Interference of light

When two light waves from different coherent sources meet together, then the distribution of energy
due to one wave is disturbed by the other. This modification in the distribution of light energy due to
superposition of two light waves is called "Interference of light".

Conditions for interference of light

For obtaining a light interference pattern that is sustained or retained, some conditions need to be
fulfilled. They are:
1. The light source must be coherent and in the same state of polarisation.
2. The amplitudes and intensities of the light sources should be equal. This will ensure there is
sufficient contrast between the maxima and the minima of the interference pattern.
3. The light source must be monochromatic and a point source. E.g., lasers.

4. The sources of light must be near enough to produce clear and sharp fringes.
5. The source and screen should be far enough to produce wide but sharp fringes.

Constructive Interference and destructive interference

Assuming all of the criteria listed above are met, then the waves can interfere either constructively or
destructively with each other. If the crests of one of the waves coincide with the crests of the other,
the amplitudes are additive. If the amplitudes of both waves are equal, the resultant amplitude would
be doubled. Bear in mind that light intensity varies directly as the square of the amplitude. Thus, if
the amplitude is doubled, intensity is quadrupled. Such additive interference is called constructive
interference (illustrated in Figure 1).

Figure 1

If the crests of one wave coincide with the troughs of the other wave, the resulting amplitude is
decreased or may even be completely cancelled, as illustrated in Figure 1. This is called destructive
interference. The result is a drop in intensity, or in the case of total cancellation, blackness.

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1. Phase difference and path difference
Phase is the angular position of a vibration. As a wave is progressing, there is a relation between the
phase of the vibration and the path travelled by the wave. One can express the phase in terms of path
and vice versa. In the path of the wave, one wavelength λ corresponds to a phase of 2π as shown in
Figure 2. A path difference δ corresponds to a phase difference ϕ as given by the equation,

Figure 2

For constructive interference, the phase difference should be, ϕ = 0, 2π, 4π... Hence, the path
difference must be, δ = 0, λ, 2λ... In general, the integral multiples of λ.

δ = n𝜆 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3 … … ….

For destructive interference, phase difference should be, ϕ = π, 3π, 5π. . Hence, the path difference
must be, δ = λ/2, 3λ/2 .....

In general, the half integral multiples of λ.

𝜆
δ = (2𝑛 + 1)
2

2. Coherent sources

Two light sources are said to be coherent if they produce waves which have same phase or constant
phase difference, same frequency or wavelength (monochromatic), same waveform and preferably
same amplitude. Coherence is a property of waves that enables to obtain stationary interference
patterns.

Wavefront division: This is the most commonly used method for producing two coherent sources. We
know a point source produces spherical wavefronts. All the points on the wavefront are at the same
phase. If two points are chosen on the wavefront by using a double slit, the two points will act as
coherent sources as shown in Figure 3

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 Figure 3

3. Double slit as coherent sources

Double slit uses the principle of wavefront division. Two slits S1 and S2 illuminated by a single
monochromatic source S act as a set of coherent sources. The waves from these two coherent sources
travel in the same medium and superpose. The constructive and destructive interference are shown in
Figure 4. The crests of the waves are shown by thick continuous lines and troughs are shown by
broken lines in Figure 4

Figure 4

At points where the crest of one wave meets the crest of the other wave or the trough of one wave
meets the trough of the other wave, the waves are in-phase. Hence, the displacement is maximum and
these points appear bright. This type of interference is said to be constructive interference.

At points where the crest of one wave meets the trough of the other wave and vice versa, the waves
are out-of-phase. Hence, the displacement is minimum and these points appear dark. This type of
interference is said to be destructive interference.

On a screen the intensity of light will be alternatively maximum and minimum i.e. bright and dark
bands which are referred as interference fringes.

