress-strain diagram from O to P

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Elastic Limit
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* The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material
will no longer go back to its original shape when the
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load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may be

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developed such that there is no permanent or residual

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deformation when the load is entirely removed

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Elastic Range
* The region in the stress-strain diagram from O to P

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Plastic Range
* The region in the stress-strain diagram from P to R

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Yield Point

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* Is the point at which the material will have an
appreciable elongation or yielding without any increased

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in load

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Ultimate Strength

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* The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the
ultimate strength or tensile strength
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Rupture Strength
* Is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also
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known as breaking strength

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Modulus of Resilience
* Is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force

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is gradually increased from O to P, in N/m3. This may be

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calculated as the area under the stress-strain curve from
the origin O up to the elastic limit E. The resilience of

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the material is its ability to absorb energy without
creating a permanent distortion.

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Modulus of Toughness

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* Is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force
gradually increased from O to R, in N/m3. This may be

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calculated as the area under the entire stress-strain
curve (from O to R). The toughness of a material is its
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ability to absorb energy without causing it to break.
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Working Stress
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* Actual stress of a material under a given loading

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Allowable Stress

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* The maximum safe stress that a material can

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carry

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* Should be limited to values not exceeding the
proportional limit

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* Since proportional limit is difficult to

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determine accurately, it is taken as either the
ultimate strength or yield point divided by a

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factor of safety

Factor of Safety
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* Is the ratio of the allowable strength to
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yield strength
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𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙

or ultimate strength; 𝐹𝑆 =
G

=
𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝜎𝑢𝑙𝑡
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Axial Deformation:

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- in the linear portion of the stress-strain diagram,

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the stress is proportional to strain

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* To use this formula, the load must be axial and the
material must have uniform cross-section

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* For a non-uniform cross-section; consider a differential

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length and apply integration

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* For a rod of unit mass M suspended vertically from one
end, the total elongation due to its own weight is given

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as;

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Stiffness, K
* The ratio of the steady force acting on an elastic body to
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the resulting displacement. It has a unit N/mm
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Illustrative Problem
The following data were recorded during the tensile test of

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a 14-mm diameter mild steel rod. The gage length was 50-mm,
plot the stress-strain diagram and determine the following

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mechanical properties,

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a) proportional limits
b) modulus of elasticity

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c) yield point
d) ultimate strength

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e) rupture strength

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Solution:

𝑃 𝐿

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𝛿
𝜀= ; = 𝐸=
𝐿 𝐴

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d= 14 mm
A= = 153.93804 L= 50 mm 𝑎) 2 6.20 𝑀𝑃𝑎

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𝑏) 205.17 𝐺𝑃𝑎
P 𝜀 E

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0 0 0 0
6310 0.010 0.0002 40.99
𝑐) 270.2 𝑀𝑃𝑎

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12600 0.020 0.0004 81.85
18800 0.030 0.0006 122.13 ) 8.23 𝑀𝑃𝑎

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25100 0.040 0.0008 163.05
31300 0.050 0.0010 203.33 𝑒) 399.51 𝑀𝑃𝑎
37900 0.060 0.0012 246.20 205.17
E
40100 0.163 0.0033 260.49
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41600 0.433 0.0087 270.24
46200 1.250 0.0250 300.12
R

52400 2.500 0.0500 340.40

58500 4.500 0.0900 380.02
G

65000 7.500 0.1500 422.25

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69000 12.500 0.2500 448.23

67800 15.500 0.3100 440.44
E

65000 20.000 0.4000 422.25

61500 Fracture 399.51
Illustrative Problem

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Illustrative Problem:

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Illustrative Problem:
The rigid bar ABC as shown in the figure is hinged at A and

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supported by a steel rod at B. Determine the largest load P
that can be applied at C if the stress in the steel is

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limited to 30 ksi and the vertical movement of end C must

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not exceed 0.10 in.

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Illustrative Problem:
A uniform concrete slab of total weight W is to attached as

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shown in the figure to two rods whose lower ends are on the
same level. Determine the ratio of the areas of the rods so

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that the slab will remain level.

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Problem Set No. 01:
Two solid cylindrical rods are joined at B and loaded as

S
shown in the figure. Rod AB is made of steel 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎, and

O
rod BC is made of brass 𝐸 = 105 𝐺𝑃𝑎. Determine the following;
a)the total deformation of the composite bar ABC

AM
b)the deformation of point B

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set No. 02:
Each of the links AB and CD is made of aluminum, 𝐸 = 75 𝐺𝑃𝑎

S
and has a cross-sectional area of 125 𝑚𝑚 . If they support
the rigid member BC, determine the deflection of point E due

O
the load 𝑃 = 5 𝑘𝑁

AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set No. 03:
The rigid beam ABC is supported by a pin at A and wires BD

S
and CE as shown in the figure. If the load P on the beam
causes the end C to be displaced 10 mm downward, determine

O
the following

AM
a) the normal strain developed in wire BD
b) the normal strain developed in wire CE

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set No. 04:
The steel truss with 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎 is loaded as shown in the

S
figure. Determine the following;
the following

O
a) the deformation of member AB if the cross-sectional area

AM
is 2500 𝑚𝑚
b) the deformation of member AD if the cross-sectional area

R
is 1800 𝑚𝑚

N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
SHEARING DEFORMATION:
- Shearing forces cause deformation. An element subjected to shear does

S
not change in length but undergoes a change in shape

O
AM
R
N
O
YN
- The change in angle at the corner of an original rectangular element is

E
called the shear strain and is expressed as;
𝛿 R
R
𝛾=
𝐿
G

- The ratio of the shear stress 𝜏 and the shear strain 𝛾 is called the
N

modulus of elasticity for shear or modulus of rigidity and is denoted

E

as, 𝐺;
 𝜏
𝐺=

S
𝛾

O
- The relationship between the shearing deformation and the applied

AM
shearing force is;
𝑉𝐿 𝜏𝐿
𝛿𝑠 = =

R
𝐴𝑠 𝐺 𝐺

N
where:

O
𝑉 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

YN
𝐴𝑠 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

E
R
Poisson's Ratio: R
When a bar is subjected to tensile loading, there is an increase in
G

length of the bar in the direction of the applied load, but there is
N

also, a change in lateral dimension perpendicular to the load. The ratio

E

Of the sideways deformation (or strain) to the longitudinal deformation

(or strain) is called Poisson’s Ratio and is denoted by, 𝑣 . For most
steel, it lies in the range of 0.25 to 0.30, and 0.20 for concrete.

S
O
AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑧
𝑣=− = −
𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑥

S
where:

O
𝜀𝑥 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

AM
𝜀𝑦 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

R
𝜀𝑧 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

N
* The negative sign indicates a decrease in transverse dimension, and

O
𝜀𝑥 is positive

YN
BIAXIAL DEFORMATION:

E
R
If an element is subjected simultaneously by tensile stresses, 𝜎𝑥 and
R
𝜎𝑥
𝜎𝑦 , in the x and y directions, the strain in the x-direction is and
G
𝐸
𝜎𝑦
N

the strain y-direction is . Simultaneously, the stress in the

𝐸
E

x-direction will produce a lateral contraction on the y-direction

 𝑣𝜎𝑦
of the amount −𝑣𝜀𝑦 or −
𝐸
. The resulting strain in the x-direction
will be;

S
O
𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜀𝑥 +𝑣𝜀𝑦 𝐸
𝜀𝑥 = − 𝑣 , 𝜎𝑥 =

AM
𝐸 𝐸 1−𝑣 2
𝜎𝑦 𝜎 𝜀𝑦 +𝑣𝜀𝑥 𝐸
𝜀𝑦 = − 𝑣 𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 =

R
𝐸 𝐸 1−𝑣 2

N
TRIAXIAL DEFORMATION:

O
If an element is subjected simultaneously by three mutually

YN
perpendicular normal stresses 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜎𝑧 , which are accompanied by

E
strains 𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 , 𝜀𝑧 respectively,
1 R
R
𝜀𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥 − 𝑣 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧
𝐸
G

1
𝜀𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦 − 𝑣 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑧
N

𝐸
E

1
𝜀𝑧 = 𝜎𝑧 − 𝑣 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
𝐸
Note:
* Tensile stress and elongation are taken as positive. Compressive

S
stress and contraction are taken as negative.

O
AM
Relationships between E, G and 𝒗;

R
𝐸
𝐺=
2 1+𝑣

N
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity or Modulus of Volume Expansion, 𝒌;

O
- Is a measure of a resistance of a material to change in volume without

YN
a change in shape or form;

E
𝐸 𝜎
𝑘= =
R
3 1−2𝑣 ∆𝑉ൗ
𝑉
R
where:
G

𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
N

∆𝑉 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
E

∆𝑉Τ = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝑉
 ∆𝑉 𝜎 3 1−2𝑣
= =
𝑉 𝑘 𝐸

S
O
Illustrative Problem:

AM
A rectangular steel block is 3′′ long in the x-direction, 2′′ long in the
y-direction, and 4′′ long in the z-direction. The block is subjected to a

R
triaxial loading of three uniformly distributed forces as follows;

N
48 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 tension in x-direction, 60 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 compression in the y-direction, and

O
54 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 tension in the z-direction. If 𝑣 = 0.30 and 𝐸 = 29𝑥106 psi, determine

YN
The single uniformly distributed load in the x-direction that would

E
produce the same deformation in the y-direction as the original loading
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛:
R
R
𝑥 = 3′′ 𝐹𝑥 = 48 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 𝑇
G

𝑦 = 2′′ 𝐹𝑦 = 60 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 𝐶
N

z = 4′′
E

𝐹𝑧 = 54 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 𝑇
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem:
A 150 mm long bronze tube closed at its ends is 80 mm in diameter and

S
has a wall thickness of 3 mm. It fits without clearance in an 80 mm hole

O
AM
in a rigid block. The tube is then subjected to an internal pressure of
1
4.0 𝑀𝑃𝑎. Assuming 𝑣 = and 𝐸 = 83 𝐺𝑃𝑎, determine the tangential stress in

R
3
the tube.

N
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛: 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑:

O
𝜌 = 4.0 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝜎𝑥

YN
𝐷 = 80 𝑚𝑚

E
𝑡 = 3 𝑚𝑚
𝑣=
1
R
R
3
G

𝐸 = 83 𝐺𝑃𝑎
N

𝐿 = 150 𝑚𝑚
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem:
The 50 mm rubber rod is placed in a hole with a rigid lubricated walls.

S
There is no clearance between the rod and the sides of the hole.

O
AM
Determine the change in the length of the rod when the 8 𝑘𝑁 load is
applied. Use 𝐸 = 40 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and 𝑣 = 0.45 for rubber.

R
N
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛:

O
𝑃 = 8 𝑘𝑁

YN
𝐷 = 50 𝑚𝑚

E
𝐿 = 300 𝑚𝑚
𝐸 = 40 𝑀𝑃𝑎
R
R
𝑣 = 0.45
G

𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑: ∆𝐿
N
E
Illustrative Problem:
A standard tension test is used to determine the properties of an

S
5

O
experimental plastic. The test specimen is a − 𝑖𝑛 diameter rod and it
8

AM
is subjected to 800 𝑙𝑏 tensile force. If an elongation of 𝛿𝐿 =0.45 𝑖𝑛 and a
decrease in diameter of 𝛿𝐷 = 0.025 𝑖𝑛 are observed in a 5-in gage length,

R
determine;

N
a) the modulus of elasticity of the material

O
b) the Poisson’s ratio of the material

YN
c) the modulus of rigidity of the material

E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Problem Set No. 01:
A 2-m length of an aluminum pipe 240-mm outer diameter and 10-mm wall

S
O
thickness is used as a short column and carries a centric load of 640 𝑘𝑁.

