Republic of the Philippines

Don Honorio Ventura State University

Villa de Bacolor, Pamapanga

LABORATORY HIGH SCHOOL

 Republic of the Philippines
DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga

LABORATORY HIGH SCHOOL

SCIENCE 7
FIRST QUARTER MODULE

Lesson 1.1 Earthquakes and Faults

Structure of the Earth’s Interior

The Layers of the Earth

The geosphere or the solid part of the Earth is divided into layers based on chemical
composition: the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core.
The thin outermost layer of the geosphere is the crust. It is made mostly of silicate
minerals. The crust covered by the ocean water
is called the oceanic crust and is only 5 to 10 km
thick. On the other hand, the crust which is
covered by soil is the continental crust and its
thickness ranges from 35 to 70 km. The
continental crust is thickest beneath the
mountains. Although the continental crust is
thicker, it has a lower density than the thinner
oceanic crust.
The mantle lies below the crust. It is
made of hot and very slow flowing solid rock. It
is about 2900 km thick. It is made of silicate
minerals that are denser than the silicates in the crust.
The center of the Earth is the core, which has a radius of 3500 km. It is made of iron and
nickel and is the densest layer. The core is divided into the liquid outer core and the solid inner
core.

The Lithosphere
Using mechanical properties as the basis, the geosphere is divided into lithosphere,
mantle, inner core, and outer core. The lithosphere is the hard and rigid outer layer of the Earth
that includes the crust and the asthenosphere. The crust is the upper portion of the lithosphere.
Beneath the lithosphere is the asthenosphere which is the uppermost part of the mantle and has
the characteristics of being hot and flowing. The lithosphere is broken into large sections called
tectonic plates.
These tectonic plates are always moving but at a very slow rate. The plates glide along
the moving asthenosphere. The movement of these plates is called plate tectonics. A knowledge
of plate tectonics helps you to better understand the occurrence of earthquakes.
What Causes Plate Tectonics
The movement of the plates is caused by the
convection currents that are created within the mantle
as an effect of the heat from the Earth’s interior. Heat
from the Earth’s core causes the heating of the lower
mantle. As the lower mantle gets hotter, it becomes
less dense and rises. As it reaches the upper portion of
the mantle it cools, become denser, and sinks. So the
mantle rocks move in an up and down circular motion
that is due to convection current. Because the
lithosphere lies on top of the mantle, it is carried
along by the convection current within the mantle,
similar to the movement of an object being carried by
a conveyor belt system.

Knowing the Earth’s Interior

Maybe you are wondering how scientists have obtained information about the Earth’s
interior considering that nobody has gone there yet to explore it. Seismologists are geophysicists
who are experts in earthquakes. The information that they gather about earthquake waves allow
them to identify the physical and mechanical properties of each layer. A seismic wave is an
elastic wave generated by an earthquake or an explosion. It may travel through the Earth’s
interior or along the Earth’s surface.
Seismic waves that travel through the Earth’s interior are called body waves. They are of
two types; the primary waves or P-waves, and the secondary waves or S-waves. The P-waves are
the fastest seismic waves, traveling about 6 to 7 km/s. They travel through solids and liquids,
thus they can pass through the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. Their speed depends
upon the material through which they are moving. They speed up as they travel deeper into the
Earth where materials are denser. This causes them to slightly bend as they travel from one layer
to another.
P-waves are the so-called push and pull waves. As they move, they push the rock particles that
are in front of them causing the particles to be compressed and then to bound back. As they
bounce back they hit the particles behind them
that are being pushed forward.
This movement results in the compression and
decompression of rock particles. The particles move
along the direction of movement of waves.
S-waves travel with a lower speed then P-waves
at about 1.5 km/s. They can only travel through solids
and they cannot pass through liquids, so they can only
penetrate through the crust and the mantle. The rock
particles either move in an up and down motion or side
to side motion, perpendicular to the movement of waves.
Seismic waves that travel along the Earth’s
surface are called surface waves. Their intensity becomes weaker when they reach the surface.
Two types of surface waves occur at the same time during an earthquake. They are the Rayleigh
waves and the Love waves.
 Rayleigh waves have a rolling up and down
motion that are like ocean waves. They move in a
backward circular motion as they move forward.
Love waves move like S-waves. They move
from side to side like a wriggling snake that causes the
ground to twist from side to side. Love waves are the
most destructive among all the earthquake waves since
they bend and twist the Earth’s surface.

Other Features of the Earth’s Interior

Seismologists made further observations about
seismic waves. Through the seismic waves they were able to identify the boundaries between
the layers, Mohorovicic Discontinuity and the Gutenberg Discontinuity.
In 1909, Croatian seismologist Andrija
Mohorvicic discovered that seismic waves from
distant earthquakes reach the seismographs faster
than those from nearby earthquakes. By analyzing
the times of arrival of earthquake waves to the
seismographs on some places on Earth, he
identified the boundary between the mantle and
crust. Today this boundary is known as the
Mohorovicic discontinuity or the Moho. It lies
at a depth of 4 to 70 km.
In 1913, German seismologist Benn
Gutenberg, discovered an abrupt change in
seismic waves from 2900 km below the surface
that are recorded by seismographs all over the
world. This is where the base of the mantle is
assumed to be located: the core-mantle boundary.
The core-mantle boundary is so hot that despite the
tremendous pressure, rocks in this region are changed to liquid. This boundary is now called the
Gutenberg discontinuity.

Occurrence of Earthquakes and Faults

The Nature of Earthquakes

Earthquakes are ground vibrations that occur when blocks of rock within the Earth move
suddenly and release energy. The energy is released in the form of seismic waves which cause
the ground to shake and may result in extreme damage to properties and loss of lives.

Elastic Rebound
The elastic rebound theory explains the occurrence of earthquakes. Although rocks are
hard and rigid, they also bent and break when they reach their elastic limit. When the rock is
under too much pressure, stress may deform or change the shape of the rock. As stress increases,
the amount of energy stored in the rock increases, too.
 The rock undergoes elastic deformation and when the rock can no longer withstand the
pressure, it snaps and stress is released. Once stress is released, the rock returns to its original
shape. To illustrate, rubber band that is tightly stretched is under stress. Once the stress is
released, it snaps and returns to its original shape. The same process occurs during an
earthquake. The sudden snap is the earthquake, then the rock along the fault returns to its original
shape as stress is released. The return of the rock to its original shape after elastic deformation is
called elastic rebound.

Earthquake Focus and Epicenter

Earthquake waves originate from a location below the Earth’s surface known as focus. The
focus is a spot within the crust where a fault shifts or moves. Movement along the fault causes
stress. When the stress in the rock builds up, the rock ruptures and causes an earthquake. The
rupture happens in the focus where the initial movement of the crust occurs. The rupture
generates seismic waves which are transferred and reradiated to the crust that flow outward in all
directions, similar to the ripple created in the water in the activity. Small waves that move away
from the center are created in the water, the same as the movement of seismic waves from the
focus. The depth of the focus determines whether the earthquake is shallow or deep.
Every day, earthquakes occur in some parts of the world. These occurrences may not
always be reported but they are constantly monitored and studied.
Directly above the focus is he epicenter also called the hypocenter. The epicenter is the
spot on the ground where the movement or shaking is felt during an earthquake. It is the area that
is the direct receiver of the seismic waves that travel from the fault that has ruptured. The
epicenter serves as the point of reference in determining the relation of the area to the actual
location where the earthquake occurred.