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4. Young’s double slit experiment

Thomas Young, a British Physicist used an opaque screen with two small openings called double slit
S1 and S2 kept equidistance from a source S as shown in Figure 5. The width of each slit is about 0.03
mm and they are separated by a distance of about 0.3 mm. As S1 and S2 are equidistant from S, the
light waves from S reach S1 and S2 in-phase. So, S1 and S2 act as coherent sources which are the
requirement of obtaining interference pattern.

Experimental setup

Figure 5

Wavefronts from S1 and S2 spread out and overlapping takes place to the right side of double slit.
When a screen is placed at a distance of about 1 meter from the slits, alternate bright and dark fringes
which are equally spaced appear on the screen. These are called interference fringes or bands. Using
an eyepiece the fringes can be seen directly. At the center point O on the screen, waves from S1 and S2
travel equal distances and arrive in-phase as shown in Figure 5. These two waves constructively
interfere and bright fringe is observed at O. This is called central bright fringe. The fringes disappear
and there is uniform illumination on the screen when one of the slits is covered. This shows clearly
that the bands are due to interference.

Equation for path difference

The schematic diagram of the experimental set up is shown in Figure 6. The Let d be the distance
between the double slits S1 and S2 which act as coherent sources of wavelength λ. A screen is placed
parallel to the double slit at a distance D from it. The mid-point of S1 and S2 is C and the mid-point of
the screen O is equidistant from S1 and S2. P is any point at a distance y from O. The waves from S1
and S2 meet at P either in-phase or out-of-phase depending upon the path difference between the two
waves.

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The path difference δ between the light waves from S1 and S2 to the point P is, δ = S2P – S1P

A perpendicular is dropped from the point S1 to the line S2P at M to find the path difference more
precisely.

δ = S2P – MP = S2M

The angular position of the point P from C is θ. ∠OCP = θ.

From the geometry, the angles ∠OCP and ∠S2S1M are equal.

∠OCP = ∠S2S1M = θ.

In right angle triangle ∆S1S2M, the path difference, δ = S2M = d sin θ

δ = d sin θ

If the angle θ is small, sin θ ≈ tan θ ≈ θ

From the right-angle triangle ∆OCP, tan θ = y/D

𝑑𝑦
𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝛿 =
𝐷

Based on the condition on the path difference, the point P may have a bright or dark fringe.

Condition for bright fringe (or) maxima

The condition for the constructive interference or the point P to be have a bright fringe is,

Path difference, δ = nλ

where, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

Constructive interference occurs when the path difference becomes δ is zero or an integer
multiple of the wavelength λ:

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δ = d sinθ = nλ, n = 0, ±1, ± 2, ± 3, ... (constructive interference)

∴ d y/D = nλ

𝑛𝜆𝐷
y𝑑 = , n = 0, ±1, ± 2, ± 3, … … …
𝑑

This is the condition for the point P to be a bright fringe. The distance is the distance of the nth bright
fringe from the point O.

Condition for dark fringe (or) minima

The condition for the destructive interference or the point P to be have a dark fringe is,

Path difference δ =d sinθ = (n+½)λ, n = 0, ±1, ± 2, ± 3, ... (destructive interference)

∴ d y/D = (2n + 1) λ/2

1 𝜆𝐷
∴ 𝑦𝑑 = (𝑛 + 2) 𝑑

This is the condition for the point P to be a dark fringe. The distance yn is the distance of the nth dark
fringe from the point O.

Figure 7

The formation of bright and dark fringes is shown in Figure 7.

This shows that on the screen, alternate bright and dark bands are seen on either side of the central
bright fringe. The central bright is referred as 0th bright followed by 1st dark and 1st bright and then
2nd dark and 2nd bright and so on, on either side of O successively as shown in Figure 7.