AM
If 𝐸 = 73 𝐺𝑃𝑎 and 𝑣 = 0.33, determine;
a) the change in the length of the pipe

R
b) the change in its outer diameter

N
c) the change in its wall thickness

O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set No. 02:
A 20-mm square has been scribed on the side of a large steel pressure

S
O
vessel. After pressurization, the biaxial stress condition of the

AM
is as shown. Using 𝐸=200 𝐺𝑃𝑎 and 𝑣=0.30, determine the percent change
in the slope of diagonal DB due to the pressurization of the vessel.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set No. 03:
The rectangular block of material of length 𝐿 and cross-sectional area

S
O
𝐴 fits snugly between two rigid, lubricated walls. Derive the

AM
the expression for the change in length of the block due to the axial
load 𝑃.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set No. 04:
Two 1.75-in thick rubber pads are bonded to three steel plates to form

S
the shear mount as shown in the figure. Determine the displacement of

O
the middle plate when the 1200-lb load is applied. Consider the

AM
the deformation of the rubber only. Use 𝐸 = 500 𝑝𝑠𝑖 and 𝑣 = 0.48 for rubber.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
STATICALLY INDETERMINATE MEMBERS:
When the reactive forces or internal resisting forces over a cross-

S
section exceeds the number of independent equations of equilibrium,

O
AM
the structure is called statically indeterminate. These cases requires
the use of additional relations that depends on the elastic deformation

R
in the members.

N
Equations of Equilibrium:
σ 𝐹𝑥 = 0

O
σ 𝐹𝑦 = 0ቑ 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠

YN
σ𝑀 = 0

E
R
R
G
N
E
Illustrative Problem:
A timber column 8′′ 𝑥8′′ in cross-section is reinforced on each side by a

S
steel plate 8′′ wide and 𝑡 inches thick. Determine the thickness 𝑡 so that

O
AM
the column will support an axial load of 300 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 without exceeding a
maximum timber stress 𝜎𝑇 = 1200 𝑝𝑠𝑖 or a maximum steel stress 𝜎𝑆 = 20 𝑘𝑠𝑖.

R
Use 𝐸 = 1.5𝑥106 𝑙𝑏Τ𝑖𝑛2 for timber and 𝐸 = 29𝑥106 𝑙𝑏Τ𝑖𝑛2 for steel.

N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Illustrative Problem:

S
The composite bar in the figure is firmly attached to an unyielding

O
supports. A horizontal load 𝑃 = 50 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 is applied as shown. Determine;
a) the stress in the aluminum bar

AM
b) the stress in the steel bar

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Illustrative Problem:

A rigid beam with negligible weight is pinned at one end and attached to

S
two vertical rods as shown in the figure. The beam was initially

O
horizontal before the load 𝑊 = 50 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 was applied. Determine the vertical

AM
movement of 𝑊.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Illustrative Problem:

S
The rigid platform in the figure has negligible mass and rests on two

O
steel bars each 250 mm long. The center bar is aluminum and 249.90 mm

AM
long. Determine the stress in the aluminum bar after the center load P
has been applied. For each steel bars, the area is 1200 𝑚𝑚2 and 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎

R
for the aluminum bar, the area is 2400 𝑚𝑚2 and 𝐸 = 70 𝐺𝑃𝑎

N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem:

An aluminum rod of length 300 mm, cross-sectional area 1250 𝑚𝑚2 and

S
O
𝐸 = 70𝐺𝑃𝑎 has been placed inside a steel tube of the same length, cross-
sectional area 700 𝑚𝑚2 and 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎 as shown in the figure. Determine

AM
the deformation of the aluminum rod and steel tube when the 𝑃 = 50 𝐾𝑁 force was
applied.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Problem Set:

S
The light rigid bar ABCD as shown in the figure is pinned at B and

O
connected to two vertical rods. Assuming that the bar was initially

AM
horizontal and the rods stress-free, determine the stress in each rod
after the load 𝑃 = 90 𝑘𝑁 is applied.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set:

S
As shown in the figure, a rigid bar ABCD with negligible mass is pinned

O
at B and attached to two vertical rods. Assuming that the rods were

AM
initially stress-free, what maximum load P can be applied without
exceeding a stress of 150 𝑀𝑃𝑎 in the steel rod and a stress of 70 𝑀𝑃𝑎 in the

R
bronze rod.

N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set:
The support consists of a solid brass post with 𝐸 = 98 𝐺𝑃𝑎 surrounded by a

S
steel tube with 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎 . Before the load was applied, the gap between

O
these parts is 1-mm. Given the dimensions as shown, determine the largest

AM
axial load that can be applied to the rigid cap A without causing
yielding of any one of the materials. Also, are the two materials loaded.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set:
The distributed loading of intensity 𝑤 is supported by three suspended

S
bars AB and EF are made from aluminum, 𝐸 = 70 𝐺𝑃𝑎, cross-sectional area of

O
𝐴 = 450 𝑚𝑚2 and bar CD made from steel, 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑝𝑎, cross-sectional area of

AM
𝐴 = 400 𝑚𝑚2 . Determine the intensity of the load 𝑤 so as not to exceed an
allowable stress of 𝜎𝑎𝑙 = 94 𝑀𝑃𝑎 for aluminum and an allowable stress of

R
𝜎𝑠𝑡 = 180 𝑀𝑃𝑎 for steel

N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set:
The rigid link is supported by a pin at A and two steel wires, each

S
having an unstretched length of 12 inches and cross-sectional area of 〖

O
0.0125 𝑖𝑛〗^2. Determine the force developed in the wires when the link

AM
supports the vertical load of 350 lb.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
THERMAL STRESSES:
Temperature changes cause the body to expand or contract. The amount 𝛿𝑇

S
O
is given by;

AM
𝛿𝑇 = 𝛼𝐿 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 = 𝛼𝐿∆𝑇

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
where:
𝛼 – coefficient of thermal expansion in 𝑚𝑚Τ𝑚𝑚°𝐶

S
O
𝐿 – length in (m, mm, ft, in)

AM
𝑇𝑓 - final temperature in °𝐶, °𝐹
𝑇𝑖 - initial temperature in °𝐶, °𝐹

R
For steel 𝛼 = 11.25𝑥10−6 Τ°𝐶

N
If temperature deformation is permitted to occur freely, no loads

O
YN
or stress will be induced to the structures. In some cases were
temperature deformation is not permitted, an internal stress is

E
R
created, the internal stress created is called thermal stress.
R
For homogeneous rod mounted between unyielding supports as shown,
G

the thermal stress is computed as;

N
E
 S
O
AM
R
Deformation due to temperature change;

N
O
𝛿𝑇 = 𝛼𝐿∆𝑇

YN
Deformation due to an equivalent axial stress;

E
𝛿𝑃 = 𝛿𝑇

R
𝑃𝐿 𝑃
= 𝛼𝐿∆𝑇, but =𝜎
𝐴𝐸 𝐴
R
𝜎𝐿
G

= 𝛼𝐿∆𝑇
𝐸
N

𝜎 = 𝐸𝛼∆𝑇
E
where:
𝜎 = thermal stress

S
O
𝐸 = modulus of elasticity

AM
If the wall yields a distance 𝑥 as shown;

R
N
O
YN
E
𝛿𝑇 = 𝑥 + 𝛿𝑃 R
R
𝜎𝐿
G
𝛼𝐿∆𝑇 = 𝑥 +
𝐸
N

𝑥
𝜎 = 𝐸 𝛼∆𝑇 − where: 𝜎 represents the thermal stress
E

𝐿
Note:
A rise in temperature, the rod will be in compression, a drop in

S
O
temperature the rod will be in tension.

AM
Illustrative Problem:

R
A steel rod with a cross-sectional area of 0.25 𝑖𝑛2 is stretched between

N
two fixed points. The tensile load at 70°𝐹 is 1200 𝑙𝑏. Assuming 𝛼 = 6.6𝑥10−6 Τ°𝐹

O
and 𝐸 = 29𝑥106 𝑝𝑠𝑖, determine;

YN
a) the stress at 0℉

E
b) the temperature when the stress is zero

R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem:
Calculate the increase in stress for each segment of the compound bar

S
shown in Fig. P-266 if the temperature increases by 100°F. Assume that

O
the supports are unyielding and that the bar is suitably braced against

AM
buckling. (www.mathalino.com)

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem:

As shown in the figure there is a gap between the aluminum bar and the

S
rigid slab that is supported by two copper bars. At 10℃, 𝛿 = 0.18 𝑚𝑚.

O
Neglecting the mass of the slab, determine the stress in each rod when

AM
the temperature in the assembly is increased to 95℃. For each copper
bars, 𝐴 = 500 𝑚𝑚2 , 𝐸 = 120 𝐺𝑃𝑎 and 𝛼 = 16.8𝑥10−6 Τ℃, for the aluminum bar 𝐴 = 400𝑚𝑚2 ,
𝐸 = 70 GPa, 𝛼 = 23.1𝑥10−6 Τ℃.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem:
A 1.2-m concrete post is reinforced by four steel bars, each of diameter

S
O
18-mm. Using 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎, 𝛼 = 11.7𝑥10−6 Τ℃ for steel and 𝐸 = 25 𝐺𝑃𝑎,
𝛼 = 9.9𝑥10−6 Τ℃ for concrete, determine the stresses induced in the steel

AM
and in the concrete by a temperature rise of 27℃.

R
N
Given:

O
𝐸𝑠 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎

YN
𝛼𝑠 = 11.7𝑥10−6 Τ℃

E
𝐸𝑐 = 25 𝐺𝑃𝑎
𝛼𝑐 = 9.9𝑥10−6 Τ℃
R
R
∆𝑇 = 27℃
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem:

S
For the assembly shown, determine the stress in each of the two vertical

O
rods if the temperature rises 40℃ after the load 𝑃 = 50 𝑘𝑁 is applied.
Neglect the deformation and mass of the bar AB

AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Problem Set:
The two circular rod segments one of an aluminum and the other a copper,

S
are fixed to the rigid walls such that there is a gap of 0.008 inches

O
between them when the temperature is 60℉. Each rod has a diameter of 1.25

AM
inches. 𝛼𝑎𝑙 = 13𝑥10−6 Τ℉,𝐸𝑎𝑙 = 10𝑥106 𝑝𝑠𝑖, 𝛼𝑐𝑢 = 9.4𝑥10−6 Τ℉,𝐸𝑐𝑢 = 18𝑥106 𝑝𝑠𝑖. Determine
the average normal stress in each rod if the temperature is 300℉, and

R
also calculate the new length of the aluminum segment.

