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Reliability Engineering
Advanced Research in Reliability and System Assurance Engineering
Series Editor: Mangey Ram, Professor, Graphic Era (Deemed to be University),
Dehradun, India
Reliability Engineering
Theory and Applications
Edited by Ilia Vonta and Mangey Ram
Reliability Engineering
Methods and Applications
Edited by Mangey Ram
For more information about this series, please visit: https:// www.crcpress.com/
Reliability-Engineering-Theory-and-Applications/Vonta-Ram/p/book/9780815355175
Reliability Engineering
Methods and Applications
Edited by
Mangey Ram
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts
have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume
responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers
have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize
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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Chapter 5 Markov Chains and Stochastic Petri Nets for Availability and
Reliability Modeling......................................................................... 127
Paulo Romero Martins Maciel, Jamilson Ramalho Dantas,
and Rubens de Souza Matos Júnior
v
vi Contents
Chapter 15 Vulnerability Discovery and Patch Modeling: State of the Art........ 401
Avinash K. Shrivastava, P. K. Kapur, and Misbah Anjum
Index....................................................................................................................... 439
Preface
The theory, methods, and applications of reliability analysis have been developed
significantly over the last 60 years and have been recognized in many publications.
Therefore, awareness about the importance of each reliability measure of the system
and its fields is very important to a reliability specialist.
This book Reliability Engineering: Methods and Applications is a collection of
different models, methods, and unique approaches to deal with the different techno-
logical aspects of reliability engineering. A deep study of the earlier approaches and
models has been done to bring out better and advanced system reliability techniques
for different phases of the working of the components. Scope for future develop-
ments and research has been suggested.
The main areas studied follow under different chapters:
Chapter 1 provides the review and analysis of preventive maintenance modeling
issues. The discussed preventive maintenance models are classified into two main
groups for one-unit and multi-unit systems.
Chapter 2 provides the literature review on the most commonly used optimal
inspection maintenance mode using appropriate inspection strategy analyzing the
complexity of the system whether single or multi-stage system etc. depending on the
requirements of quality, production, minimum costs, and reducing the frequency of
failures.
Chapter 3 presents the application of stochastic processes in degradation modeling
to assess product/system performances. Among the continuous stochastic processes,
the Wiener, Gamma, and inverse Gaussian processes are discussed and applied for
degradation modeling of engineering systems using accelerated degradation data.
Chapter 4 presents a novel approach for analysis of Failure Modes and Effect
Analysis (FMEA)-related documents through a semi-automatic procedure involving
semantic tools. The aim of this work is reducing the time of analysis and improving
the level of detail of the analysis through the introduction of an increased number of
considered features and relations among them.
Chapter 5 studies the reliability and availability modeling of a system through
Markov chains and stochastic Petri nets.
Chapter 6 talks about the fault tree analysis technique for the calculation of
reliability and risk measurement in the transportation of radioactive materials.
This study aims at reducing the risk of environmental contamination caused due to
human errors.
Chapter 7 surveys the failure rate functions of replacement times, random, and
periodic replacement models and their properties for an understanding of the com-
plex maintenance models theoretically.
Chapter 8 highlights the design of accelerated life tests with competing failure
modes which give rise to competing risk analysis. This design helps in the prediction
of the product reliability accurately, quickly, and economically.
vii
viii Preface
Mangey Ram
Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), India
Acknowledgments
The Editor acknowledges CRC Press for this opportunity and professional sup-
port. My special thanks to Ms. Cindy Renee Carelli, Executive Editor, CRC Press/
Taylor & Francis Group for the excellent support she provided me to complete this
book. Thanks to Ms. Erin Harris, Editorial Assistant to Mrs. Cindy Renee Carelli,
for her follow up and aid. Also, I would like to thank all the chapter authors and
reviewers for their availability for this work.