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Equation for bandwidth
The bandwidth (β) is defined as the distance between any two consecutive bright or dark
fringes.
The distance between (n+1)th and nth consecutive bright fringes from O is given by,

𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
𝛽 = 𝑦(𝑛+1)−𝑦𝑛 = [(𝑛 + 1) 𝑑
] − [𝑛 𝑑 ]

𝜆𝐷
𝛽=
𝑑
Similarly, the distance between (n+1)th and nth consecutive dark fringes from O is given by,

𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
Fringe width, 𝛽 = 𝑦𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛−1 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2𝑑 − ((2𝑛 − 1) + 1) 2𝑑 = 𝑑
n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . .) (3)
Equations (3) show that the bright and dark fringes are of same width equally spaced on either side of
central bright fringe.

Summary
To obtain constructive interference for a double slit, the path length difference must be an integral
multiple of the wavelength,
Or d sin θ = mλ, for m = 0, 1, −1, 2, −2, . . . (constructive).
Similarly, to obtain destructive interference for a double slit, the path length difference must be a
half-integral multiple of the wavelength, or
dsinθ=(m+1/2)λ, for m=0,1,−1,2,−2,… (destructive)
where λ is the wavelength of the light, d is the distance between slits, and θ is the angle from the
original direction of the beam as discussed above. We call m the order of the interference. For

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example, m = 4 is fourth-order interference.

Let's take a moment to examine these equations, comparing what they require with the bulleted
observations we made above:

 The plus-or-minus values of the integer mm confirms that the fringes are symmetrically
reflected across the centre line.
 The case of m=0 for constructive interference corresponds to the centre line.
 Moving out from the centre, the next fringe of any kind occurs when m=0 for destructive
interference. Then the next occurs for m=1 for constructive interference, and so on – the
bright and dark fringes alternate.

EXAMPLE 1
In Young’s double slit experiment, the two slits are 0.15 mm apart. The light source has a wavelength
of 450 nm. The screen is 2 m away from the slits.
(i) Find the distance of the second bright fringe and also third dark fringe from the central maximum.
(ii) Find the fringe width.
(iii) How will the fringe pattern change if the screen is moved away from the slits?
(iv) What will happen to the fringe width if the whole setup is immersed in water of refractive index
4/3.

Solution

d = 0.15 mm = 0.15× 10-3 m; D = 2 m;

λ = 450 nm = 450 × 10-9 m; n = 4/3

(i) Equation for nth bright fringe is,

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Equation for nth dark fringe is,
1 𝜆𝐷
∴ 𝑦𝑑 = (𝑛 + )
2 𝑑

1 450 × 10−9 × 2
∴ 𝑦3 = (3 + ) = 21 𝑚𝑚
2 0.15 × 10−3

(ii) Equation for fringe width is,

(iii) The fringe width will increase as D is increased,

(iv) The fringe width will decrease as the setup is immersed in water of refractive index 4/3

The wavelength will decrease refractive index n times.

Hence, β ∝ λ and β’ ∝ λ’

EXAMPLE 2

Two lights of wavelengths 560 nm and 420 nm are used in Young’s double slit experiment. Find the
least distance from the central fringe where the bright fringe of the two wavelengths coincides. Given
D = 1 m and d = 3 mm.

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Solution

λ1 = 560 nm = 560×10−9 m;

λ2 = 420 nm = 420×10−9 m;

D = 1 m; d = 3 mm = 3×10−3 m

For a given y, n and λ are inversely proportional.

Let nth order bright fringe of λ1 coincides with (n+1)th order bright fringe of λ2.

Thus, the 3rd bright fringe of λ1 and 4th bright fringe of λ2 coincide at the least distance y.

The least distance from the central fringe where the bright fringes of the two wavelengths coincides is,
yn = n [(λD)/d]

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DIFFRACTION

Diffraction is the slight bending of light as it passes around the edge of an object. It occurs when the
size of the aperture or obstacle is of the same order of magnitude as the wavelength of the incident
wave. The amount of bending depends on the relative size of the wavelength of light to the size of the
opening.

Single Slit Diffraction of Light

When the monochromatic light ray falls on a single slit then it gets diffracted from the slit and forms a
bright and dark band on the screen. This phenomenon is known as single-slit diffraction.