N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set:
At 20℃, a rigid slab having a mass of 55-Mg is placed upon two bronze rod

S
and one steel rod as shown in the figure. At what temperature will the

O
stress in the steel rod be zero? For the steel rod, 𝐴𝑠𝑡 = 6000 𝑚𝑚2 ,

AM
𝐸𝑠𝑡 = 200𝐺𝑃𝑎, 𝛼𝑠𝑡 = 11.7𝑥106 𝑚𝑚Τ𝑚𝑚℃. For bronze, 𝐴𝑏𝑟 = 6000 𝑚𝑚2 ,𝐸𝑏𝑟 = 83 𝐺𝑃𝑎,
𝛼𝑏𝑟 = 19𝑥106 𝑚𝑚Τ𝑚𝑚℃.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set:
A rigid horizontal bar of negligible mass is connected to two rods as

S
shown in the figure. If the system is initially stress-free. Determine

O
the temperature change that will cause a tensile stress of 90 MPa in the

AM
brass rod. Assume that both rods are subjected to the change in
temperature.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set:
The aluminum rod has a diameter of 0.5” and is lightly attached to the

S
rigid supports at A and B when the temperature is 70℉. Determine the

O
force P that must be applied to the collar so that, when the temperature

AM
is 0℉, the reaction at point B is zero.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
TORSION:
Consider a bar to be rigidly attached at one and twisted at the other end

S
by a torque or twisting moment, 𝑇, equivalent to 𝐹 𝑥 𝑑, which is applied

O
AM
perpendicular to the axis of the bar as shown in the figure. Such a bar
is said to be in torsion.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E

FIGURE:
TORSIONAL SHEARING STRESS, 𝝉:

S
𝑇𝜌
; 𝜌 = 𝑟 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥

O
𝜏=
𝐽

AM
𝑇𝑟
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐽

R
where:

N
𝐽-polar moment of inertia of the section

O
𝑟-is the outer radius of the section

YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
 S
O
AM
R
N
Angle of Twist, 𝜽;

O
YN
𝑇𝐿
𝜃= , in radians
𝐽𝐺

E
R
where:
R
𝑇 − 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑁 − 𝑚, 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡
G

𝐿 − 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑚, 𝑓𝑡
N

𝐽 − 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑚𝑚4 , 𝑖𝑛4

E

𝐺 − 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐺𝑃𝑎, 𝐾𝑠𝑖

Power Transmitted by the Shaft, 𝑷;

S
O
P = 𝑇𝜔

AM
𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑇𝑓

R
where:

N
ω − 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑑 Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐

O
YN
𝑓 − 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

E
𝑇 − 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑁 − 𝑚 , 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡

𝑃 − 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠, 𝐻𝑃 R
R
G
N
E
Illustrative Problem 1:
An aluminum shaft with a constant diameter of 50-mm is loaded by torque

S
applied to gears as shown in the figure. Using 𝐺 = 28 𝐺𝑃𝑎 , determine the

O
relative angle of twist of gear D relative to gear A.

AM
R
Figure:

N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem 2:
A hollow steel shaft 3-m long must transmit a torque of 25 𝑘𝑁 − 𝑚. The

S
O
total angle of twist in this length is not to exceed 𝜃 = 2.5° and an

AM
allowable shearing stress of 𝜏 = 90 𝑀𝑃𝑎. Determine the inside and outside
diameter of the shaft if 𝐺 = 85 𝐺𝑃𝑎.

R
Given:

N
𝜏 = 90 𝑀𝑃𝑎

O
𝜃 = 2.5°

YN
𝐿 =3𝑚

E
𝐺 = 85 𝐺𝑃𝑎

R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem 3:
A solid steel shaft 5-m long is stressed to 60 𝑀𝑃𝑎 when twisted through 4°.

S
Using 𝐺 = 83 𝐺𝑃𝑎, determine;

O
AM
a) the shaft diameter
b) the power transmitted at 20 rps

R
Given:

N
𝜏 = 60 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝐺 = 83 𝐺𝑃𝑎

O
𝜃 = 4° 𝑓 = 20 𝑟𝑝𝑠

YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem 4:
Determine the maximum torque that can be applied to a hollow circular

S
steel shaft of 100-mm outside diameter and an 80-mm inside diameter

O
without exceeding a shearing stress of 60 MPa or a twist of 0.5 deg/m.

AM
Use 𝐺 = 83 𝐺𝑃𝑎
Given:

R
𝜏 = 60 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝐷 = 100 𝑚𝑚

N
𝜃 = 0.5°/𝑚 𝑑 = 80 𝑚𝑚

O
𝐺 = 83 𝐺𝑃𝑎

YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem 5:
The steel shaft shown in the figure rotates at 4 Hz with 35 kW taken off

S
O
at A, 20 kW removed at B, and 55 kW applied at C. Using 𝐺 = 83 𝐺𝑃𝑎, find

AM
the maximum shearing stress and the angle of rotation of gear A relative
to gear C.

R
N
O
Given:

YN
𝑃𝐴 = −35 𝑘𝑊

E
𝑃𝐵 = −20 𝑘𝑊
𝑃𝐶 = 55 𝑘𝑊 R
R
𝑓 = 4 𝐻𝑧
G
N

𝐺 = 83 𝐺𝑃𝑎
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
PROBLEM SET:
1.The compound shaft shown in the figure is attached to rigid supports. For the
bronze segment AB, the maximum shearing stress is limited to 8000 psi and for the

S
steel segment BC, it is limited to 12 ksi. Determine the diameters of each

O
segment so that each material will be simultaneously stressed to its permissible

AM
limit when a torque 𝑇=12 𝑘𝑖𝑝−𝑓t is applied. For bronze, 𝐺 = 6𝑥106 𝑝𝑠𝑖 and for steel,
𝐺 = 12𝑥106 𝑝𝑠𝑖.

R
N
O
YN
2.A torque T is applied, as shown in Fig. P-321, to a solid shaft with built-in
𝑇𝑏 𝑇𝑎
ends. Prove that the resisting torques at the walls are 𝑇1 = and 𝑇2 = .

E
𝐿 𝐿

R
R
G
N
E

Fig. P-321
3. A solid steel shaft is loaded as shown in Fig. P-322. Using 𝐺 = 83 𝐺𝑃𝑎,
determine the required diameter of the shaft if the shearing stress is limited to

S
60 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and the angle of rotation at the free end is not to exceed 4 degrees.

O
AM
R
N
Fig. P-322

O
4. The splined ends and gears attached to the steel shaft are subjected to torques

YN
as shown. Determine the angle of twist of gear C with respect to gear D. the shaft
has a diameter of 40 mm.

E
R
R
G
N
E
FLANGED BOLT COUPLING:

S
O
AM
R
N
O
YN
In shaft connection called flanged bolt couplings (see figure

E
above), the torque is transmitted by the shearing force 𝑃 created

R
in the bolts that is assumed to be uniformly distributed. For any
R
number of bolts, 𝑛, the torque capacity of the coupling is;
G

𝑇 = 𝑃𝑅𝑛 ; 𝑃 = 𝐴𝜏
N

𝜋𝑑 2
E

𝑇= 𝜏𝑅𝑛
4
If a coupling has two concentric rows of bolts, the torque capacity is;
𝑇 = 𝑃1 𝑅1 𝑛1 + 𝑃2 𝑅2 𝑛2

S
O
where:

AM
The subscript 1 refer to bolts on the outer circle and subscript 2 refer
to bolts on the inner circle. See figure.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
For rigid flanges, the shear deformations in the bolts are proportional
R
to their radial distances from the shaft axis. The shearing strains are
G

related by;
N

𝛾1 𝛾2
=
E

𝑅1 𝑅2
Using Hooke’s law for shear, 𝐺 = 𝜏 / 𝛾, we have;

S
𝜏1 𝜏2 𝑃1 Τ𝐴1 𝑃2 Τ𝐴2
= 𝑜𝑟 =

O
𝐺1 𝑅1 𝐺2 𝑅2 𝐺1 𝑅1 𝐺2 𝑅2

AM
R
If the bolts on the two circles have the same area, 𝐴1 = 𝐴2, and if the

N
bolts are made of the same material, 𝐺1 = 𝐺2, the relation between 𝑃1 and

O
𝑃2 reduces to;

YN
𝑃1 𝑃2
=

E
𝑅1 𝑅2

R
R
G
N
E
Illustrative Problem 1:

S
A flanged bolt coupling consist of ten 20-mm diameter bolts spaced evenly around

O
a bolt circle 400-mm in diameter. Determine the torque capacity of the coupling

AM
if the allowable shearing stress in the bolt is 40 𝑀𝑃𝑎.

R
N
Given:

O
𝐷 = 400 − 𝑚𝑚

YN
𝑑 = 20 − 𝑚𝑚

E
R 𝜏 = 40 𝑀𝑃𝑎
R
𝑛 = 10
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem 2:

A flanged bolt coupling consists of eight 10-mm diameter steel bolts on a bolt

S
circle 400 mm in diameter, and six 10-mm diameter steel bolts on a concentric

O
bolt circle 300 mm in diameter, as shown in the figure. What torque can be

AM
applied without exceeding a shearing stress of 60 MPa in the bolts?

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem 3:
A plate fastened to a fixed member by four 20-mm diameter rivets arranged

S
as shown in the figure, determine;

O
a) the maximum shear stress developed

AM
b) the minimum shear stress developed

R
N
Given:

O
𝑛=4

YN
𝑑 = 20 𝑚𝑚

E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem 4:

A flanged bolt coupling consists of six 12-mm diameter steel bolts evenly spaced

S
around a bolt circle 300-mm in diameter, and four 19-mm diameter aluminum bolts

O
on a concentric bolt circle 200-mm in diameter. What torque can be applied

AM
without exceeding shear stress 60 𝑀𝑃𝑎 in the steel or 40 𝑀𝑃𝑎 in the aluminum?
Assume 𝐺𝑠𝑡 = 83 𝐺𝑃𝑎 and 𝐺𝑎𝑙 = 28 𝐺𝑃𝑎.

R
N
Given:

O
YN
𝐷𝑠𝑡 = 300 𝑚𝑚 𝐷𝑎𝑙 = 200 𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑠𝑡 = 12 𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑙 = 19 𝑚𝑚

E
𝑛𝑠𝑡 = 6 𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 4
R 𝐺𝑠𝑡 = 83 𝐺𝑃𝑎 𝐺𝑎𝑙 = 28 𝐺𝑃𝑎
R
𝜏𝑠𝑡 = 60 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝜏𝑎𝑙 = 40 𝑀𝑃𝑎
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
PROBLEM SET

S
1. In a rivet group subjected to a twisting couple T, show that the

O
torsion formula τ = Tρ/J can be used to find the shearing stress t at

AM
the center of any rivet. Let J = ΣAρ2, where A is the area of a rivet
at the radial distance ρ from the centroid of the rivet group.

R
N
O
2. A flanged bolt coupling consists of six ½ -in. steel bolts evenly

YN
spaced around a bolt circle 12 in. in diameter, and four ¾ -in. aluminum
bolts on a concentric bolt circle 8 in. in diameter. What torque can be

E
applied without exceeding 9000 psi in the steel or 6000 psi in the
R
aluminum? Assume 𝐺𝑠𝑡 = 12𝑥106 psi and 𝐺𝑎𝑙 = 4𝑥106 psi.
R
G
N
E
PROBLEM SET:
3. Six 7/8-in-diameter rivets fasten the plate as shown in the figure to

S
the fixed member. Determine the average shearing stress caused in each
rivet by the 14 kip loads. What additional loads P can be applied before

O
the shearing stress in any rivet exceeds 8000 psi?

AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
TORSION OF THIN-WALLED TUBES:

S
O
AM
R
N
O
𝑻 = 𝟐𝑨𝒒

YN
where:

E
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 (𝑁 − 𝑚 ; 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡)
R
R
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑚𝑚2 ; 𝑖𝑛2
G
N
E

𝑞 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 (𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚 ; 𝑙𝑏Τ𝑖𝑛)

The average shearing stress across any thickness, 𝒕;

S
𝑞 𝑇
𝜏= =

O
𝑡 2𝐴𝑡

AM
𝑇 = 2𝐴𝑡𝜏

R
Angle of twist, 𝜽;

N
𝑇𝐿 𝑑𝑠

O
𝜃= ර
4𝐺𝐴2 𝑡

YN
𝑑𝑠 𝑠
if 𝑡 is constant; ‫ׯ‬ =

E
𝑡 𝑡

R
𝑇𝐿 𝑠
𝜃= → 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑡
4𝐺𝐴2 𝑡
R
G

where:
N
E

𝑠 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒

Illustrative Problem:

A tube 0.10 − in thick has an elliptical shape as shown in the figure.