Mangey Ram
Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), India
ix
Editor
Dr. Mangey Ram received a PhD degree major in Mathematics and minor in
Computer Science from G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology,
Pantnagar, India. He has been a Faculty Member for over 11 years and has taught
several core courses in pure and applied mathematics at undergraduate, postgradu-
ate, and doctorate levels. He is currently a Professor at Graphic Era (Deemed to be
University), Dehradun, India. Before joining Graphic Era, he was a Deputy Manager
(Probationary Officer) with Syndicate Bank for a short period. He is Editor-in-Chief
of International Journal of Mathematical, Engineering and Management Sciences
and the guest editor and member of the editorial board of various journals. He is
a regular reviewer for international journals, including IEEE, Elsevier, Springer,
Emerald, John Wiley, Taylor & Francis, and many other publishers. He has pub-
lished 150-plus research publications in IEEE, Taylor & Francis, Springer, Elsevier,
Emerald, World Scientific, and many other national and international journals of
repute and presented his works at national and international conferences. His fields
of research are reliability theory and applied mathematics. Dr. Ram is a Senior
Member of the IEEE, life member of Operational Research Society of India, Society
for Reliability Engineering, Quality and Operations Management in India, Indian
Society of Industrial and Applied Mathematics, member of International Association
of Engineers in Hong Kong, and Emerald Literati Network in the UK. He has been
a member of the organizing committee of a number of international and national
conferences, seminars, and workshops. He was conferred with the Young Scientist
Award by the Uttarakhand State Council for Science and Technology, Dehradun,
in 2009. He was awarded the Best Faculty Award in 2011; the Research Excellence
Award in 2015; and the Outstanding Researcher Award in 2018 for his significant
contribution in academics and research at Graphic Era (Deemed to be University)
in, Dehradun, India.
xi
Contributors
Misbah Anjum Kanchan Jain
Amity Institute of Information Department of Statistics
Technology Panjab University
Amity University Chandigarh, India
Noida, India
Rivero Oliva Jesús
Laurent Bordes Departamento de Engenharia Nuclear
Laboratory of Mathematics and its Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro
Applications—IPRA, UMR 5142 (UFRJ)
University of Pau and Pays Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Adour—CNRS—E2S UPPA
Pau, France Salomón Llanes Jesús
GAMMA SA
Jose Carpio La Habana, Cuba
Department of Electrical, Electronic
and Control Engineering P. K. Kapur
Spanish National Distance Education Amity Centre for Interdisciplinary
University Research
Madrid, Spain Amity University
Noida, India
Jamilson Ramalho Dantas
Departamento de Ciência da Akshay Kumar
Computação Centro de Informática Department of Mathematics
da UFPE—CIN Recife Graphic Era Hill University
Pernambuco, Brasil Dehradun, India
and
Shah Limon
Departamento de Ciência da Industrial & Manufacturing
Computação Universidade Federal Engineering
do Vale do São Francisco— North Dakota State University
UNIVASF Campus Salgueiro Fargo, North Dakota
Salgueiro, Pernambuco, Brasil
Claudio Cunha Lopes
Maritza Rodriguez Gual Department of Reactor Technology
Department of Reactor Technology Service ( SETRE)
Service (SETRE) Centro de Desenvolvimento da
Centro de Desenvolvimento da Tecnologia Nuclear—CDTN
Tecnologia Nuclear—CDTN Belo Horizonte, Brazil
Belo Horizonte, Brazil
xiii
xiv Contributors
É
—Ése es Ancañao.
Ancañao era un indio gaucho que estando yo en Buenos Aires, había
hecho una correría muy atrevida por mi frontera, llegando hasta la
laguna del Tala de los Puntanos, donde tomó é hirió malamente á un
cabo del Regimiento 7.º de caballería, que llevaba comunicaciones
para el Río 4.º.
En esas pláticas íbamos, cuando la luna, rompiendo al fin los celajes
que se oponían á que brillara con todo su esplendor, derramó su luz
sobre la blanca sábana de un vasto salitral, de cuya superficie
refulgente y plateada, se alzaron innumerables luces, como si la
tierra estuviera sembrada de brillantes y zafiros.