The bright pattern is also called maxima and the dark band is called minima.

At maxima the intensity is maximum and at minima the intensity of light is minimum.

Figure 8 single slit diffraction pattern

2. Diffraction at single slit

Let a parallel beam of light fall normally on a single slit AB of width a as shown in Figure 8. The
diffracted beam falls on a screen kept at a distance. The centre of the slit is C. A straight line through
C perpendicular to the plane of slit meets the centre of the screen at O. We would like to find the
intensity at any point P on the screen. The lines joining P to the different points on the slit can be
treated as parallel lines, making an angle θ with the normal CO.

All the waves start parallel to each other from different points of the slit and interfere at point P and
other points to give the resultant intensities. The point P is in the geometrically shadowed region, up
to which the central maximum is spread due to diffraction as shown Figure 8. We need to give the
condition for the point P to be of various minima.

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The basic idea is to divide the slit into much smaller even number of parts. Then, add their
contributions at P with the proper path difference to show that destructive interference takes place at
that point to make it minimum. To explain maximum, the slit is divided into odd number of parts.

Condition for P to be first minimum

Let us divide the slit AB into two halves AC and CB. Now the width of AC is (a/2). We have different
points on the slit which are separated by the same width (here a/2) called corresponding points as
shown in Figure 9.

Condition for P to be nth-order minimum

Dividing the slit into 2n number of (even number of) equal parts makes the light produced by one of
the corresponding points to be cancelled by its counterpart. Thus, the condition for nth order
minimum is a/2n sinθ = λ/2

a sin θ = nλ (nth minimum) (6.150)

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Condition for maxima

For points of maxima, the slit is to be divided in to odd number of equal parts so that one part remains
un-cancelled making the point P appear bright.

The condition for nth maximum is,

In the same way, condition for nth maximum is,

𝜆
𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2 (𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚)

where, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , i

sth order of diffraction maximum.

The central maximum is called 0th order maximum. The points of the maximum intensity lie nearly
midway between the successive minima.

Here, sinθ gives the angular spread of the diffraction. The position of the minimum or maximum in
terms of y may be expressed by replacing sinθ approximated by tanθ, as θ is small, sinθ = tanθ y/D

Where, y is the position of the minimum from the center of the screen and D is the distance between
single slit and the screen.

EXAMPLE 2

Light of wavelength 500 nm passes through a slit of 0.2 mm wide. The diffraction pattern is formed on
a screen 60 cm away. Determine the,

(i) angular spread of central maximum

(ii) the distance between the central maximum and the second minimum.

Solution

λ = 500 nm = 500×10-9 m; a = 0.2 mm = 0.2×10-3 m; D = 60 cm = 60×10-2 m

(i) Equation for diffraction minimum is, a sin θ = nλ

The central maximum is spread up to the first minimum. Hence, n = 1

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(ii) To find the value of y1 for central maximum, which is spread up to first minimum with (n = 1) is, a
sin θ = λ

To find the value of y2 for second minimum with (n = 2) is, a sin θ = 2λ

The distance between the central maximum and second minimum is, y2 – y1

y2 – y1 = 3 mm – 1.5 mm = 1.5 mm

Note: The above calculation shows that in the diffraction pattern caused by single slit, the width of
each maximum is equal with central maximum as the double that of others. But the bright and dark
fringes are not of equal width.

6. Diffraction in grating

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Grating has multiple slits with equal widths of size comparable to the wavelength of diffracting light.
Grating is a plane sheet of transparent material on which opaque rulings are made with a fine diamond
pointer. The modern commercial grating contains about 6000 lines per centimetre. The rulings act as
obstacles having a definite width b and the transparent space between the rulings act as slit of width a.
The combined width of a ruling and a slit is called grating element (e = a + b). Points on successive
slits separated by a distance equal to the grating element are called corresponding points.