S
O
What torque will cause a shearing stress of 8 ksi?

AM
Given:

R
𝑡 = 0.10 𝑖𝑛

N
𝜏 = 8 𝑘𝑠𝑖

O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem:

An aluminum tube 1.2-m long has the semicircular cross-section as shown

S
in the figure. If stress concentration at the corners are neglected, and

O
using 𝐺 = 28 𝐺𝑃𝑎, determine;

AM
a) the torque that cause a maximum shear stress of 40 𝑀𝑃𝑎

R
b) the corresponding angle of twist of the tube

N
Given:

O
𝐿 = 1.2 − 𝑚

YN
𝑡1 = 2 𝑚𝑚

E
𝑡2 = 3𝑚𝑚
R
R
𝑟 = 25 𝑚𝑚
G

𝜏 = 40 𝑀𝑃𝑎
N
E

𝐺 = 28 𝐺𝑃𝑎
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem:
A torque of 800 𝑁 − 𝑚 is applied to a tube with the rectangular cross-

S
section as shown in the figure. Determine the smallest allowable

O
AM
constant wall thickness, 𝑡, if the shear stress is not to exceed 90 𝑀𝑃𝑎.

Given:

R
T = 800 𝑁 − 𝑚

N
𝜏 = 90 𝑀𝑃𝑎

O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem
The symmetric tube is made from high strength steel, having a mean

S
dimensions as shown and a thickness of 5 𝑚𝑚. if it is subjected to a

O
torque of 40 𝑁 − 𝑚, determine the average shear stress in the section.

AM
Given:

R
T = 40 𝑁 − 𝑚

N
t = 5 𝑚𝑚

O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
PROBLEM SETS:
A hollow member having the cross-section as shown is formed from sheet

S
metal of 2-mm thickness. If the shearing stress must not exceed 3 MPa,

O
determine the largest torque that can be applied to the member.

AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
PROBLEM SETS:
A hollow member having the cross-section shown is to be formed from sheet

S
metal of 1.5-mm thickness. If a 140 N-m torque will be applied to the

O
member, determine the smallest dimension d that can be used if the

AM
shearing stress is not to exceed 5 MPa.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
PROBLEM SETS:
Equal torques are applied to thin-walled tubes of the same length L, same

S
thickness t, and same radius r. One of the tubes has been slit lengthwise

O
as shown, determine;

AM
a) the ratio of their maximum shearing stress 𝜏𝑏 Τ𝜏𝑎
b) the ratio of the angle of twist of the shaft 𝜃𝑏 Τ𝜃𝑎

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Helical Springs:
When close-coiled helical spring, composed of a wire of round rod of

S
diameter 𝑑 wound into a helix of mean radius 𝑅 with 𝑛 number of turns,

O
is subjected to an axial load 𝑃 produces the following stresses and

AM
elongation:
The maximum shearing stress is;

R
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜏1 + 𝜏2

N
where:
𝑃

O
𝜏1 = 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
𝐴

YN
𝑇𝑟
𝜏2 = 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
𝐽

E
R
𝑃 𝑇𝑅
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = +
𝐴 𝐽
R
𝑃 16𝑃𝑅
G

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = +
𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋𝑑3
N

4
E

16𝑃𝑅 𝑑
𝜏= 1+ → 3−9
𝜋𝑑 3 4𝑅
▪ This formula neglects the curvature of the spring.
𝑑
▪ This formula is used for light spring where the ratio is small
4𝑅

S
O
For heavy springs and considering the curvature of the springs, a more

AM
precise formula is given by A.M. Wahl formula;

16𝑃𝑅 4𝑚 − 1 0.615

R
𝜏= + → (3 − 10)
𝜋𝑑 3 4𝑚 − 4 𝑚

N
where:

O
𝑚 = 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥

YN
2𝑅
𝑚=
𝑑

E
4𝑚−1

R
= 𝑊𝑎ℎ𝑙 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
4𝑚−4
R
The elongation of the bar is given by;
G

64𝑃𝑅3 𝑛
𝛿=
N

𝐺𝑑 4
E

Since deformation 𝛿 is directly proportional to the applied load 𝑃, the

constant of proportionality, 𝑘, is called the spring constant.
 𝑃 𝐺𝑑 4
𝑘= =
𝛿 64𝑅3 𝑛

S
Springs in Series:

O
AM
For two or more springs with spring laid in series, the resulting spring
constant k is given by;

R
1ൗ = 1ൗ + 1ൗ + ⋯ + 1ൗ

N
𝑘 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘𝑛

O
where:

YN
𝑘1 and 𝑘2 are the spring constant of the different springs

E
R
Springs in Parallel: R
𝑘 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝑛
G
N
E
Illustrative Problem:
Determine the maximum shearing stress and elongation in a helical spring

S
composed of 20 turns of 20-mm diameter wire on a mean radius of 90-mm

O
when the spring is supporting a load of 1.5 𝑘𝑁. Use Equation (3-10) and

AM
𝐺=83 𝐺𝑃𝑎 .

Given:

R
P = 1.5 kN

N
R = 90 mm

O
d = 20 mm

YN
n = 20

E
G = 83 GPa

τ=
16PR 4m − 1 0.615
+ R
R
πd3 4m − 4 m
G

Required:
N

τmax
E

δ
Illustrative Problem:
Two steel springs arranged in series as shown in the figure supports a

S
load P. The upper spring has 12 turns of 25-mm diameter wire on a mean

O
radius of 100 mm. The lower spring consists of 10 turns of 20-mm diameter
wire on a mean radius of 75 mm. If the maximum shearing stress in either

AM
spring must not exceed 200 MPa, compute the maximum value of P and the
total elongation of the assembly. 𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝐸𝑞. (3 − 10) and 𝐺 = 83 𝐺𝑃𝑎. Compute the

R
equivalent spring constant by dividing the load by the total elongation

N
Given:

O
Spring 1 Spring 2

YN
n1 = 12 n2 = 10 Spring 1
d1 = 25 mm d2 = 20 mm

E
R
R1 = 100 mm R 2 = 75 mm
𝐺 = 83 𝐺𝑃𝑎
R
G = 83 GPa Spring 2
G
τall = 200 MPa 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 200 𝑀𝑃𝑎
N

Required:
E

P, δ and k
 Illustrative Problem:
A rigid bar hinged at one end is supported by two identical springs as

S
shown in the figure. Each springs consists of 20 turns of 10-mm diameter

O
wire having a mean diameter of 150-mm. Determine the maximum shearing

AM
stress in each springs. Use equation (3-9).

Given:

R
Springs 1 & 2;

N
n = 20

O
d = 10 mm

YN
D = 150 mm; R = 75 mm

E
16PR d
τmax = 1+
πd3

R
4R R
Required:
G

𝜏1 and 𝜏2
N
E
Illustrative Problem:

A rigid bar, hinged at one end, is supported by two identical springs as

S
shown in the figure. Each spring consists of 20 turns of 10-mm wire

O
having a mean diameter of 150-mm. Compute the maximum shearing stress in

AM
the springs, using Eq.(3-9). Neglect the mass of the rigid bar.

Given:

R
N
Springs 1 & 2;

O
n = 20

YN
d = 10 mm

E
D = 150 mm; R = 75 mm
τmax =
16PR
1+
d
R
R
πd3 4R
G
N

Required:
E

𝜏1 and 𝜏2
PROBLEM SETS:
1) As shown in the figure, a homogeneous 50-kg rigid block is suspended

S
by the three springs whose lower ends were originally at the same level.

O
Each steel spring has 24 turns of 10-mm-diameter on a mean diameter of

AM
100 mm, and G=83 GPa. The bronze spring has 48 turns of 20-mm-diameter
wire on a mean diameter of 150 mm, and G=42 GPa. Compute the maximum
shearing stress in each spring using Eq.(3-9).

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
PROBLEM SETS:
2) The helical spring shown is axially loaded with a compression force P

S
equal to 5 kN. The mean diameter of the spring is 100 mm and the wire

O
used is 10 mm as indicated in the figure. Use Eq.(3-9)

AM
a) determine the shear stress at A
b) determine the shear stress at B

R
c) on the diameter AB locate the point

N
of zero shear measured from C

O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
PROBLEM SETS:
3) A helical spring is fabricated by wrapping wire 3/4 in. in diameter

S
around a forming cylinder 8 in. in diameter. Compute the number of turns

O
required to permit an elongation of 4 in. without exceeding a shearing

AM
stress of 18 ksi. Use Eq.(3-9) and G = 12 × 106 psi.
4) A rigid bar, pinned at O, is supported by two identical springs as
shown in Fig. P-348. Each spring consists of 20 turns of 3/4-in-diameter

R
wire having a mean diameter of 6 in. Determine the maximum load W that

N
may be supported if the shearing stress in the springs is limited to 20
ksi. Use Eq. (3-9).

O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
SHEAR AND BENDING MOMENT IN BEAMS:
Beam – refers to a slender bar that carries transverse loadings, that is

S
the applied loads are perpendicular to the bar

O
▪ In a beam, the internal force system consist of a shear force and

AM
a bending moment acting on the cross section of the bar. The
shear force and the bending moment usually vary continuously

R
along the length of the beam

N
▪ The internal forces give rise to two kinds of stresses on a
transverse section of a beam: (1) normal stress that is caused by

O
bending moment and (2) shear stress due to the shear force.

YN
Types of Beams:

E
A. Determinate Beams R
R
G

B. Indeterminate Beams
N
E
Types of Determinate Beams:

S
O
AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Types of Indeterminate Beams:

S
O
AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Types of Loadings in Beams:

S
O
AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Sign Conventions:
*External loads acting downward, external couples that are directed
clockwise produces positive effect

S
*Shear forces that tends to rotate the beam element clockwise produces

O
positive effect

AM
*Bending moments that tend to bend a beam element concave upward
produces positive effect

R
*Otherwise produces negative effect

N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Methods Used:
1. Using Equations

S
2. Using Area Method (Relation of Load, Shear and Bending Moment)

O
AM
Steps in determining shear force and bending moment;

R
▪ Compute the support reactions from the free-body diagram(FBD) of the
entire beam

N
▪ Divide the beam into segment so that the loading within each segment

O
is continuous. Thus, the end-points of the segments are
discontinuities of loading, including concentrated loads and couples

YN
❑ Perform the following steps for each segment of the beam:

E
R
▪ Introduce an imaginary cutting plane within the segment, located
at a distance x from the left end of the beam, that cuts the beam
R
into two parts.
G

▪ Draw a FBD for the part of the beam lying either to the left or to
N

the right of the cutting plane, whichever is more convenient. At the

E

cut section, show V and M acting in their positive directions.

▪ Determine the expressions for V and M from the equilibrium equations
obtainable from the FBD. These expressions, which are usually functions
of x, are the shear force and bending moment equations for the segment.

S
▪ Plot the expressions for V and M for the segment. It is visually

O
desirable to draw the V-diagram below the FBD of the entire beam, and

AM
then draw the M- diagram below the V-diagram
❑ Note:

R
▪ Pin support and Roller support has zero moments.

N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Illustrative Problem:

S
The simply supported beam in the figure carries two concentrated loads.