Faults
A rock that is under tremendous pressure may break instead of bend. The crack that forms when
large blocks of rock break and move past each other is called a fault. The blocks of rocks on
other side of the fault are called fault blocks. The location where two fault blocks meet
is the fault plane. The block above the fault plane is the hanging
wall while the one below is the footwall. The term hanging wall
and footwall were coined by miners in the past, when they
worked underground in mining camps. The ground that they step
on is the footwall while the place where they hang their lamp is
the hanging wall.

Types of Fault
When a rock breaks, its fracture may be either vertical or diagonal. This makes the fault
lie at an angle to the horizontal surface of the ground. This angle is the fault dip which is the
steepness or the inclination of the fault plane. A dip may be almost straight or inclined relative to
the horizontal surface of the ground.

∙ Dip-slip Fault
o If the fault dip is inclined relative to the
horizontal surface of the ground, the fault
is a dip-slip fault. There are two types of
dip-slip fault: the normal fault and the
reverse fault.
∙ Normal Fault
o A normal fault is formed when the stress on
the rock pulls it apart causing it to stretch.
Continuous stretching for hundreds or
thousands of years may cause the rock to pull
apart and break. This breaking of rock causes
the hanging wall to slide down along the
surface of the footwall. The downward
movement is said to be normal since it is but natural for the hanging wall to slide
down because of gravity. If this happens, an earthquake occurs and a large parcel
of land drops below its original level.
∙ Reverse Fault
o A reverse fault is created when the stress pushes the rocks toward each other.
This causes the rocks to compress and finally break. This type of fault is the exact
opposite of the normal fault. It is the
hanging wall exact opposite of the normal
fault. It is the hanging wall that moves
upward along the surface of the footwall as
the rocks are being squeezed. Moving up
the hanging wall along the inclined surface
of the footwall requires a great amount of
force to overcome friction and gravity. This causes an earthquake to happen and
results in the uplifting of a large parcel of land.
o A thrust fault is a special type of reverse fault wherein the fracture is nearly
horizontal. It is this type of fault that carries the rocks kilometres away from its
original position, causing severe damage to the form and shape of the rocks in a
large terrain.
 ∙ Strike-Slip Fault
o A strike-slip fault is entirely different from the dip
slip fault. The fracture in this type of fault is vertical.
The rocks on both sides of the fault move vertical.
The rocks on both sides of the fault move
horizontally but in opposite directions. Sudden
movement of the rocks may generate earthquake and
cause the shifting of roads, railways, fences, and concrete walls several meters
from the fault.
o An example of a strike-slip fault is the transform fault. It is an ordinary feature
on the oceanic crust. The transform fault develops from the many sections of the
Mid-Oceanic Ridge formed by the magma that force itself to the oceanic c rust
and becomes part of the ocean floor. Some transform faults cause the ridge to
move by less than a kilometer, but others displace the ridge by hundreds of
kilometers. There are cases when a transform fault grows so large like the San
Andreas Fault in California.
∙ Active and Inactive Faults
o Geologists also describe faults to be active or inactive. A fracture in the crust is
said to be an active fault if movement or seismic activities have been observed
during the last 10000 years. Even its slightest movement is recorded by a
measuring called seismograph. This slight movement may increase its strength as
time passes by. The strong movement may be transformed into great tremors and
generate earthquakes. An active fault can trigger other earthquakes sometime in
the future when driven by plate movements, gravity, or other large forces. An
active fault can be geologic hazard since it can cause great earthquakes and other
catastrophes may follow such as tsunamis, landslides, floods, and fires.
o A fault is considered inactive if it no longer registers any seismic activity. If it no
longer shows any activity for a million years, it is safe to say that it is an inactive
fault. At present, an inactive fault can no longer generate earthquakes as it did so
in the past. There are faults that only have large earthquakes once in a thousand
years. It is not easy to judge whether a fault is inactive or not and this, it is
necessary for geologists to make periodic evaluation of seemingly inactive faults. o
Inactive faults can become active again. When this occurs, the fracture is classified
as reactivated fault. A reactivated fault is a formerly inactive fault that is forced to
move by tectonic forces within the crust.

The Philippine Fault System and Trenches

The Philippine archipelago lies along the Pacific Ring of Fire whether tectonic forces are
most active. A system of interconnected faults that run from north to south is created in the
whole archipelago. This system of faults is caused by tectonic forces that compress that
compress the archipelago into what geophysicists call the Philippine Mobile Belt. It is being
pushed on both east and west, by the Philippine Sea Plate in the east and by the Eurasian Plate in
the west. The Eurasian Plate is moving beneath the Philippine Sea Plate resulting in the
formation of the Philippine Trench.
 Since the Philippine Mobile Belt is being squeezed on both sides, parts of the archipelago
are uplifted by tectonic forces that cause extensive faulting from north to south. The main fault
runs through almost all parts of the country and is called the Philippine Fault System. Located
in the western part of the Philippines is the 1200 km Philippine Fault Zone which is a strike-slip
fault composed of the Manila Trench, Negros Trench, and Sulu Trench. It extends from
northwestern Luzon to southeastern Mindanao where earthquakes of large magnitude originate.
Due to these faults that are scattered all over the Philippines, together with the trenches
around them, earthquakes are most expected to occur in different parts of the country. Seismic
activity is observed all over the country except in Palawan. La Union and Pangasinan are high
risk to earthquakes due to the Manila Trench. Surigao del Sur and Davao are also prone to
earthquakes because of the Philippine Trench and active faults near the area. The frequency of
earthquakes in Nueva Vizcaya, Nueva Ecija, Eastern Pangasinan, Benguet and La Union can be
associated to their location along the Philippine Fault Zone.
Earthquake Intensity and Magnitude

Determining Earthquake Intensity

Earthquake intensity is the effect of an earthquake and how it is felt by the people. It is
different from its magnitude since magnitude determines the amount of energy released by an
earthquake. Intensity describes the effect of an earthquake on the Earth’s surface.
The effects of an earthquake can be very different from place to place. An earthquake can
have many different intensity numbers although it only has one magnitude. When a magnitude 6
earthquake hit Zambales during early morning of January 11, 2015 intensity 4 was felt in Pasig,
Manila, Pasay, and Hagonoy. In Tagaytay and Tarlac it was intensity 3, and in Baguio and
Batangas, it was intensity 2. The same amount of energy was released by the earthquake in all
places but its effects vary.
The Modified Mercalli scale is used to describe the intensity of an earthquake. The scale
ranges from I to XII. Earthquakes with intensity I are hardly noticeable while earthquakes with a
value of XII cause total destruction. Intensity values differ from place to place and are usually
highest near the epicenter.
This system was found to be unreliable since it has no way of determining the real strength of
the earthquake. It only relies on reports of people who experienced the earthquake including the
damage done to the structure and its natural environment. But the damage done may not only be
the effect of the ground shaking. It may also be affected by its distance from the epicenter, the
nature of rocks and soil beneath the structure, and the quality of construction.

Determining Earthquake Magnitude

The vibrations of an earthquake are observed and recorded using a seismograph. Its
printed record of information about an earthquake is called the seismograph. The height of the
waves on a seismogram indicates the amount of ground shaking. Ground shaking is used to
calculate magnitude or the amount of energy released by an earthquake. The higher the
magnitude, the stronger the earthquake. Magnitude is measured based on the amount of shaking
a seismograph has recorded during an earthquake. A seismograph is made of weight that is
suspended from a wire that is attached to a support, which is anchored to the ground. A pen is
attached to the weight. As the ground shakes, the pen traces a jagged line on the paper attached
to a rotating drum. The printed record on the paper is the seismogram. The distance the pen
moves from stationary position is called the amplitude. The farther the pen moves, the higher
the amplitude of shaking. Seismologists make use of the Richter scale or the Moment
Magnitude scale in expressing the magnitude of an earthquake.