Era un espectáculo hermosísimo; la luna, las estrellas y hasta las
mismas opacas nubes, se retrataban en aquel espejo inmóvil,
haciendo el efecto de un cielo al revés.
Las huellas de la última invasión que por allí había pasado, estaban
aún impresas en el suelo cristalino.
Hice alto un momento, probé la sal y era excelente.
Los indios que viven más cerca de allí, la recogen en grandes
cantidades y hacen uso de ella para cocinar, sin someterla á ninguna
preparación previa.
Seguimos la marcha; un rato después estábamos en Agustinillo,
acampados al borde de una linda laguna y al abrigo de grandes
chañares.
Hice tender mi cama, porque hacía fresco, lo más cerca posible del
fogón, y mientras preparaban un asado, estando mis miembros
fatigados y hallándonos completamente fuera de peligro, traté de
echar un sueño.
¡Imposible dormir!
Mi mente, predispuesta á la meditación, no se dejaba subyugar por
la materia.
Pensaba en las escenas extraordinarias que algunos días antes eran
un ideal, gozaba en la contemplación de ellas, y me decía en ese
lenguaje mudo y grave con que nos habla la voz del espíritu en sus
horas de reconcentración: la miseria del hombre consiste en ver
frustradas sus miras y en vivir de conjeturas; porque la realidad es el
supremo bien y la belleza suprema.
En efecto, entre el ideal soñado y el ideal realizado, hay un mundo
de goces, que sólo pueden apreciar como es debido, los que
habiendo anhelado fuertemente, han conseguido después de
grandes padecimientos y dolores lo que se proponían.
¿La virtud y la felicidad son acaso otra cosa que la ciencia de lo real?
Platón lo ha dicho hablando de lo BELLO:
EMERSON.
El sol no comenzaba aún á disipar el cristalino rocío que una noche
serena había depositado sobre la agreste alfombra de la Pampa, y ya
galopábamos aprovechando la fresca de una lindísima mañana de
abril.
Era necesario hacerlo así para no pasar otra noche en el camino.
Yo no tenía que contemplar tanto las cabalgaduras, como los que
habían seguido por el camino del Cuero.
El itinerario del Bagual está sembrado de hermosas lagunas de agua
dulce y permanente; en sus bañados vastísimos hay siempre
excelente pasto y en las profundas sinuosidades de un terreno
quebrado y montuoso, sombra y leña.
Dichas lagunas, saliendo de Agustinillo hasta llegar frente á la Villa
de Mercedes, sobre el Río 5.º, son: Overamanca, el Chañar,
Loncomatro, la Seña; aquí se abren dos caminos, uno para el 3 de
Febrero y otro para las Totoritas, las Acollaradas, el Corralito, el
Machomuerto, Santiago Pozo, la Hallada, el Tala, el Bajohondo, el
Guanaco, Sallape, Pozo de los avestruces y Pozo escondido.
Todas ellas presentan más ó menos la misma fisonomía.
Aquellos campos desiertos, é inhabitados, tienen un porvenir
grandioso, y con la solemne majestad de su silencio, piden brazos y
trabajo.
¿Cuándo brillará para ellos esa aurora color de rosa?
¡Cuándo!...
¡Ay! cuando los Ranqueles hayan sido exterminados ó reducidos,
cristianizados y civilizados.
¿Y cuántos son los Ranqueles, de cuya vida, usos y costumbres he
procurado dar una ligera idea en el transcurso de las páginas
antecedentes?
De ocho á diez mil almas, inclusive unos seiscientos ú ochocientos
cautivos cristianos de ambos sexos, niños, adultos, jóvenes y viejos.
¿En qué me fundo para decirlo?
En ciertas observaciones oculares, en datos que he recogido y en un
cálculo estadístico muy sencillo.