O
(1) Derive the expressions for the shear force and the bending moment for

AM
each segment of the beam. (2) Sketch the shear force and bending moment
diagrams. Neglect the weight of the beam.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem:
The overhanging beam in the figure carries a uniformly distributed load
of intensity 20 kN/m with 5-m in length starting from support A and a

S
concentrated load of magnitude 30 kN at the overhanging end. (1) Derive

O
the expressions for the shear force and the bending moment for each

AM
segment of the beam. (2) Sketch the shear force and bending moment
diagrams. Neglect the weight of the beam.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem:
For the cantilever beam loaded as shown in the figure. (1) Derive the
expressions for the shear force and the bending moment for each segment

S
of the beam. (2) Sketch the shear force and bending moment diagrams.

O
Neglect the weight of the beam.

AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem:
For the beam loaded as shown in the figure. (1) Derive the expressions
for the shear force and the bending moment for each segment of the beam.

S
(2) Sketch the shear force and bending moment diagrams. Neglect the

O
weight of the beam.

AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Problem Set:

For the beam loaded as shown in the figure. (1) Derive the expressions

S
for the shear force and the bending moment for each segment of the beam.

O
(2) Sketch the shear force and bending moment diagrams. Neglect the

AM
weight of the beam.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Using Area Method (Relation of Load, Shear and Bending Moment):
A. Beam with distributed loading:

S
O
AM
R
N
Figure (a)

O
Consider the segment with differential length 𝑑𝑥

YN
E
R v − wdx − v + dv = 0
R
v − wdx − v − dv = 0
G
N

−wdx − dv = 0
E

dv
w=− →1
dx
෍ M𝑂 = 0 +↻

S
dx
M + v dx − w dx − M + dM = 0

O
2

AM
2
w dx
M + vdx − − M − dM = 0
2

R
vdx − dM = 0

N
dM
v= →2
dx

O
YN
▪ Equations 1 and 2 are called the differential equation of equilibrium in beams

E
❑ The following five theorems relating the load, the shear force,

R
and the bending moment diagrams follow from these equations;
R
1. The load intensity w at any section of a beam is equal to the
G

negative of the slope of the shear force diagram at the section.

N
E

dv
Proof － follows directly from Eq.(1). w=− →1
dx
2. The shear force V at any section is equal to the slope of the bending
moment diagram at that section

S
dM
Proof － follows directly from Eq.(2). v= →2

O
dx

AM
3. The difference between the shear forces at two sections of a beam is
equal to the negative of the area under the load diagram between those

R
two sections.

N
O
YN
E
R
R
G

Figure (b)
N
E
Proof−integrating Eq.(1) between sections A and B in figure (b), we
obtain;

S
𝑑𝑣
𝑤=−

O
𝑑𝑥

AM
dv = −wdx
vB xB

R
න dv = −w න dx
vA xA

N
O
xb
vB − vA = −w න dx

YN
xA

E
vB − vA = −(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑤 − 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚)ሿ𝐵𝐴

R
vB = vA − (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 − 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚)ሿ𝐵𝐴 →3
R
G
N

Note: that the signs in Eq.(3) are correct only if 𝑥𝐵 > 𝑥𝐴 .

E
4. The difference between the bending moments at two sections of a beam
is equal to the area of the shear force diagram between these two

S
sections.

O
Proof−integrating Eq.(2) between sections A and B in figure (b), we

AM
obtain;
dM

R
v= →2
dx

N
dM = vdx

O
YN
𝑀𝐵 𝑥𝐵
න 𝑑𝑀 = 𝑣 න 𝑑𝑥

E
𝑀𝐴 𝑥𝐴

R
𝑀𝐵 − 𝑀𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑣 − 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚ሿ𝐵𝐴
R
G

𝑀𝐵 = 𝑀𝐴 + (𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑣 − 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚)ሿ𝐵𝐴 →4
N
E

Note: that the signs in Eq.(4) are correct only if 𝑥𝐵 > 𝑥𝐴 .

5. If the load w diagram is a polynomial of degree n, then shear force V
diagram is polynomial of degree 𝑛 + 1 , and the bending moment M diagram

S
is polynomial of degree 𝑛 + 2 .

O
Proof－ following directly from the integration of Eqs.(1) and (2)

AM
dv dM
w=− →1 ; v= →2
dx

R
dx

N
B. Beam with couple and concentrated loading:

O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
 S
VA− − PA − VA+ = 0

O
AM
VA+ = VA− − PA →5

R
෍ 𝑀𝐴 = 0 +↻

N
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

O
𝑀𝐴− + 𝑉𝐴− + 𝐶𝐴 + 𝑉𝐴+ − 𝑀𝐴+ = 0
2 2

YN
E
Since dx is very small the terms with dx is neglected;

𝑀𝐴+ = 𝑀𝐴− + 𝐶𝐴 →6 R
R
G
N
E
Procedure for the Area Method:

S
❑ Compute the support reactions from the free−body diagram (FBD) of the

O
entire beam.

AM
❑ Draw the load diagram of the beam (which is essentially a FBD) showing

R
the values of the loads, including the support reactions. Use the

N
agreed sign conventions to determine the correct signs of each load.

O
YN
❑ Working from left to right, construct the V−and M−diagram for each
segment of the beam using Eqs. (1)to(6)

E
R
❑ When reached the right end of the beam, check to see whether the
R
computed values of V−and M are consistent with the end conditions. If
G
they are not, you made an error in the computations.
N
E
Illustrative Problem:
Draw the shear and bending moment of the beam loaded as shown and

S
determine the maximum shear and bending moment.

O
AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem:
Draw the shear and bending moment of the beam loaded as shown in the

S
figure and determine the maximum shear and bending moment.

O
AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem:
Draw the shear and bending moment of the beam loaded as shown in the

S
figure and determine the maximum shear and bending moment.

O
AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem:
Draw the load and bending moment of the beam with shear diagram as shown

S
in the figure and determine the maximum bending moment.

O
AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Problem Set:
1. Draw the shear and bending moment of the beam loaded as shown in the

S
figure and determine the maximum shear and bending moment.

O
AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
2. Draw the load and bending moment diagrams of a beam that corresponds
to the given shear diagram. Assume no couples are applied on the beam.

S
O
AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
MOVING LOADS:
In shear and bending moment of beams, maximum bending moment occurs where

S
the shear force is zero; usually zero shears occurs under a concentrated

O
load and so the maximum bending moment.

AM
Structures that usually carries these types of loadings are;
▪ Bridges

R
N
O
YN
E
▪ Overhead Cranes

R
R
G
N
E
❑ Single Moving Load, the maximum bending moment occurs when the load is
at the center of the beam and maximum shear force occurs when the load

S
O
is near the support (assume to lie on the support).

AM
Position for Maximum Shear Force:

R
Vmax = R1 = R 2

N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Position for Maximum Bending Moment:

S
O
AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
PL
G

Mmax =
N

4
E
❑ Two Moving Loads:
where:

S
O
Pa = smaller load

AM
Pb = larger load
d = distance between the axle loads

R
P = Pa + Pb

N
Pa < Pb

O
YN
Location of maximum shear occurs when the larger load is over

E
that support.
R
R
The maximum bending moment is given by;
G
N

2
PL − Pa d
Mmax =
E

4PL
Three or More Moving Loads:

S
A truck or other vehicles rolling across a beam or girder constitute a

O
system of concentrated loads at fixed distance from one another. For a

AM
beam carrying three or more loads, the maximum bending moment occurs
under one of the loads.
Consider a series of loads:

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
where:
R = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 = resultant of the loads

S
e = distance of resultant from P2

O
AM
෍ 𝑀𝑅2 = 0

R
𝑅1 𝐿 = 𝑅 𝐿 − 𝑥 − 𝑒

N
𝑅
𝑅1 = 𝐿 − 𝑥 − 𝑒
𝐿

O
consider the load P2

YN
E
෍ 𝑀𝑃2 = ෍ 𝑀
𝐿
R
R
𝑀𝑃2 = 𝑅1 𝑥 − 𝑃1 𝑎
G

𝑅
N

𝑀𝑃2 = 𝐿 − 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑃1 𝑎
𝐿
E
For moment to become maximum differentiate MP2 with respect to x and equate to zero;
R

S
MP2 = L − x − e x − P1 a
L

O
dMP2 R

AM
= L − x − e 1 + x(−1)
dx L

R
dMP2 R
= L − 2x − e

N
dx L

O
dMP2
=0

YN
dx

E
L − 2x − e = 0

R
L R
L − 2x − e = 0
G
N

L e 1
x= − = L−e
E

2 2 2
Rule:
1. The bending moment under a particular load is maximum when the center

S
of the beam is midway between that load and the resultant of all the

O
loads then at the span.

AM
2. The maximum shear force occurs at the reaction where the resultant
load is nearest.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Illustrative Problem:
A truck and trailer combination having the axle loads as shown in the

S
figure rolls across the simply supported beam with a span of 12 meters.

O
Determine the maximum shear force and bending moment and draw the shear

AM
and bending moment diagrams where the maximum moment occurs.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem:
A truck and trailer combination having the axle loads as shown in the

S
figure rolls across the simply supported beam with a span of 10 meters.

O
Determine the maximum shear force and bending moment and draw the shear
and bending moment diagrams where the maximum moment occurs.

AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Problem Sets:

S
1) A truck and trailer combination having the axle loads as shown in the

O
figure rolls across the simply supported beam with a span of 10 meters.

AM
Determine the maximum shear force and bending moment and draw the shear
and bending moment diagrams where the maximum moment occurs.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Sets:

S
2) A truck and trailer combination having the axle loads as shown in the

O
figure rolls across the simply supported beam with a span of 13 meters.

AM
Determine the maximum shear force and bending moment and draw the shear
and bending moment diagrams where the maximum moment occurs.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Sets:

S
3) A truck and trailer combination having the axle loads as shown in the

O
figure rolls across the simply supported beam with a span of 12 meters.

AM
Determine the maximum shear force and bending moment and draw the shear
and bending moment diagrams where the maximum moment occurs.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
STRESSES IN BEAMS:
Forces and couples acting on the beam cause bending (flexural stresses)

S
and shearing stresses on any cross section of the beam and deflection

O
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam. If couples are

AM
applied to the ends of the beam and no forces act on it, the bending is
said to be pure bending. If forces produce the bending, the bending is

R
called ordinary bending.

N
Types of Stresses:

O
YN
▪ Bending or Flexural Stresses – cause by bending moments

E
▪ Shearing Stresses – cause by shear forces

Assumptions: R
R
G

1) The plane sections of the beam remains plane.

N
E

2) The materials in the beam is homogeneous and obeys Hooke’s Law.

3) The moduli of elasticity for tension and compression are equal.

S
O
4) The beam is initially straight and of constant cross-section.

AM
5) The plane of loading must contain a principal axis of the beam cross-

R
section and the load must be perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of
the beam.

N
O
YN
Derivation of the Flexure Formula:

E
R
The stresses caused by the bending moments are known as bending or
R
flexural stresses, and the relation between these stresses and the
G

bending moment is expressed by the flexure formula.

N
E
Consider the beam loaded as Consider a fiber at a distance 𝑦 from
shown; the neutral axis, because of the beam’s
curvature, as the effect of bending

S
O
moment, the fiber is stretched by an
amount of cd. Since the curvature of the

AM
beam is very small, bcd and Oba are
considered as similar triangles. The

R
strain on this fiber is;

N
𝑐𝑑 𝑦
𝜀= =

O
𝑎𝑏 𝜌

YN
𝜎
By Hooke’s Law: 𝜀 = , then;
𝐸

E
𝜎 𝑦 𝑦
R
= =𝜎=𝐸
𝐸 𝜌 𝜌
R
which means that the stress is
G

proportional to the distance y from

N

the neutral axis

E
In this section we use 𝒇𝒃 instead of 𝝈 to denote flexural stress.