Richter Scale
The amplitude of shaking recorded by the seismograph is converted to Richter scale
magnitude, which uses a scale in the powers of ten scale. The resulting magnitudes reflect a 10
times increase in strength for every increase of one in the Richter magnitude. For example, an
earthquake with a magnitude of 5.0 on the Richter scale produces 10 times as much ground
movement than an earthquake with a magnitude of 4.0 as shown in Table 6.4. You can have an
idea of the amount of energy released by the earthquake by comparing its magnitude to the
amount of energy that can be released by the equivalent amount of explosives.
The Richter Scale gives information about the energy released by an earthquake, but it is
still inadequate. It does not give a precise measurement of the amount of energy released,
especially by great earthquakes that release large amount of energy.
Moment Magnitude Scale
The Moment Magnitude scale (MMS) has replaced the Richter scale especially for
strong earthquakes. It calculates the strength of the earthquake based on the size of the fault
rupture, the amount of movement along the fault, and the rigidness of the rocks in the fault. The
MMS referred to as M or M is more accurate in determining the magnitude of strong earthquakes
since it uses more data than the Richter scale. The moment magnitude of an earthquake is
expressed in numbers. The larger the number, the stronger the earthquake. The largest
earthquake ever recorded happened in Bio-Bio, Chile on May 5, 1760 with a moment magnitude
of 9.5.
Today the MMS is adopted especially for very strong earthquakes and is now widely
used. The MMS is based on the total moment released by the earthquake. Moment is a product
of the distance a fault moved and the force required to move it. It is derived from recorded
patterns of earthquakes in many stations all over the world. Moment magnitude estimates are
about the same as Richter magnitudes for small to large earthquakes. But it is only the MMS that
is capable of measuring magnitude 8 and other great earthquakes accurately.
The spheres are used to compare the relative amount of energy released by earthquakes.
Each sphere represents the amount of explosives that would be required to release as much
energy as an earthquake with the given magnitude.

Earthquake Preparedness

Effects of Earthquakes
Many earthquakes do not cause major damage but some strong earthquakes cause
massive destruction of properties, injury, or even death. In general, areas near the epicenter
experience the greatest damage.

Danger to People and Structures

The shaking of an earthquake can cause structures to move vertically and horizontally.
When structures cannot withstand the shaking, major destruction can occur. The release of
seismic waves can cause a building to shake so violently and may also cause its collapse. Many
earthquakes cause injury and death due to the collapse of structures.
Earthquakes can also cause fires, gas leaks, floods, and polluted water supplies. In
addition, cleaning the debris left after an earthquake takes weeks or months. Bridges, roads,
house, and entire communities can become disaster zones.
Earthquakes in the Philippines
The Philippine lies on the Earthquake Belt, since it is located on the western edge of the
Ring of Fire. The presence of active faults and trenches within and around the archipelago makes
it prone to earthquake. Earthquakes often strike the country. PHILVOLCS keeps a record of the
strongest earthquakes that occurred since 1968.
How to Be Prepared for an Earthquake
Earthquake drills are practiced in schools as well as in private and public establishments.
Earthquakes are unpredictable as they come without warning. Since they don’t happen on
scheduled time, it is but proper for everyone to be aware and prepared when such natural disaster
strikes. It is not enough that we have knowledge about earthquakes. What is important is that we
understand it. If we are well-equipped and well-prepared, casualties and damages will be
minimized. PHILVOLCS provides us with guidelines on what to do before, during, and after an
earthquake.
Before an Earthquake
∙ Check cabinets and shelves if they are securely fastened on walls.
∙ Check if hanging objects like ceiling fans and chandeliers are stable.
∙ Store glassware, harmful chemicals, and flammable materials on the lowest shelf of the
cabinet.
∙ Know the exit routes
∙ Know where to find fire extinguishers, first aid kits, alarms, and communications
facilities. Know how to use them.
∙ Prepare a handy supply kit containing your first aid kit, canned goods, can opener, water,
clothing, blanket, battery operated radio, and extra batteries.
∙ Conduct and participate in earthquake drills.
∙ Plan an evacuation site with family members to avoid family members from getting lost. ∙
Place important documents like birth certificates, land titles, etc in a handy bag to make it
easy for you to carry in case of emergency situation.

During an Earthquake
∙ Stay calm, be alert, and do not panic.
∙ If you are inside a structurally sound building or home, just stay inside. ∙
Quickly open the door for exit.
∙ Duck under a sturdy table and hold on it or protect your head with your arms. ∙
Stay away from glass windows, shelves and cabinets, and other heavy objects. ∙
Be on guard for falling objects.
∙ Stay away from trees, power lines, concrete and other high structures. ∙
Stay away from steep slopes, landslide might occur.
∙ Stay away from shore, tsunami might follow.
∙ If you are in a moving vehicle, stop and get out. Do not cross bridges, overpass or
flyovers; they might have been damaged.

After an Earthquake
∙ Be prepared for aftershocks. Once the tremor stops, take the fastest and safest way out of
the building.
∙ Remember not to use elevators, not to enter damaged buildings, not to use telephone
lines, and not to panic.
∙ Check yourself and others for injuries, water and electrical lines for damages, spills of
chemicals and flammable materials.
∙ Extinguish fire in the area to prevent it from spreading.
∙ If you need to evacuate, leave a message stating where you are going and don’t forget to
bring your emergency kit.
∙ Keep updated through your battery operated radios.
Tsunami
One of the most disastrous effects on an earthquake is the tsunami. A tsunami is caused
by an earthquake under the ocean. The earthquake causes the vertical movement of the sea floor
that results in the displacement of an enormous amount of water. This, in turn, results in a
tsunami.
A tsunami is a series of extremely long waves that can travel across the ocean with a
speed of up to 800 km/h. Tsunami waves travel outward in all directions from the point where
the earthquake occurred although the waves are not noticeable in the open sea. As the waves
approach the shoreline, the size of the waves increases. The waves can be taller than 30 m.
Tsunami waves can cause major destruction and cause the death of many people as they hit and
wash away anything in their path. Death of most people is due to drowning. Floods, polluted
water supply, and large amount of debris are the consequences of tsunami.

Tsunami in the Philippines

The Philippine shoreline may experience tsunamis in two ways. One is the so-called near field
or local tsunami. A local tsunami is generated by an earthquake occurring offshore by the
earthquake coming from the faults or trenches around the Philippines. A local tsunami occurred
in the Moro Gulf on August 17, 1976 killing 6000 people; and in Mindoro on November 15,
1994 with 78 casualties. Another way by which the country may experience tsunami is through
the so-called far field or distant tsunami that is generated by an earthquake occurring
somewhere in the Pacific Ocean. In 1960, the earthquake that occurred in Chile generated
tsunamis that travelled from the east Pacific Ocean to the west where the Philippines is located.

How to Be Prepared for a Tsunami

Areas along the sea coast are prone to tsunamis so residents are advised to be sensitive to
the natural warnings. These natural warnings are the following:
∙ A strong earthquake.
∙ Unusual sea condition like extremely low sea level
∙ A noticeable rise or fall of coastal water.
∙ Sea level may recede exposing interesting sea creatures and sandbars.