A plane transmission grating is represented by AB in Figure 10. Let a plane wavefront of

monochromatic light with wave length λ be incident normally on the grating. As the slits size is
comparable to that of wavelength, the incident light diffracts at the grating.

A diffraction pattern is obtained on the screen when the diffracted waves are focused on a screen
using a convex lens. Let us consider a point P at an angle θ with the normal drawn from the center of
the grating to the screen. The path difference δ between the diffracted waves from one pair of
corresponding points is,

δ = (a + b) sinθ

This path difference is the same for any pair of corresponding points. The point P will be bright, when

δ = m λ where m = 0, 1, 2, 3

Combining the above two equations, we get,

(a + b) sinθ = m λ

Here, m is called order of diffraction.

Condition for zero order maximum, m = 0

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For (a + b) sinθ = 0, the position, θ = 0. Sinθ = 0 and m = 0. This is called zero order diffraction or
central maximum.

Condition for first order maximum, m = 1

If (a + b) sinθ1 = λ, the diffracted light meet at an angle θ1 to the incident direction and the first order
maximum is obtained.

Condition for second order maximum, m = 2

Similarly, (a + b) sinθ2 = 2λ forms the second order maximum at the angular position θ2.

Condition for higher order maximum

On either side of central maxima different higher orders of diffraction maxima are formed at different
angular positions.

If we take,

1
𝑁=
𝑎+𝑏

Then, N gives the number of grating elements or rulings drawn per unit width of the grating.
Normally, this number N is specified on the grating itself. Now, the equation becomes,

𝟏
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉 = 𝐦𝛌 𝐨𝐫 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉 = 𝐍𝐦𝛌
𝐍

This is the equation for the nth order maximum

EXAMPLE 3

A diffraction grating consisting of 4000 slits per centimeter is illuminated with a monochromatic light
that produces the second order diffraction at an angle of 30°. What is the wavelength of the light
used?

Solution

Number of lines per cm = 4000; m = 2;

θ = 30°; λ = ?

Number of lines per unit length,

N = 4000 / 1×10−2 = 4×105

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Equation for diffraction maximum in grating is, sinθ = Nmλ

Rewriting, λ = sinθ / Nm

Substituting,

λ = sin 30º / 4×105×2 = 0.5 / 4×105×2

= 1 / [2×4×105 × 2] = 1 / [16×105]

λ = 6250×10−10 m = 6250 Ao

EXAMPLE 4

A monochromatic light of wavelength of 500 nm strikes a grating and produces fourth order bright
line at an angle of 30°. Find the number of slits per centimeter.

Solution

Λ = 500 nm = 500×10-9 m; m = 4;

θ = 30°; number of lines per cm = ?

Equation for diffraction maximum in grating is, sin θ = Nm λ

Rewriting, N = sinθ / mλ

Substituting,

N = 0.5 / 4×500×10−9 = 1 / 2×4×500×10−9

N = 2.5×105 lines per meter

number of lines per centimeter = 2.5×105 ×10−2 = 2500 lines per centimetre

Example 5
A laser is placed in front of a double-slit as shown in the diagram below.

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The laser emits light of frequency 750 THz. The separation of the maxima P and Q observed on the
screen is 15 mm. The distance between the double slit and the screen is 4.5 m. Calculate the
separation of the two slits.

Answer:

Example 6. Finding a Wavelength from an Interference Pattern

Suppose you pass light from a He-Ne laser through two slits separated by 0.0100 mm and find that the
third bright line on a screen is formed at an angle of 10.95º relative to the incident beam. What is the
wavelength of the light?
Solution
The third bright line is due to third-order constructive interference, which means that m = 3. We are
given d = 0.0100 mm and θ = 10.95º.
The wavelength can thus be found using the equation dsinθ=mλ for constructive interference.
The equation is d sin θ = mλ. Solving for the wavelength λ gives λ=dsinθ/m.
Substituting known values yields
λ = (0.0100 nm)(sin10.95∘)/3 = 6.33×10−4 nm=633 nm

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