S
𝜎 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝐸𝑦
= =𝜎=𝐸 ; 𝑓𝑏 = 𝐸 ; 𝜌=

O
𝐸 𝜌 𝜌 𝜌 𝑓𝑏

AM
Consider the section of the beam;
𝑓𝑏

R
𝑚𝑎𝑥

N
O
YN
E
𝑓𝑏

R
R 𝑚𝑎𝑥

Considering a differential area dA at a distance 𝑦 from N. A., the

G

force acting over the area is;

N

𝑦 𝐸
E

𝑑𝐹 = 𝑓𝑏 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸𝑑𝐴 = 𝑦𝑑𝐴
𝜌 𝜌
The resultant of all the elemental moment about N.A. must be equal to
the bending moment on the section;

S
𝑓𝑏 𝑚𝑎𝑥

O
𝐸
𝑀 = න 𝑦 𝑑𝐹 = න 𝑦 𝑦𝑑𝐴

AM
𝜌

R
𝑓𝑏

N
𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐸
𝑀 = න 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 but ; ‫ 𝑦 ׬‬2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐼 , moment of inertia

O
𝜌

YN
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝑦
𝑀= ; 𝜌= substituting ρ =

E
𝜌 𝑀 𝑓𝑏

𝐸𝑦 𝐸𝐼 𝑀𝑦 R
R
= ; 𝑓𝑏 = for maximum flexural stress, 𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑓𝑏 𝑀 𝐼
G
N

𝑀𝑐
E

𝑓𝑏 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐼
Section Modulus:

S
𝑀𝑐 𝑀
𝐼ൗ = S ; section modulus

O
𝑓𝑏 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑓𝑏 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑐
𝐼 𝐼ൗ
𝑐

AM
𝑀
𝑓𝑏 =

R
𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑆

N
This form is convenient because the values of S are available in

O
handbooks for a wide range of standard structural shapes.

YN
For Rectangular Beams:

E
𝑑

R
𝑀𝑐 𝑀 2
𝑓𝑏 = =
𝑏𝑑 3
R
𝐼
12
G

6𝑀
N

𝑓𝑏 = 2
E

𝑏𝑑
❑ Symmetrical Section:

S
If a given section is cut around axes such that one portion is the exact

O
image of the other. The axis with respect to which the section is

AM
divided is known as axis of symmetry.

Maximum flexural bending in tension is equal to the maximum flexural

R
bending in compression.

N
Examples of Symmetrical Sections;

O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E

I or W Sections Rectangular Sections Circular Sections

Illustrative Problem 1:

S
A simply supported beam 150 mm wide by 250 mm deep supports the load as

O
shown in the figure. Determine the maximum flexural stress.

AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem 2:
A timber beam 4 inches wide by 12 inches deep and 20 feet long carries a

S
uniformly distributed load over its entire span of intensity 𝑤𝑜 and a

O
concentrated load 𝑃 15 feet from the left support. If the maximum

AM
flexural stress 𝑓𝑏 = 1200 𝑝𝑠𝑖, determine;
a) the maximum value of 𝑤𝑜 if the shear value under the load 𝑃 is zero

R
b) the maximum value of 𝑃

N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem 3:
A wide flange section carries a concentrated load W and total uniformly

S
distributed load of 4W as shown in the figure. If the flexural stress is

O
limited to 𝑓𝑏 = 6 𝑘𝑠𝑖, determine the maximum value of W.

AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Illustrative Problem 4:
A rectangular beam supports the loads as shown in the figure. Determine

S
the minimum allowable value of h of the beam if the flexural stress is

O
not to exceed fb = 20 MPa.

AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
❑ Unsymmetrical Section:

Bending Stresses:

S
O
▪ Flexural Tensile Stress

AM
▪ Flexural Compressive Stress

R
Some examples of unsymmetrical shapes

N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
T-Section Angle Section Channel Section
N
E
Illustrative Problem 1:

S
A channel section carries a concentrated load W and total uniformly

O
distributed load of 4W as shown in the figure. If the flexural stress is

AM
limited to 𝑓𝑏 = 6 𝑘𝑠𝑖 in tension and 𝑓𝑏 = 10 𝑘𝑠𝑖 in compression, determine the
maximum value of W.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Illustrative Problem 2:

S
A simply supported beam of T-section is loaded by the couple of

O
1000 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡 as shown in the figure. Determine the maximum tensile and
compressive stresses in the beam

AM
R
N
O
YN
E
Given: R
R
G
Couple = 1000 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡
N
E
Illustrative Problem 3:

S
An overhanging beam with a channel section carries the loads as shown in

O
the figure. Determine the safe allowable value of P if the allowable
working tensile stress and compressive stress are 60 MPa and 110 MPa

AM
respectively.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Illustrative Problem 4:

S
An overhanging beam with an angle section carries the loads as shown in

O
the figure. Determine the maximum tensile and compressive stresses in
the beam

AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set 1:

S
A 6-m simply supported box beam is loaded as shown in the figure.

O
Determine the maximum flexural stress in the beam.

AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set 2:

S
A 5-m overhanging wide flange beam carries a uniformly distributed

O
loaded of intensity 𝑤𝑜 as shown in the figure. If the allowable flexural

AM
stress is limited to 90 MPa, determine the maximum allowable value of 𝑤𝑜

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set 3:

S
The overhanging beam carries a uniformly distributed load totaling 8𝑊

O
and two concentrated loads of magnitude 𝑊 each. Determine the safe

AM
value of 𝑊 if the working stresses are 3 000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 in tension and 10 000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 in
compression.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set 4:

S
The simply supported beam of channel cross-section carries a uniformly

O
distributed load and a concentrated load as shown in the figure,

AM
determine the maximum tensile and compressive stresses in the beam.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
❑ ECONOMIC SECTIONS:

S
▪ From the flexure formula 𝑓𝑏 = 𝑀𝑦 / 𝐼, it can be seen that the bending

O
stress at the neutral axis, where 𝑦 = 0, is zero and increases linearly

AM
outwards. This means that for a rectangular or circular section a large
portion of the cross section near the middle section is under stressed.

R
N
O
YN
𝑓𝑏 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥

E
R
𝑓𝑏 = 0
R
G
N

𝑓𝑏 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥
E
▪ For steel beams or composite beams, instead of adopting the rectangular
shape, the area may be arranged so as to give more area on the outer

S
fiber and maintaining the same overall depth and saving a lot of

O
weight. Flange

AM
Web

R
N
O
YN
❑ Standard Structural Shapes:

E
R
Wide Flange - W-Shape R
I-Beam – S-Shapes
G

Angles
N
E

Channels
❑ PROCEDURE:

▪ Neglecting the weight of the beam draw the shear and bending moment

S
diagrams of the beam to determine the maximum moment, 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 .

O
AM
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥
▪ Determine the allowable minimum section modulus, 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 = , where 𝜎𝑤 is
𝜎𝑤
the working stress.

R
▪ Choose the lightest shape from the list of structural shapes for which

N
𝑆 ≥ 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 and note its weight.

O
YN
▪ Calculate the maximum bending stress 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 in the selected beam caused by
the prescribed loading plus the weight of the beam. If 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≤ 𝜎𝑤 the

E
selection is finished. Otherwise, the second lightest shape with 𝑆 ≥ 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛

R
must be considered and the maximum bending stress recalculated.
R
▪ The process must be repeated until a satisfactory shape is found.
G
N
E
Illustrative Problem #1:

S
Determine the lightest W-shape that can support a 45 𝑘𝑁 concentrated load

O
as shown in the figure without exceeding a flexural stress of 120 𝑀𝑃𝑎.

AM
R
N
O
YN
E
SECTION
R S 𝒎𝒎𝟑 WEIGHT 𝒌𝒈Τ
𝒎
R
W200 x 52 511𝑥103 52
G

W250 x 44.8 531𝑥103 44.8

N
E

W310 x 38.7 547𝑥103 38.7

Illustrative Problem #2:

S
Determine the lightest W-shape that can support the load as shown in

O
the figure without exceeding a flexural stress of 110 𝑀𝑃𝑎.

AM
R
N
O
YN
E
SECTION R S 𝒎𝒎𝟑 𝒌𝒈Τ
R
WEIGHT 𝒎
G

W310 x 52 747𝑥103 52
N

W410 x 46.1 773𝑥103 46.1

E

W360 x 51 796𝑥103 51
Problem Set:
1. Determine the lightest W200 section that can support the load as

S
shown in the figure if the allowable flexural stress is limited to

O
120 MPa.

AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set:
2. Determine the lightest Wx250 section that can support the load as

S
shown in the figure if the allowable flexural stress is not to exceed

O
100 MPa.

AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set:
3. Determine the lightest Wx310 section that can support the load as

S
shown in the figure if the allowable flexural stress is limited to

O
110 MPa.

AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
❑ FLOOR FRAMING:

S
O
The subfloor is

AM
supported by light
beams called floor
joists or simply joists

R
which in turn supported
by heavier beams called

N
girders then girders

O
pass the load to Girders

Floor Joist/Beams
columns.

YN
𝑇𝐴
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:

E
𝐿 − 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡
𝑆 − 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡
R
Column
R
Girders
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 − 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
G
N
E
Illustrative Problem:

S
O
The partial floor framing plan of a certain building is as shown in the

AM
figure. Determine the following;

a) the load diagram of beam B1

R
N
b) the load diagram of girder G1

O
YN
c) the load diagram of beam B2

E
d) the load diagram of beam B3
R
R
e) the safe rectangular section of beam B2 , if 𝑓𝑏 = 8 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and d = 2𝑏
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem:

S
Floor joists 50 mm wide by 200 mm high, simply supported on a 4-m span,

O
carry a floor loaded at 5 𝑘𝑁Τ𝑚2 . Determine the center-line spacing
between joists to develop a bending stress of 8 𝑀𝑃𝑎.

AM
Solution:

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem:

S
Timbers 12 inches by 12 inches, spaced 3 feet apart on centers, are

O
driven into the ground and act as cantilever beams to back-up the sheet

AM
piling of a coffer dam. What is the maximum safe height of water behind
the dam if water weighs 62.5 𝑙𝑏Τ𝑓𝑡 3 and 𝑓𝑏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1200 𝑝𝑠𝑖

R
Solution:

N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem:

S
The 18-ft long floor beams in a building are simply supported at their

O
ends and carry a floor load of 0.6 𝑙𝑏Τ𝑖𝑛2 . If the beams have 𝑊10 𝑥 30

AM
sections, determine the center-line spacing using an allowable flexural
stress of 18 𝑘𝑠𝑖.

R
Let S – spacing of the beams

N
O
Properties of W10x30:

YN
𝐼𝑥 = 171 𝑖𝑛4
𝑑 = 10.5 𝑖𝑛

E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Problem Set:

S
Given is the partial floor plan of a certain building.

O
a) Determine the load diagram of girder G-2 in gridline 5.