If these natural warnings are observed, do not waste time, have a sense of urgency, and
act immediately.
∙ Move to higher grounds. Do not be amazed by interesting sights you see along the shore
when the water recedes.
∙ Be attentive to official warnings.
∙ Expect many waves. A tsunami is not a single wave but a series of waves. ∙
Stay out of danger until an all clear directive is issued by proper authorities.
 Republic of the Philippines
DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga

LABORATORY HIGH SCHOOL

SCIENCE 7

Activity 1.1 Earthquakes and Faults

PART 1: FAULT SIMULATION

Materials
∙ 2 sheets of folder or cardboard
∙ fine sand
∙ ruler
∙ sheet of paper or news paper

Procedure
∙ Spread the sheet of paper on a table.
∙ Arrange the two sheet of folder/cardboard edge to edge.
∙ Pour sand along the boundary of the two sheets.
∙ With the ruler, flatten the top of the sand and make two parallel lines.
∙ Move the sheets slowly in the opposite direction.

Instruction
∙ Create an instructional video by following the above procedure.
∙ Upload the video on YouTube.
∙ Answer the questions on the attached question on the attached Google Form. ∙
This will be a 30-point activity.

PART 2: EARTHQUAKE PREPAREDNESS

You are a member of the Disaster Management Council in your school. You have a project
to make your community aware of earthquake safety. Prepare a brochure that demonstrates ways
people can protect themselves during an earthquake.

Instruction
∙ Create a three-fold/column digital brochure.
∙ You can use any software application (e.g. word, powerpoint, publisher, etc.). ∙
Send as attachment on G-class.
∙ Subject of the file should be on this format: Grade-Section_Activity 1.1_Complete Name ∙
This will be a 20-point activity.
 Republic of the Philippines
DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga

LABORATORY HIGH SCHOOL

SCIENCE 7
FIRST QUARTER MODULE

Lesson 1.2 Understanding Typhoons

Formation of Typhoons

Nature of Typhoons
A tropical storm, called typhoon in the Pacific Ocean, is a very strong circulating
weather system over the tropical oceans. It brings with it strong winds, heavy rains, and large
ocean waves. Its wind rotates counter clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in
the Southern Hemisphere.
Typhoons affecting the Philippines form over tropical waters (between 8 and 20 latitude),
in areas where humidity is high, where there are light winds and warm sea surface temperature of
26.5 C or greater. These conditions usually prevail in summer in the North Pacific Oceans, and
this is the reason why typhoon season in the northern hemisphere occurs from June to November.
There are conditions in both the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface that are favourable for
tropical cyclone is most likely to develop.

∙ Ocean water, is the most important source of energy of the tropical cyclone is warm. Its
temperature should be at least 26.5 C within a depth of about 46 m. The atmosphere must
have a high humidity.
∙ There is one ITCZ where the convergence of the NE and SW trade winds takes place. The
collision of warm and cold air can either result in a thunderstorm or a tropical storm.
This convergence of winds plus the influence of Coriolis effect causes the spinning of
low-level winds that develop into tropical storm.
∙ A low pressure area exists within the ITCZ which helps in the development of the tropical
storm. A low pressure area is a weather system that is created beneath the warm humid,
rising air on the surface of the ocean. The LPA has a lower pressure than the surrounding
air. It is surrounded by high pressure air that flow towards it. It is the movement of air
from high to low pressure that creates wind.
∙ There are light winds in the upper atmosphere with a speed of less than 20 kph. They can
cause a tropical cyclone to develop usually within 1 to 2 days.

When meteorologists observe a cluster of thunderstorm over the tropical oceans, they
know that a storm is about to develop. This is the first sign of the development of typhoon and
they call it a tropical disturbance.
Tropical cyclones are classified based on the strength of their maximum sustained winds. ∙
Tropical Depression is a tropical cyclone with maximum sustained winds of up to 61
kilometers per hour.
∙ Tropical Storm is a tropical cyclone with maximum wind speed or 62 to 88 kph. ∙
Severe Tropical Storm is a tropical cyclone with maximum wind speed of 89 to 117
kph.
∙ Typhoon is a tropical cyclone with maximum wind speed of 118 to 220 kph. ∙ Super
Typhoon is a tropical cyclone with maximum wind speed exceeding 220 kph.

Given the favourable conditions, the tropical disturbance starts with a tropical depression.
The heat from the Sun causes the ocean water to evaporate allowing the warm, moist air to rise.
The rising of the light warm, moist air creates a low-pressure area (LPA) also called depression
by meteorologists. The LPA is surrounded by air of high pressure. Thus, air from the
surroundings flows toward the low pressure area. The movement of air from high pressure area
to low pressure area creates strong winds. The winds that blow from high pressure area to low
pressure area move over the ocean surface of the Earth that has a spinning motion. The rotation
of the Earth makes the wind tend to curve and move in a circular motion. This is known as the
Coriolis effect. When warm moist air rises, the water vapour condenses as it is cooled at higher
altitudes. Condensation releases heat energy into areas within the tropical disturbance. The heat
causes more air to expand and continue to rise and then sink when cooled. The creation of the
LPA draws in more air at the surface, and this air converges near the center of the storm to form
more clouds.
The LPA intensifies and becomes a tropical storm when the spinning motion of winds
gets larger as more and more warm moist air rises and condenses. The heat from condensation
makes the surrounding air less dense, causing it to rise further. This results in further decrease in
air pressure. The more the pressure drops, the more the winds intensify, drawing more heat and
moisture from the ocean surface. Like an ice skater whose body spins faster as his arms are
drawn inward, air near the surface speeds up as it spirals in toward the center of the low pressure
area. The increasing winds that spin around the center of a storm draw heat and moisture from
the warm ocean surface, providing more fuel for the rising moist air that produces clouds and
increased temperatures.
The rising temperature near the center of a storm causes surface pressure to drop even
more. The lower the surface pressure, the more rapidly air flows into the storm, making the
winds stronger. The air pressure at the surface drops even more, triggering stronger winds, and
so on. Thus, a typhoon is formed.
At the surface, a typhoon
weakens (1) when it moves over cooler
water that can no longer supply the
warm moist air, (2) when it moves over
land where the supply of warm moist
air is cut off, and (3) when it moves into
an area where strong winds in the
higher atmosphere disperse the heat and
cool the temperature at high altitudes
and high pressure area is caused over
the surface.
Parts of a Typhoon

When a typhoon is over the Philippines, different places experience different types of
weather. Or a certain place may experience changing weather conditions within a day. As the
typhoon develops, certain characteristics become prominent as it intensifies. At the center of the
typhoon is the eye that is usually 10 to 65 km in diameter. It is cloud-free area with sinking cool
air and light winds. The eye is an area of calm weather at the center of the typhoon. When they
eye of the typhoon is over a place, a clam weather, clear sky, and light winds are expected.
Surrounding the eye of a typhoon is the eye wall with very thick clouds. It is a band of
tall thunderstorms that produce heavy rains and very strong winds. The eyewall is the most
destructive section of the typhoon. It is the area of most violent winds, heaviest rainfall and
where great amount of heat energy is released.
Closely encircling the eye wall are spiralling clouds called rainbands. Rainbands consist
of clouds and precipitation. The inner rainbands are thick clouds that are not scattered and
move inward toward the center. Areas covered by this part of the typhoon experience
intermittent rains with gusty winds of 63 to 117 kph. The sky is mostly covered with clouds.
The outer rainbands are the outer spiral bands of the typhoon with clouds that are
scattered but moving toward the center. Areas covered by the outer rainbands experience
occasional to moderate rainfall with winds of up to 62 kph. Sunlight can still be seen through the
scattered clouds.