Las tres tribus de Mariano Rosas, de Baigorrita y de Ramón, que
constituyen la gran familia ranquelina, cuentan los tres caciques
principales susodichos, dos caciques menores, Epumer y Yanquetruz
y sesenta capitanejos, cuyos nombres son:
Caniupán, Melideo, Relmo, Manghin, Chuwailau, Caiunao, Ignal,
Tripailao, Millalaf, Quintuano, Nillacaóe, Peñaloza, Ancañao, Millanao,
Pancho, Carrinamón, Cristo, Naupai, Antengher, Nagüel, Lefín,
Quentreú, Jacinto, Tuquinao, Tropa, Wachulco, Tapaio, Caiomuta,
Quinchao, Epuequé, Yanque, Anteleu, Licán, Millaqueo, Painé,
Mariqueo, Caiupán, José, Manqué, Manuel, Achauentrú, Güeral, Islaí,
Mulatu, Lebín, Guiñal, Chañilao, Estanislao, Wiliner, Palfuleo,
Cainecal, Coronel, Cuiqueo, Frangol, Yancaqueo, Yancaó, Gabriel,
Buta y Paulo.
Cada uno de estos capitanejos acaudilla diez, quince, veinte,
veinticinco hasta treinta indios de pelea.
Por indio de pelea se entiende, el varón sano y robusto, de dieciséis
hasta cincuenta años.
Tomando por término medio que cada caudillo, cacique, ó capitanejo
pueda poner en armas veinte indios, resultarían mil trescientos.
Efectivamente, esta cifra está en concordancia con lo que parece
fuera de duda, á saber: que Mariano Rosas y Ramón tienen cerca de
seiscientos indios de pelea y Baigorrita un poco más.
Esas ocho ó diez mil almas ocupan una zona de tierra próximamente
de dos mil leguas cuadradas, entre los 63º y 66º de latitud Sud; y
los 35º y 37º de longitud Este, cuyos límites naturales pueden
determinarse así:
Al Norte, la laguna del Cuero; al Sud, la punta del Río Salado; al
Oeste, este mismo río, y al Este, la Pampa.
En ese vasto perímetro se hallan diseminados unos cuatrocientos ó
seiscientos toldos.
Cada toldo constituye una familia, que no baja nunca de diez
personas, y no hay toldo en el que no se encuentre un cautivo ó
cautiva grande ó chico.
Según este dato resultaría una población de cuatro á seis mil almas.
Pero nótese que el cálculo se basa en el mínimum de personas que
forma la familia.
De consiguiente, suponiéndose que el punto de partida de
cuatrocientos ó seiscientos toldos fuese exagerado, siempre
resultaría una población más ó menos de cuatro á seis mil almas,
desde que la cifra de diez personas por familia, es reducida.
Todos los toldos que yo he visto tenían de veinte personas arriba.
Ahora, siendo un principio estadístico, que cada diez mil almas
suministran sin esfuerzo, mil útiles para el servicio de las armas,
resulta que la cifra de mil trescientos indios de pelea es una
hipótesis racional para determinar la población de los Ranqueles.
Sea de esto lo que fuere, la triste realidad es que los indios están ahí
amenazando constantemente la propiedad, el hogar y la vida de los
cristianos.
¿Y qué han hecho éstos, qué han hecho los Gobiernos, qué ha
hecho la civilización en bien de una raza desheredada, que roba,
mata y destruye, forzada á ello por la dura ley de la necesidad?
¿Qué ha hecho?...
Por más que galopé tuve que dormir otra noche en el camino.
Al día siguiente temprano llegaba á orillas del Río 5.º.
Había andado doscientas cincuenta leguas, había visto un mundo
desconocido y había soñado...
Las galas de abril embellecían el verde panorama de la Villa de
Mercedes, donde los esbeltos álamos y los melancólicos sauces
llorones crecen frondosos á millares.
El día estaba en calma, mi alma alegre.
Reímos sin inquietud cuando debiéramos estar taciturnos ó gemir.
¡Somos unos insensatos!
Y cuando tenemos un momento lúcido es para exclamar
amargamente, ¡ay!...
Yo amo sin embargo el dolor, y hasta el remordimiento, porque me
devuelve la conciencia de mí mismo.
FIN
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