AM
b) Determine the allowable section with a ratio of d=2b of beam B-4 in
gridline F/4-5 if the allowable bending stress is not to exceed 25 MPa.
Assume the beam is adequately braced.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set:

S
A portion of the floor plan of a certain building is shown in the

O
figure. The total loading(including live and dead loads) in each bay is

AM
as shown. Select the lightest suitable W250 section beams if the
allowable flexural stress is 125 MPa. Assume the beams are adequately
braced.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
SHEARING STRESSES IN BEAMS:

S
O
If a beam were composed of many thin layers placed on each other, bending

AM
would produce the effect as shown in the figure. Thus, a built-up beam is
weaker compared to solid beam.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Consider a beam loaded as shown;

S
O
AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G

𝑑𝐹 = 𝜏𝑏𝑑𝑥
N

∴ due to bending (compressive) a horizontal thrust is produced

E
 S
𝐻1 = 𝜎1 𝑑𝐴 ෍ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 +→

O
AM
𝑑𝐹 = 𝐻2 − 𝐻1

𝑑𝐹 = 𝜎2 𝑑𝐴 − 𝜎1 𝑑𝐴

R
𝑀𝑦
𝜎=

N
𝐼
𝐻2 = 𝜎2 𝑑𝐴
𝑀2 𝑐 𝑀1 𝑐

O
𝑑𝐹 = න 𝑦𝑑𝐴 − න 𝑦𝑑𝐴
𝐼 𝑦1 𝐼 𝑦1

YN
𝑀2 − 𝑀1 𝑐
𝑑𝐹 = න 𝑦𝑑𝐴

E
𝐼 𝑦1
R 𝑑𝐹 = 𝜏𝑏𝑑𝑥
R
𝑀2 − 𝑀1 𝑐
G

𝜏𝑏𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑦𝑑𝐴
𝐼 𝑦1
N

𝑀2 − 𝑀1 = 𝑑𝑀
E
‫ = 𝐴𝑑𝑦 ׬‬sum of moment of the differential area 𝑑𝐴 about the neutral

S
O
axis, equals to 𝐴′𝑦.
ത A variation of the product 𝐴′𝑦ത is the symbol 𝑄 ,
which represents the static moment of area or first moment of area.

AM
𝑀2 − 𝑀1 𝑐
𝜏𝑏𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑦𝑑𝐴
𝐼 𝜎1 𝑑𝐴

R
𝑦1

𝑑𝑀 𝑐

N
𝜏= න 𝑦𝑑𝐴
𝐼𝑏𝑑𝑥 𝑦1

O
𝑑𝑀
=𝑉

YN
𝑑𝑥 𝜎2 𝑑𝐴

E
𝑐
න 𝑦𝑑𝐴 = 𝑄
𝑦1 R
R
G

𝑉𝑄
𝜏=
𝐼𝑏
N
E
❑ Shear Flow:

S
▪ Multiplying the shear stress 𝜏 by the width 𝑏, we obtain the quantity

O
𝑞.

AM
▪ It represents the longitudinal force per unit length.

R
𝑉
𝑞 = 𝜏𝑏 = 𝑄 𝑄 = 𝐴′𝑦ത
𝐼

N
❑ Rectangular Section: 𝑉
𝜏= 𝐴′𝑦ത

O
𝑉 𝐼𝑏
𝜏= 𝑄

YN
𝐼𝑏 𝑉 𝑑 1 𝑑
𝜏= 𝑏 −𝑦 𝑦+ −𝑦
𝐼𝑏 2 2 2

E
R 𝜏=
𝑉 𝑑2
2𝐼 4
− 𝑦2 At any section
R
G
N
E
 S
For maximum shear stress, occurs at the neutral axis;

O
AM
𝑉 𝑏𝑑 𝑑
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑏𝑑 3 2 4
𝑏
12

R
N
3 𝑉 3𝑉

O
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
2 𝑏𝑑 2𝐴

YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Illustrative Problem - 1:

S
Determine the maximum and minimum shearing stress in the web of the

O
wide flange section as shown in the figure if 𝑉 = 100 𝑘𝑁. Also, determine

AM
the percentage of vertical shear force carried by the web.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem - 2:

S
A timber beam 80 𝑚𝑚 wide by 160 𝑚𝑚 deep is subjected to a vertical shear

O
force 𝑉 = 40 𝑘𝑁. Determine the shearing stress developed at layers

AM
20 𝑚𝑚 from the top of the section.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem - 3:

S
A uniformly distributed load of 200 𝑙𝑏Τ𝑓𝑡 is carried on the entire span

O
of a simply supported beam with the section as shown in the figure.

AM
Determine the maximum length of the beam if the shear stress is limited
to 100 𝑝𝑠𝑖.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem - 4:

S
O
A simply supported beam 120mm wide by 180mm deep and 6m long carries a

AM
uniformly distributed load of 4 𝑘𝑁Τ𝑚 as shown in the figure. Determine
the following;

R
a) The maximum shear stress developed in the beam

N
b) The shearing stress developed at horizontal layer 30mm apart from
top to bottom from a section 1m from the left end.

O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem - 5:

S
The manufactured wood beam carries the concentrated loads as shown.

O
Determine the maximum value of 𝑃 if the working stress in shear is

AM
6 𝑀𝑃𝑎.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Problem Set - 1:

S
O
For the beam shown in the figure, determine the shear stress at a point
30mm above the bottom of the beam at section C.

AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set - 2:

S
O
The simply supported beam is constructed of 20mm thick timber boards as
shown. Determine the largest permissible value of the load 𝑤𝑜 if the

AM
working stress in the wood is 1.2 𝑀𝑃𝑎.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set - 3:

S
O
The beam consists of two S460x104 sections that are welded together as
shown carries a uniformly distributed load of 𝑤𝑜 = 220 𝑘𝑁Τ𝑚, determine

AM
the maximum shear stress in the beam.

R
N
O
YN
Properties of S460x104:

E
𝐴 = 13200 𝑚𝑚2
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ , 𝑑 = 457𝑚𝑚
𝑊𝑒𝑏 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑡𝑤 = 18.1𝑚𝑚
R
R
𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒:
G

𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ, 𝑤𝑓 = 159𝑚𝑚

N

𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑡𝑓 = 17.6𝑚𝑚

E
DESIGN FOR FLEXURE AND SHEAR:

S
O
To determine the load capacity or the size of a beam section, it must
satisfy both the allowable stresses in flexure (bending) and shear.

AM
➢ For heavily loaded short beams, the design is usually governed by

R
shearing stresses.

N
➢ For long span beams, the design is governed by flexure, because
bending moment varies with both load and the length of the beam.

O
YN
For Flexure: 𝑓𝑏𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≤ 𝑓𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙

E
𝑀𝑐 6𝑀
𝑓𝑏 = ; 𝑓𝑏 = ; 𝑓𝑏 = 2
𝐼 𝑆 R 𝑏𝑑
R
For Shear: 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≤ 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙
G

𝑉𝑄 3𝑉 3𝑉
N

𝜏= ; 𝜏= ; 𝜏=
𝐼𝑏 2𝑏𝑑 2𝐴
E
Illustrative Problem - 1:

S
A laminated beam is composed of five planks, each 150𝑚𝑚 by 50𝑚𝑚, glued

O
together to form a section 150𝑚𝑚 wide by 250𝑚𝑚 high. The allowable

AM
shear stress in the glue is 620 𝑘𝑃𝑎, the allowable shear stress in the
wood is 825 𝑘𝑃𝑎, and the allowable flexural stress in the wood is
8.25 𝑀𝑃𝑎. Determine the maximum uniformly distributed load that can be

R
carried by the beam on a 6m simple span.

N
Given:

O
YN
𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 620 𝑘𝑃𝑎

E
𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 = 825 𝑘𝑃𝑎

𝑓𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 8.25 𝑀𝑃𝑎

R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem - 2:

S
A 3m cantilever steel beam of circular cross-section carries a

O
concentrated load of 35 kN at its free end. Determine the safe diameter

AM
of the section if flexural stress is not to exceed 125 MPa and shearing
stress is not to exceed 160 MPa.

R
Given:

N
𝑓𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 125 𝑀𝑃𝑎

O
𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 160 𝑀𝑃𝑎

YN
Required: 𝑑

E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem - 3:

S
O
A plywood beam is built up of 1/4-in strips separated by blocks carries
two concentrated loads 𝑃 and triangular load of total 3𝑃 as shown in the

AM
figure. Determine the safe value of 𝑃 if 𝑓𝑏 ≤ 1200 𝑝𝑠𝑖 and 𝜏 ≤ 200 𝑝𝑠𝑖.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem - 4:

S
A channel section carries two concentrated loads W and a total

O
uniformly distributed load of 8W as shown. Determine the safe value of

AM
W if 𝑓𝑏 ≤ 30 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑓𝑏 ≤ 70 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 and 𝜏 ≤ 20 𝑀𝑃𝑎.

R
N
O
YN
E
Given: Required: 𝑊
𝑓𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 30 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑇
R
R
G

𝑓𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 70 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝐶
N

𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 20 𝑀𝑃𝑎
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Problem Sets - 1:

S
The thin-walled tube is used as a beam to support the uniformly

O
distributed load of intensity 𝑤𝑜 as shown in the figure.

AM
a) Determine the largest allowable value of 𝑤𝑜 if the working stress
in bending is 100 MPa.
b) Determine the maximum shear stress in the beam

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Sets - 2:

S
The rectangular wood beam is loaded as shown in the figure. Determine

O
the largest allowable magnitude of the load 𝑃 if the working stresses

AM
are 10 𝑀𝑃𝑎 in bending and 1.2 𝑀𝑃𝑎 in shear.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Sets - 3:

S
The cast iron inverted T-section supports two concentrated loads of

O
magnitude 𝑃 as shown. Determine the largest allowable value of 𝑃 if the

AM
working stresses in bending are limited to 48 𝑀𝑃𝑎 in tension, 140 𝑀𝑃𝑎 in
compression and shearing stress of 30 𝑀𝑃𝑎.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
SPACING OF RIVETS OR BOLTS IN BUILT-UP BEAMS:

S
𝑉𝑄

O
𝜏=
𝐼𝑏

AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
𝐹 =𝜏𝐴

S
𝐹 =𝜏𝑒𝑏

O
𝑉𝑄

AM
𝐹= 𝑒𝑏
𝐼𝑏
𝑉𝑒

R
𝐹= 𝑄
𝐼

N
Using shear flow concept

O
𝑉
𝐹=𝑞𝑒 ; 𝑞 = 𝜏𝑏 = 𝑄
𝐼

YN
𝑉𝑒
𝐹= 𝑄
𝐼

E
This shearing force will be resisted by the shearing force of the bolts,
R
R;
R
𝐹=𝑅
G

𝑉𝑒 𝑅𝐼
N

𝑅= 𝑄 ; 𝑒=
𝐼 𝑉𝑄
E
Illustrative Problem No.01:

S
A concentrated load 𝑃 is carried at midspan of a simply supported beam of

O
span 12 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡. The beam is made of 2"𝑥6“ pieces of wood screwed together as

AM
shown in the figure. If the maximum flexural stress is 1400 𝑝𝑠𝑖 and if
each screws can resist a shearing force of 200 𝑙𝑏, determine;
a) the maximum shear stress

R
b) the maximum pitch of the screws

N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem No.02:

S
A distributed load of intensity 𝑤𝑜 is applied over the entire length of

O
the simply supported beam 4𝑚 long. The beam section is as shown in the

AM
figure. Determine the maximum allowable value of 𝑤𝑜 if 𝑓𝑏 ≤ 10 𝑀𝑃𝑎,
𝜏 ≤ 800 𝑘𝑃𝑎, and the screws have a strength of 800𝑁 and a pitch of 50𝑚𝑚;

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem No.03:

S
As shown in the figure, two 𝐶380𝑥60 channels are riveted together by

O
pairs of 19𝑚𝑚 diameter rivets spaced 200mm apart along the length of the

AM
beam. What maximum vertical shear 𝑉 can be applied to the section without
exceeding the allowable stresses: 𝜎𝑏 = 220 𝑀𝑃𝑎 in bearing of channels,

R
𝜏 = 100 𝑀𝑃𝑎 in shearing of rivets.