Typhoon Track
Typhoons follow three general directions. The directions of their movement can either be a
straight track, a recurving track, or a northward track. If a typhoon moves through a straight
track, it moves in a straight westward path affecting the Philippines, southern China, Taiwan, and
Vietnam. A typhoon may travel through a recurving track. Storms that recurve affect the eastern
Philippines, eastern China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, and Far East Russia. There are times when a
typhoon travels through the northward track. From where the typhoon originates, it goes
northeast affecting small islands.
But there are instances when a typhoon takes the recurved track. It follows a curved path
due to the influence of other wind systems. An example was Typhoon Ruby that made a landfall
over eastern Samar last December 6, 2014. The typhoon moved at a very slow rate. Forecasts
reported that it would move to the west northwest direction. But on December 11, it followed a
recurved path because of the presence of high pressure area (HPA) in the north. This spared the
Philippines from further devastation.
Most typhoons that enter the Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR) usually move to
the west northwest direction due to the presence of mountain ranges. Mountain ranges act as
barriers that may cause the typhoon to change its path, reduce its wind speed, or may even cause
the typhoon to dissipate. As the typhoon makes a landfall, the wind speed weakens since it
moves to a landmass, away from the main source of water vapour. The water vapour or the moist
air is the main source of energy of storms.

Typhoon Preparedness

Where Typhoons Develop

Tropical cyclones form over the ocean in the tropical region. They develop at
latitudes between 5 to 22 north latitude. They are stronger while located over the warm
tropical water. They weaken as soon as they make a landfall where they cause great
destruction to affected areas.
The Philippines is prone to tropical cyclones
dues to its geographic location. The whole
archipelago lies between 4 and 22 north latitude and
between 116 and 127 east longitude. Most of the
world’s typhoon develop over the Western North
Pacific Ocean which includes the Philippine Sea.
According to meteorologists, the country is located in
the warm pool together with Indonesia. This warm
pool has the warmest ocean temperature in the whole
world.

Typhoon Risks
While a typhoon stays over the ocean water, fishing folks and their fishing vessels are at risk.
Once a typhoon makes a landfall, it may cause devastation and destruction of properties and may
even result in casualties. Typhoon hazards may include a storm surge, strong winds, extreme
rainfall, micro tornadoes, or landslides.
∙ A storm surge is a large ocean wave brought about by the
swelling of the ocean water due to the low pressure center of
a tropical cyclone. A storm surge caused the flooding of the
coastal areas of Tacloban and Samar and nearby provinces
when super typhoon Yolanda made a landfall on November
8, 2013.
∙ Strong winds of powerful typhoons of more than 185 kph
are known to be destructive since they are capable of
destroying even concrete homes and buildings. In November
29, 2006, typhoon Reming with winds of 320 kph brought
great destruction to Legaspi City and the rest of Albay when
the eye wall of the typhoon passed over these areas.
 ∙ Extreme rainfall can result in inland flooding in low lying
areas or in areas with poor drainage and saturated soil. It can
also cause the overflowing of a river system. On September
26, 2009, typhoon Ondoy poured a tremendous amount of
rainfall in one day which was equal to more than the average
amount of rainfall within a month. Massive flooding was
experienced in Metro Manila and nearby towns and
provinces. It caused the Pasig and Marikina rivers as well as
Laguna de Bay to overflow.

∙ Landslides and mudslides are common along steep

slopes of mountains and volcanoes. A billion cubic tons of
water can fall on mountain slopes saturating the soil and
loosening the rocks. Tree logs are carried down the slope
with the mud and rocks. The cities of Cagayan de Oro and
Iligan were the worst hit by typhoon Sendong on December
16, 2011. The mountain side was stripped off and left bare,
and as the mudslide moved down the slope, it ravaged all the
structures along its way.

∙ Micro-tornadoes are formed within the eye of a tropical

cyclone. If a typhoon has a wind speed of about 240 kph, the
micro tornado can increase it to 440-600 kph. Micro
tornadoes are capable of uprooting trees, sucking weak
structures, and that tornadoes were observed in the towns of
Menglanilla and Talisay in Cebu on June 18, 2013 and in
San Pablo, Zamboanga del Sur on May 29, 2013.

What Public Storm Warning Signals Mean

The Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration
(PAGASA), is the agency that monitors the atmospheric condition in the Philippines. The agency
is responsible for gathering, analysing, and interpreting data from different weather stations. It
has the responsibility of issuing public storm warnings to alert and prepare the residents that may
be affected by the storm. Table shows the atmospheric conditions when public storm signals are
raised, the effects to the areas to be covered by the storm, and the precautions to be done in case
the disaster hits the locality. Understanding public storm warning signals helps prevent casualties
and reduces damage to properties.
Public
Atmospheric
Effects of the Winds Safety Measures
Storm
Conditions
Signal

1 ∙ A tropical ∙ Branches of small trees ∙ When the tropical storm intensifies,

storm is break. ∙ Some banana plants the signal may be raised to the next
expected in may bend or fall. level. ∙ Waves on coastal areas may be
the area. ∙ Nipa or cogon roofs may be gradually develop and swell.
∙ Winds of 30 partially blown by the wind. ∙ ∙ People are advised to listen to
to 60 kph or Only very light or no damage weather updates issued by PAGASA
intermittent at all to affected areas. every six hours. Business may be
rains may be ∙ Rice crops in flowering carried out as usual except when
expected in stage may be significantly flooding occurs.
at least 36 damaged. ∙ Disaster preparedness is activated
hours. to alert status.

2 ∙ A tropical ∙ Some coconut trees may ∙ Sea and coastal waters are dangerous
storm will tilt or break. to light sea crafts.
affect the area ∙ A few big trees may ∙ The position, direction, movement,
∙ Winds greater be uprooted. speed, and intensity of the storm are
than 61 to ∙ Many banana plants may closely monitored as it moves toward
120 kph fall. ∙ Rice and corn may be an area.
may be adversely affected. ∙ The general public, especially those
expected in ∙ Nipa and cogon roofs may traveling by sea, is advised to
at least 24 be partially or totally blown. postpone travel.
hours ∙ Some old galvanized iron ∙ Child must stay indoors.
roofs may be blown. ∙ Secure properties before the signal
∙ Winds may bring light is upgraded.
to moderate damage to ∙ Disaster preparedness agencies and
the organizations are in action to alert
exposed communities. their communities
∙ A tropical ∙ Many coconut trees may ∙ Disturbance is dangerous to
storm will be broken or destroyed. areas affected.
affect an area. ∙ Almost all banana plants ∙ Sea and coastal waters are dangerous
∙ Winds of may fall. A large number to all sea crafts.
more than 121 of trees may be uprooted. ∙ Travel by air and water is risky. ∙
to ∙ Most nipa and cogon People are advised to evacuate low lying
171 kph may roofs may be blown areas, coastal areas, and riverbanks.
be expected away. Seek shelter in higher areas and strong
in at least ∙ Light to medium buildings.
18 structures may be ∙ Watch out for the passage of the eye
hours. considerably of the typhoon that brings fair
damaged. weather immediately after the bad
∙ Disruption of electric weather with very strong winds from
power and the north.
communication may be ∙ When the eye of the typhoon hits the
widespread. area, do not leave the safe shelter for
∙ There may be moderate to a worse weather will resume with
heavy damage especially in very strong winds from the south.
agricultural and industrial
sectors may be experienced.

∙ Classed in all levels are suspended

and children must stay in safe shelters.
∙ Disaster preparedness agencies and
organizations are in action with
appropriate response to emergency.
 4 ∙ A very ∙ Coconut plantations may ∙ The situation is potentially
intense be severely damaged. very destructive to the
typhoon will ∙ Many large trees may community.
affect the be uprooted. ∙ All outdoor activities should be
area. ∙ Very ∙ Rice and corn canceled ∙ The area is very likely to be
strong winds plantations may be hit directly by the eye of the typhoon.
of more than destroyed. ∙ As the eye of the typhoon approaches,
171 to ∙ Structures of mixed the weather worsens, with winds
220 kph may materials may be severely coming from the north.
be expected damaged. ∙ Electrical power ∙ A sudden improvement of the
in at least and weather with light winds in the area,
12 communication lines may which means it is under the eye of
hours. be cut off. typhoon.
∙ Damage to affected ∙ Depending on the eye’s diameter and
areas may be great. movement speed, this improved
weather may last for an hour or two.
∙ Weather conditions will worsen as the
eye moves out of the area, with strong
winds generally coming from the

Rainfall Warning Alert System

PAGASA prepared the Rainfall Warning Alert System to alert the affected residents for
the effects of heavy rainfall that usually comes with a weather disturbance. The alert warning
system is color coded. Each color indicates the amount of rainfall that will pour for the next three
hours in the area specified by PAGASA.
Warning Amount of Rain Effects Safety Measure
Signal

Yellow Heavy rains of 7.5 to 15 mm Flooding is Monitor weather

observed in an hour and possible in low- condition and
expected to continue in the lying areas and wait for next
next 2 hours. near riverbanks. PAGASA
weather
advisory.

Orange Intense rain of 15 to 30 mm Flooding is Alert for

is observed in one hour and threatening to low possible
expected to continue in the next lying areas and evacuation.
2 hours. near riverbanks.
Precautions Before, During, and After a Typhoon
Although PAGASA is the agency responsible for providing us with warning signals, we
also have our own responsibilities to keep us safe when disasters happen. We must know what to
do before, during, and after a typhoon.

Before a Typhoon
1. Prepare an emergency kit and coordinate with your family about communication plan.
Make a plan on how you will contact one another in case family members are separated
during a typhoon.
2. Observe your surroundings. Determine the elevation level of the place where you stay
and find out if the place is flood-prone. This information is useful in knowing how your
place will be affected when storm surge or flooding occurs.
3. Make a survey if there are harbors and dams in your area and determine whether they
pose a hazard to you.
4. Prepare an evacuation plan with your community which includes the routes to find higher
ground. Determine where you would go and how you would get there if you need to
evacuate.
5. Make plans to secure your property by doing the following:
• Cover all your windows with wooden board to prevent them from breaking.
• Securely fasten your roof to the frame structure. This will reduce roof damage.
6. Trim the trees and shrubs around your house so that they will not be easily blown by the
wind.
7. Clean clogged rain gutters and downspouts.
8. Reinforce your gate if it is made of heavy materials; if wind enters, it can cause
dangerous and expensive structural damage.
9. Bring in all outdoor furniture, decorations, garbage cans, and anything else that is not tied
down for they may be blown by the wind.
10. Determine how and where to secure a boat.
11. If in a high-rise building, be prepared to take shelter in or below the lowest floors.

During the Typhoon

1. Be updated with information about the typhoon by listening to the radio or television.
2. Turn off the power supply if instructed by authorities. Otherwise, turn the refrigerator
thermostat to its coldest setting and keep its door closed.
3. Turn off LPG tanks.
4. Avoid using the phone, except for emergencies.
5. Be sure to have a supply of water for sanitary purposes such as cleaning and flushing the
toilets by storing water in large containers.
6. Find out how to keep food safe during and after an emergency.
7. You should evacuate if you are
∙ Directed by local authorities to do so; be sure to follow their instructions. ∙ Living in
a shelter made of light materials or temporary structure – such shelter is dangerous during a
typhoon no matter how well it is fastened to the ground. ∙ Living in a high-rise building –
typhoon winds are stronger at higher elevations. ∙ Living on the coast, on a floodplain, near a
river, or on an island waterway. 8. If you are unable to evacuate, go to a wind-safe room. If
you do not have one, follow these guidelines:
∙ Stay indoors during the typhoon and away from windows and glass doors. ∙
Close all interior doors – secure and brace external doors
 ∙ Keep curtains and blinds closed. Do not be fooled if there is a lull; it could be the
eye of the storm – winds will resume after the lull.
∙ Take refuge in a small interior room, closet, or hallway at the lowest level. ∙
Lie on the floor under a table or another sturdy object.
∙ Avoid elevators.

After the Typhoon Passes

1. Be updated on the latest information about the typhoon by tuning in to your radio for the
local news on the latest updates.
2. Be alert for the rainfall might continue and flooding might occur even after the typhoon
or tropical storm has ended.
3. In case you are separated from your family, use your family communication plan or
check the emergency number plan.
4. If you are evacuated, return home only when officials say it is safe.
5. Drive only if necessary and avoid flooded roads and washed-out bridges. 6. Stay indoors.
If it is necessary to go out, watch for fallen objects, fallen electrical wires, and weakened
walls, bridges, roads, and sidewalks.
7. Keep away from loose or dangling power lines and report them immediately to the power
company.
8. Closely monitor the surroundings of your house for loose power lines, gas leaks, and
structural damage before entering.
9. Stay out of any building if you smell gas. Floodwaters remain around the building that
may cause the gas to spread and may result in fire.
10. Inspect your home for damage. Take pictures of the damage, both of the structure and its
contents, for insurance purposes. If you are in doubt about the safety of your house, have
it inspected by a qualified building inspector or a structural engineer before entering.
11. Never use candles in the dark. Instead, use a battery-powered flashlight. It is important to
turn on the flashlight before entering the house because the battery may produce a spark
that could ignite leaking gas, if present.
12. Pay close attention to your pets and keep them under your direct control. Watch out for
wild animals, especially poisonous snakes. Use a stick to poke through debris. 13. Be sure
that the tap water is free from contamination before drinking it or using it in preparing
your food.
14. Check your refrigerator for any spoiled food. If in doubt, throw them
away. 15. Wear protective clothing and be careful when cleaning up to avoid
injury. 16. Use the telephone only for emergency.
17. Do not use a generator inside your house, garages, low spaces, sheds, or similar areas,
even with opened doors and windows or using a fan for ventilation. Lethal levels of
carbon monoxide can quickly build up in these areas and can stay for hours, even after
the generator has been shut off.
 Republic of the Philippines
DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga

LABORATORY HIGH SCHOOL

SCIENCE 7

Activity 1.2 Understanding Typhoons

WRITTEN AND ORAL REPORT

Written Report:
∙ Create a report about one of the devastating typhoon that hits the Philippines; make sure to
research (using the internet) all the stages of this typhoon and describe what happened
before, during and after.
∙ Answer the following thoroughly:
o What makes that Philippines prone to typhoon?
o What causes a tropical cyclone to intensify?
o What is the advantage of staying in the leeward side of the mountain? o What
is the role of evaporation and condensation in the formation of a tropical cyclone?
o How is the convection involved in the formation of a tropical cyclone?

Instruction:
∙ The finished work should be in 8.5x11 inches paper size, portrait layout. Should be saved
on either MS Word or PDF format.
∙ Font: Times New Roman, 12 in size, single spacing, 1-inch margin on all side. ∙
Minimum of 2 page and maximum of 5 page only. Cover paper not counted on the # of
page.
∙ Send as attachment on G-class.
∙ Subject of the file should be on this format: Grade-Section_Activity 1.1_Group #
∙ This will be a 25-point activity.