N
Properties of one C380x60:

O
YN
𝐴 = 7570𝑚𝑚2
𝑥ҧ = 19.7𝑚𝑚

E
R𝐼𝑦 = 3.84𝑥106 𝑚𝑚4
R
𝑡𝑤 = 13.2𝑚𝑚
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem No.04:

S
A box beam made of 50mm x 350mm blocks of wood carries the load as shown

O
in the figure. Determine the capacity of each screw having a pitch of

AM
100mm. Also determine the maximum flexural stress in the beam.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Problem Set - 1:

S
A simply supported beam made of five 50𝑚𝑚 𝑥 200𝑚𝑚 blocks of wood carries

O
the load as shown in the figure. Determine the allowable pitch of the

AM
bolts if each bolt can resist 3 𝑘𝑁 force.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS:

S
O
Design of beams is frequently governed by rigidity rather than
strength; the computation of deflection is an integral component of

AM
beam analysis. For example, building codes specify limits on
deflection as well as stresses. Excessive deflection of a beam not

R
only is visually disturbing, but also may cause damage to other parts
of the building. For this reason, building codes limit the maximum

N
1
deflection of a beam to about of its length.
360

O
METHODS:

YN
1. DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD

E
2. MOMENT-AREA METHOD
R
3. CONJUGATE BEAM METHOD
R
G

4. METHOD OF SUPERPOSITION
N

5. STRAIN-ENERGY METHOD (CASTIGLIANO’S THEOREM)

E
1. DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD

S
O
AM
R
𝜌

N
𝑑𝜃

O
YN
𝜃

E
𝑑𝜃
R
R
G

𝑑𝑦
tan 𝜃 =
N

𝑑𝑥
E
Considering a differential

S
length 𝑑𝑥, the curve is almost

O
flat, hence;

AM
tan 𝜃 = 𝜃

R
𝑑𝑦
𝜃= →𝑎
𝑑𝑥

N
𝑑𝜃 𝑑 2 𝑦 𝜌
= →𝑏

O
𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2

YN
𝑑𝑠 = 𝜌𝑑𝜃 →𝑐

E
1 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
=
𝜌 𝑑𝑠
≈
𝑑𝑥 R 𝑑𝜃
𝜃
R
1 𝑑2 𝑦
G

= →𝑑
𝜌 𝑑𝑥 2
N
E
From the derivation of flexure Integrating equation 2, yields

S
formula; the slope ;

O
AM
1 𝑀 𝑑𝑦
= →1 𝐸𝐼 = න 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐1
𝜌 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥

R
A second integration of equation

N
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑀 2, yields the deflection ;
=
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐸𝐼

O
YN
𝐸𝐼𝑦 = ඵ 𝑀𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2
𝑑2 𝑦
𝐸𝐼 2 = 𝑀 → 2

E
𝑑𝑥 Where 𝑐1 and 𝑐2 are constants to
R
Equation 2 is known as the
be determined
R
differential equation of the
G

elastic curve of a beam.

N
E
Boundary conditions;

S
O
❑ Roller and Hinge support; 𝐸𝐼𝑦 = 0

AM
❑ Built-in support (cantilever support); 𝐸𝐼𝑦 = 0

R
𝑑𝑦
❑ Built-in support (cantilever support); 𝐸𝐼 =0

N
𝑑𝑥

O
YN
Two Methods;

E
❑ Continuity Function
R
R
❑ Singularity Function (Bracket Function)
G
N
E
Illustrative Problem No.01:

S
The simply supported wood beam ABC in the figure has the rectangular

O
cross section shown. The beam supports a concentrated load of 300 𝑁

AM
located 2𝑚 from the left support. Determine the maximum displacement and
the maximum slope angle of the beam. Use 𝐸 = 12 𝐺𝑃𝑎 for the modulus of
elasticity. Neglect the weight of the beam.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem No.02:

S
For the simply supported beam with constant modulus of rigidity EI

O
carries the concentrated load P at its midspan, determine (a) the

AM
equation of the elastic curve; and (b) the maximum displacement.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Illustrative Problem No.03:

S
For the simply supported beam with constant modulus of rigidity EI

O
carries the uniformly distributed load over its entire span, determine

AM
(a) the equation of the elastic curve; and (b) the maximum displacement.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Illustrative Problem No.04:

S
A rectangular simply supported beam carries the loading as shown in the

O
figure. Determine the maximum allowable value of 𝑤𝑜 if the flexural

AM
stress is not to exceed 10 MPa, shearing stress of 3.5 MPa and a
deflection of 12mm. The material has a modulus of elasticity E = 12 GPa.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Bracket Function:

S
❖ Function should be continuous.

O
AM
❖ If the difference inside the bracket is negative, drop to zero.

Illustrative Problem No.05:

R
The overhanging beam carries the load as shown, determine;

N
a) the equation of the elastic curve
b) the value of EIy midway between the supports

O
c) the value of EIy at point D

YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Illustrative Problem No.06:

S
The simply supported beam carries the load as shown, determine the

O
maximum allowable value of 𝑤𝑜 if the flexural stress in the beam is not

AM
to exceed 𝑓𝑏 ≤ 60 𝑀𝑃𝑎 for both tension and compression, shear stress
𝜏 ≤ 35 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and deflection of 10𝑚𝑚. Use modulus of elasticity 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Illustrative Problem No.07:

S
The cantilever beam has a rectangular cross section 50 𝑚𝑚 wide and ℎ mm

O
high. Find the smallest allowable value of ℎ if the maximum displacement

AM
of the beam is not to exceed 10 𝑚𝑚. Use modulus of elasticity, 𝐸 = 10 𝐺𝑃𝑎.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set - 1:

S
The stepped beam of length 4𝑎 carries a distributed load of intensity 𝑤𝑜

O
over its middle half. The moments of inertia are 1.5Io for the middle half

AM
and Io for the rest of the beam. Find the displacement of the beam at its
midspan. (Hint: Utilize symmetry and analyze the right half of the beam
only). Use Double Integration

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set - 2:

S
O
The simply supported steel beam is loaded by the 20 kN − m couple as shown

AM
in the figure. Using 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎 and 𝐼 = 8𝑥106 𝑚𝑚4 , determine the
displacement and slope at the point where the couple is applied. Use
Double Integration

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set - 3:

S
O
For the overhanging beam shown, (a) derive the equation of the elastic

AM
curve; and (b) compute the value of 𝐸𝐼𝑦 at the right end. Use Bracket
Function.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
Problem Set - 4:

S
For the overhanging beam, determine (a) the value of 𝐸𝐼𝑦 under the 24 𝑘𝑁

O
load; and (b) the maximum value of 𝐸𝐼𝑦 between the support . Use Bracket

AM
Function.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
BEAM DEFLECTIONS – MOMENT AREA METHOD

S
O
The moment-area method is useful for determining the

AM
slope or deflection of a beam at a specified
location. It is a semi-graphical method in which the

R
integration of the bending moment is carried out

N
indirectly, using the geometric properties of the

O
area under the bending moment diagram. As in the

YN
method of double integration, we assume that the
deformation is within the elastic range, resulting

E
in small slopes and small displacements.
R
R
G
N
E
 Enlargement of segment CD;

S
O
AM
R
N
𝜌 𝑑𝜃

O
YN
E
𝑥𝐵
ҧ R
R
𝑑𝜃
G
N
E
1 𝑀 𝜃𝐵
1 𝑥𝐵

S
= 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = න 𝑑𝜃 = න 𝑀𝑑𝑥 → 𝑐
𝜌 𝐸𝐼

O
𝜃𝐴 𝐸𝐼 𝑥𝐴

AM
𝑑𝑠 = 𝜌 𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑑𝜃

R
𝜌=
𝑑𝜃

N
𝑥𝐵 𝑥𝐵
1 𝑀 𝑑𝜃 𝑡𝐵ൗ = න 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑥𝑑𝜃
= = 𝐴

O
𝑥𝐴 𝑥𝐴
𝜌 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑠

YN
𝑀 1 𝑥𝐵
𝑡𝐵ൗ = න 𝑥 𝑀𝑑𝑥 → 𝑑

E
𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑠 → 𝑎 𝐴 𝐸𝐼 𝑥𝐴
𝐸𝐼
R
R
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑥
G

𝑀
N

𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑥 → 𝑏
𝐸𝐼
E
Theorems for Moment-Area Method:

S
Theorem I:

O
AM
The change in slope between tangents drawn to the elastic curve at any two
points A and B is equal to the product of 1Τ𝐸𝐼 multiplied by the area of
the moment diagram between these points.

R
1

N
𝜃𝐵𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐵𝐴
𝐸𝐼

O
Theorem II:

YN
The deviation at any point B relative to a tangent drawn to the elastic
curve at any other point A, in a direction perpendicular to the original

E
position of the beam, is equal to the product of 1Τ𝐸𝐼 multiplied by the
R
moment of area about B of that part of the moment diagram between points A
and B.
R
G

1
N

𝑡𝐵ൗ = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐵𝐴 𝑥ҧ𝐵

𝐴 𝐸𝐼
E
Sign Conventions for Tangential Deviation and Change of Slope:

S
O
AM
R
Positive deviation, B is located above the

N
reference tangent

O
YN
E
R
R
G

Negative deviation, B is located below the

N

reference tangent
E
 S
O
AM
𝜃𝐵ൗ
𝐴

R
Positive change of slope, angle is measured

N
counter clockwise from the left tangent

O
YN
𝜃𝐵ൗ
𝐴

E
R
R
Negative change of slope, angle is measured
G

clockwise from the left tangent

N
E
Moment Diagrams By Parts:

S
In order to apply the theorem of moment area method, the area under any

O
part of the moment diagram can be easily computed and also the moment of

AM
such an area about any axis. The following steps should be done;
1) The resultant bending moment at any section caused by any load system

R
is the algebraic sum of the bending moments at that section caused by each
load acting separately.

N
𝑀 = σ𝑀 𝐿 = σ𝑀 𝑅

O
2) The moment effect of any single specified loading is always some

YN
variations of the general equation;

E
𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:

𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 =
1
𝑏ℎ
R
𝑏 − 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
R
𝑛+1
G

1 ℎ − ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑥ҧ = 𝑏
N

𝑛+2
E
Illustrative Problem:

S
O
For the beam loaded as shown, determine the value of P that must be

AM
applied as shown so that the displacement at A is zero.

R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
Select the location of the fixed support
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
Illustrative Problem:

S
Determine the value of 𝐸𝐼𝑦 at point D of the overhanging beam as shown.

O
AM
R
N
O
Solution:

YN
Consider the FBD of the beam

E
R
R
G
N
E
Illustrative Problem:

S
The simply supported beam in the figure supports a concentrated load of

O
300 𝑁 as shown. Using 𝐸𝐼 = 20.48𝑥103 𝑁 − 𝑚2 , determine (a) the slope angle of
the elastic curve at A; and (b) the displacement at D.

AM
R
N
O
YN
Solution:
Consider the FBD of the beam

E
R
R
G
N
E
Illustrative Problem:

S
The overhanging beam 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 carries the uniformly distributed load of

O
intensity 200 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 over the segments 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐶𝐷. Find the value of 𝐸𝐼𝑦 at
point 𝐵.

AM
R
N
O
YN
E
R
R
G
N
E
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S
E
N
G
R
R
E
YN
O
N
R
AM
O
S