Oral Report:
∙ Present the submitted written report
∙ 3 – 5 minutes reporting for the entire group
∙ Prepare a visual presentation of the report
∙ This will be a 15-point group activity plus 10-point individual activity.
 Republic of the Philippines
DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga

LABORATORY HIGH SCHOOL

SCIENCE 7
FIRST QUARTER MODULE

Lesson 1.3 Other Members of the Solar System

Asteroids

The Origin of Asteroids

Asteroids are large irregular chunks of metallic rocky

bodies without atmosphere which astronomers believe to be
the remains of a shattered planet or remnants from the
formation of the planets. Some appear to be rocky, while
others appear to be metallic. Most of them lie in the asteroid
belt, a huge doughnut-shaped ring between the orbit of Mars
and Jupiter. There are more than 200 asteroids in this belt
whose size can be more than 100 km in diameter. Other
objects are found in the asteroid belt. An example is Ceres
which was once considered as the biggest asteroid but is now
classified as a dwarf planet. There are also comets in this
belt.
Asteroids are also known as minor planets or planetoids. They were formed billions of
years ago together with the other members of the Solar System. Scientists believe that the birth
of Jupiter prevented other planetary objects to fill the space during the early times. Eventually,
these small bodies collided with each other and formed bigger fragments which we now call
asteroids.

Characteristics of Asteroids
Most asteroids are irregularly shaped but some are nearly spherical and have craters. The
surface is observed to be covered with dust. They also revolve around the Sun in an elliptical
orbit like the other planets. They also rotate as they orbit around the Sun. But their rotation is not
the same as that of the planets. They seem to collapse erratically as they rotate due to their
irregular shape. Scientists discovered that a few of them have a companion moon or moons.
Asteroid Ida and its moon, Dactyl, was discovered in 1993. There are also binary asteroids,
where two equal-sized rocky bodies orbit each other. Triple asteroid systems are also known to
exist.
The shapes and sizes of asteroids differ. Some of them are solid bodies, while others are smaller
piles of debris that are bound together by gravity. A few exhibit other features. Asteroid Chariklo
orbits the Sun between Neptune and Uranus with its own set of two dense narrow rings. Another
asteroid exists with six tails.
Asteroids are usually named by numbers that indicate their date of discovery. Others are
associated with mythical figures. The asteroid Pallas is named after the alternate name of the
Greek goddess Athena, Pallas Athena. It has a very irregular shape and is said to be the remains
of an early protoplanet although no evidence supports this claim. Vesta, the brightest asteroid
and believed to be the leftover of a rocky protoplanet, is named after the Roman goddess of the
hearth. Other named asteroids are Juno, Astraea, Hebe, Iris, Flora, Metis, Hygeia, and Hermes.

Orbit of Asteroids
Unlike planetary orbits, an asteroids’ orbit is not
permanent. There are asteroids that exist outside the main
belt. They lie along the orbits of bigger planets. For
instance, Jupiter’s massive gravity changes the asteroids’
orbits. The gravity pulls them out of the main belt and
throws them in to space in all directions across the orbit
other planets. Thus, there are asteroids in other parts of
the Solar System aside from the asteroid belt. There are
asteroids that share orbits with other planets while some
have orbits that pass close to Earth.
The orbits of the asteroids in the asteroid belt are
not very elongated. The orbit contains millions of large
asteroids that are more than 1 km in diameter and also
millions of smaller ones.
Trojans are asteroids that share the orbit of larger planets like Jupiter, Mars, and
Neptune. They do not collide with the planets despite sharing orbits with them. The Jupiter
Trojans make up the largest population of trojan asteroids. There are as many Jupiter Trojans as
there are asteroids in the main asteroid belt. In 2010, NASA discovered the first Earth Trojan,
2010 TK.
Near-Earth asteroids have orbits that pass by close to Earth. Some of them cross the
Earth’s orbit and are called Earth crossers. NASA reports that there are about 10 000 known
near-Earth asteroids. Over 800 of these are more than 1 km in diameter, while over 1400 are
classified as potentially hazardous asteroids. A huge asteroid that hit the Earth 65 million years
ago created the 300-km wide Chicxulub crater in the Yucatan Peninsula which is believed to
have caused the extinction of 75 percent of marine and terrestrial animals during that time,
including the dinosaurs.

Composition of Asteroids
The three composition classes of asteroids are the C, S, and M types.
The C type (chondrite), is the most common. It is mostly composed of carbon compounds that
are grayish in color. Clay and stony silicate rocks are also found in them. The C type asteroids lie
on the main asteroid belt’s outer regions.
The S (silicaceous) type are greenish to reddish in color. They are composed of magnesium-
slicates and metals like nickel and iron. They are dominant in the inner asteroid belt.
The M type or metallic asteroids are reddish in color. They are made up of nickel and
iron and are found in the middle of the main belt. Rare types also exist like the V type described
as having basaltic and volcanic crust like Vesta, the brightest asteroid in space.
The Explorations of Asteroids.

Wandering asteroids and their fragments hit the Earth and other planets in the past
causing a major change in geologic history of the planets and in the evolution of life on Earth.
Craters on the Earth’s surface are direct evidence of asteroid impact. Scientists closely monitor
Earth-crossing asteroids that intersect the Earth’s orbit since they pose danger to the planet.
Scientist use radar in monitoring potential impact hazards. Different missions have been sent to
observe asteroids.
Our understanding of asteroids is derived from three main sources. Earth-based remote
sensing, data from space probes, and laboratory analysis of meteorites. The first spacecraft to
take a close image of asteroids was NASA’s Galileo in 1991. It also discovered the first moon to
orbit an asteroid in 1994.
In 2001, NASA’s Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) spacecraft intensified its
study about the near-Earth asteroid Eros and successfully landed on its surface. NEAR is the first
spacecraft to land on an asteroid.
In 2006, Japan’s spacecraft Hayabusa was the first to land on and take off from an
asteroid. It brought home samples from the asteroid and these samples are currently being
studied.
In 2007, NASA’s Dawn Mission began exploring the asteroid Vesta and the dwarf planet
Ceres. Dawn is the first spacecraft to orbit a main belt asteroid and will continue to orbit the
dwarf planet Ceres until its fuel runs out.
In 2012, a company known as Planetary Resources Inc. announced its plan to extract
water from an asteroid and mine it for precious metals.

Comets

Comparison Between Asteroids and Comets

For centuries, strange looking objects in the sky have puzzled the early astronomers. They
seem to come and go since their appearance in the sky is unpredictable. During that time,
scientific studies about the comets have just started. At first, when comets appeared, there was
wonder and awe as there was fear and apprehension. These turned to a common belief that
comets were sent by god or gods. They were made to think that comets would bring famine, war,
pestilence, and other disasters.
Today, we treat comets as one of the natural
phenomena that appear in the sky. Researches made by
scientists reveal that comets are also part of the Solar System.
Comets come from the far reaches of the Solar System, far
from the heat and radiation of the Sun. When they are at
great distances from the Sun, they are just dull, dark, chunks,
of ice with dusts. In this state, they seem to be like asteroids.
At first glance, they may be misidentified as an asteroid
because they seem to appear very similar. Both comets and
asteroids orbit the Sun, and have irregular shapes which may
result in erratic rotation. Also, comets and asteroids are not
massive enough to be called planets. But comets differ from
asteroids in many ways.

Comparison between Asteroids and Comets

Asteroids Comets

Mostly found in the asteroid belt between Mostly found in the Kuiper Belt beyond
the orbits of Mars and Jupiter the orbit of Neptune and in the Oort cloud
of the Solar System

Maybe formed in the inner Solar Maybe formed in the outer Solar system
system inside the orbit of Jupiter

Diameter ranges from the size of small Diameter ranges from 10 to 40 km

rock to more than 960 km

Made of rocks and metals Contains a lot of ice, with dusts and
hydrocarbons

Surface is solid with craters due to Surface is a very unstable as ice vaporizes
impact with other objects as the comet comes near the Sun

Surface does not vaporize so it does Develops a tail and a coma as it comes
not develop a tail and a coma near the Sun due to the vaporization of
ice
The Anatomy of Comets

A comet is mostly ice. It is made of dust, carbon dioxide, ammonia, and methane. It is
completely frozen when it is far from the Sun. But as it comes closer to the Sun, some of its
characteristics become prominent. A comet has a nucleus which is like a dirty snowball made of
ice, frozen gas, and dust. As a comet approaches the Sun, it is warmed and its ice starts to
vaporize or the frozen comet directly changes into gas along with particles of dust. This process
of changing solid to gas is known as sublimation. These particles and gases make a cloud
around the nucleus, called coma. The coma is a mixture of gases like water vapour, carbon
dioxide, ammonia, methane, and other gases. Since gases are lighter than other materials, they
are the materials that surround the coma. And hydrogen being the lightest gas serves as the
outermost envelope of the coma. The coma, together with the nucleus, forms the head of the
comet.
The comet’s tail appears as it approaches the Sun. The tail, which is lighted by the Sun,
makes the comet visible. As the comet orbits the Sun, it releases streams of gas and dusts that
develop into a long tail. The speed of the comet increases as it comes near the Sun. The speed of
the comet increases as it comes near the Sun. The increasing speed makes the tail grow to
millions of kilometers long.
Actually, a comet has two tails, the dust tail and the ion tail. The dust tail is made of
particles that evaporate from the nucleus of the comet. Radiation from the Sun pushes these
small dust particles and causes the tail to form a long curved path. Radiation makes the dust tail
always point away from the Sun. Another tail, the ion tail which is also known as plasma tail, is
made of charged particles of gases. Solar wind pushes the ion tail and makes it point directly
away from the Sun.

The Comets’ Place of Origin

Comets come from a region in space that is in the far reaches of the Solar System, far from the
heat and radiation of the Sun. Most comets originate from a region beyond the orbit of Neptune
called the Kuiper Belt, named after the American Dutch astronomer, Gerard Peter Kuiper
(1905 – 1973). It usually takes comets from these region 200 years or less to make one
revolution around the Sun. Comets in the Kuiper Belt are said to be short-period comets.
There are comets that come from a region that borders the Solar System called the Oort Cloud,
name after Jan Hendrick Oort (1900-1992), a Dutch astronomer. Scientists believe that there
are trillions of comets in this region. One revolution around the Sun will take a comet from
these region 30 million years. Comets from the Oort Cloud are called long-period comets.
The Sun’s gravitational pull causes the comet to have a highly elliptical orbit. The increasing
gravitational pull between the Sun and the comet causes it to move faster and faster as it
approaches the Sun. While at a great distance from the Sun, it appears like a dirty snowball. But
as it comes closer to the Sun, its surface warms causing its materials to vaporize, producing its
characteristic tail. The head and tail of the comet become recognizable.
Predictions on the Appearance of a Comet
It was only during the late 17th century when attempts were made to
predict when a comet would appear. English astronomer Edmund Halley
wondered in 1703 whether a comet he had seen in 1682 was the same comet
that was seen before. He noted that other comets seen had occurred about
every 76 years. He was inspired by his friend Isaac Newton of the Earth and
the Moon which have almost circular orbits. Both Newton and Halley were
able to see the comet of 1682 and had gathered data on its positions at
various times. Using Newton’s laws, Halley did some calculations and
discovered that the comet that had appeared in 1682 was the same comet that
appeared in 1531 and 1607. He concluded that the comet returns every 76
years, although the comet has been found to return every 74 to 79 years.
Halley predicted that the next appearance of the comet would be in
1758 or 1759. Indeed, Halley’s comet made another
appearance during the Christmas eve of 1758. But he no longer saw the comet
that was named after him. People that lived in the 20th century witnessed this spectacular event
in 1910. It was less visible in 1986 and is predicted to appear in 2061.
Although astronomers know Halley’s comet will return sometime in 2061 near the
vicinity of the Earth, the moment it first becomes visible cannot be predicted accurately. The
orbits of comets are somewhat unpredictable. This is due in part to the gravitational forces of the
planets that act on them as they pass through the Solar System. Also, each time a comet passes
by the Sun, streams of evaporating gas are released from its surface. These streams of gas act
like rockets and change the orbit of the comet slightly. As a result, no one knows exactly when
Halley’s comet will return. So keep your eyes open in 2061. Who knows? You may be the first
person to see its return.

Some Famous Comets

Halley’s comet is the most famous comet
in the world. It is seen about every 76 years
which it comes near the Sun. When Halley’s
comet passed near Earth in 1986, five spacecrafts
from NASA were made to fly near it to gather
information about its nucleus. The 15-km potato
shaped comet is made of ice, dust, and carbon
dioxide. Researchers believe that other comets
have the same composition as Halley’s comet.
The nucleus of the comet is extremely black. Its
surface is coated with a crust of dust that covers
most of the ice. It only releases gas when the
holes in the crust expose the ice to the Sun.
Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 collided with Jupiter in 1994. The gravitational pull of the
planet turned the comet into fragments. The large collision created a fireball that rose 3000 km
above the clouds of Jupiter. It was estimated to have exploded with force of 6000 gigatons of
TNT
Hale-Bopp is the most highly visible comet that passed close to Earth in 1997. It has an
unusually large nucleus which released large amount of dusts and gases, making it brighter to the
naked eye.
Meteoroids

Origin of Meteoroids
Meteoroids are lumps of rocks or metallic debris which travel in outerspace. Meteoroids,
especially the tiny particles called micrometeoroids, are very common throughout the Solar
System.
Many asteroids that travel through the Solar System are thrown out of their orbits and
change paths. They collide and break into smaller fragments and other turn into dust. These
small fragments and dust become the meteoroids that travel in space. Meteoroids originated from
an asteroid, but they may also be fragments of a comet that passed through the inner Solar
System. They may even come from other planets and satellites. Meteoroids are even found at the
very edge of the Solar System, in the Kuiper Belt, and the Oort Cloud.

Meteors and Meteorites

A meteoroid is acted upon
by the gravitational field of the
Earth as it t ravels close to the
planet. When the meteoroid passes
through the Earth’s atmosphere, it
heats up due to the air resistance.
Friction with the atmosphere
produces heat that causes gases
around the meteoroid to glow
brightly. This glowing meteoroid is
called a meteor, also commonly
called “shooting star.” What is seen
are streaks of light in the night sky,
which is actually the breaking up of
particles of the glowing meteor.
This spectacular event may be a single occurrence or multiple meteor showers.
Most meteors are larger than a grain of sand. They disintegrate completely as they enter
the Earth’s atmosphere. There are bigger meteors that reach the surface. A meteor that lands on
the Earth’s surface is called a meteorite.
Most of the meteorites that have been found on Earth came from asteroids. A few
originated from Mars and the Moon. The Martian meteorites are very much like Earth rocks with
some distinct composition and mineral content as the Moon rocks gathered by the Apollo
Mission.
 Republic of the Philippines
DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga

LABORATORY HIGH SCHOOL

SCIENCE 7

Activity 1.3 Other Members of the Solar System

GRAPHIC ORGANIZER
Instruction:
∙ Present Asteroids, Comets and Meteoroids through a concept map.
∙ Use a long bond paper.
∙ Should be manually drafted – done by hand.
∙ You can use any coloring material, be creative.
∙ Take a clear picture of the output and send as attachment on G-class. ∙
Subject of the file should be on this format:
Grade-Section_Activity 1.3 Graphic Organizer _Complete Name
∙ This will be a 50-point activity.

Examples:
 REFERENCES:

Baguio, S. M., Felicerta, C. N., Manosa, S. D. & Santisteban-Cook, C.C. (2018). Breaking Through Science Second Edition. Quezon
City, Philippines. C &E Publishing, Inc.

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