FEATURES OF HUMAN LANGUAGE BY HOCKETT 8.

Arbitrariness in language refers to the fact that there is no

inherent connection between the form of a word (its sound or
1. The vocal-auditory channel refers to the use of vocal sounds structure) and its meaning. The relationship between a word
produced by the mouth (vocal) and heard through the ears and the thing it represents is conventional and agreed upon by
(auditory) as the primary mode of human language speakers of the language, but it could have been different.
communication. This is the standard channel for spoken This arbitrary relationship allows different languages to have
language, where sounds are produced and then heard by entirely different words for the same thing.
others.
2. Broadcast transmission and directional reception means Each language assigns its own arbitrary sound structure to refer to the
that when someone speaks, the sound waves spread out in all same concept, showing that the connection between words and their
directions (broadcast transmission), so anyone within hearing meanings is based on social convention, not a natural or necessary link.
range can potentially perceive the signal. The word "bird" could have been something else entirely, and other
cultures or languages have chosen different sounds to refer to the same
animal. This is what makes language arbitrary.
3. Rapid fading, or transitoriness, refers to the fact that
spoken language signals (sound waves) disappear almost 9. Discreteness in language refers to the idea that speech
immediately after being produced. Unlike written language, sounds can be clearly categorized into distinct units or
which can be preserved on paper or a screen, spoken words phonemes, without any gradual blending between them. This
are gone as soon as they are spoken, requiring listeners to allows us to differentiate between one sound and another,
process and remember them in real-time. even though the real-world production of speech may involve
This temporary nature of speech is why memory and subtle variations.
attention are so important in spoken communication.
Concrete Example:
4. Interchangeability in language refers to the ability of
individuals to both produce (send) and understand (receive) The sounds "p" and "b" are distinct phonemes in English. In the
the same types of messages. In human language, any speaker words "pat" and "bat", the only difference between them is the first
can generally say what another speaker can say, and vice sound: "p" vs "b". These sounds are discrete because we can clearly
versa. This is unlike some animal communication systems, categorize them as separate units. There’s no gradual sliding from "p"
where only certain members (such as males or dominant into "b"; they are distinct categories, and we can hear the difference
individuals) produce specific signals. very clearly.
5. Total feedback refers to a speaker's ability to hear and
10. Displacement in language refers to the ability to talk about
monitor their own speech as they produce it, allowing them to
things that are not immediately present in time or space. This
make immediate adjustments. This is different from
includes discussing events in the past, future, abstract
something like a traffic sign, which cannot detect if it’s
concepts, or even imaginary things. It's one of the features
functioning properly or if people are responding to it
that sets human language apart, allowing us to communicate
correctly.
about things that are not directly experienced in the present
moment.

6. Specialization refers to the idea that different parts of the Concrete Example:
human vocal tract, such as the lips, tongue, and throat, each
 Past: We can speak about events that have already happened,
have specific roles in producing speech sounds. Here's a
like "Yesterday, I went to the park." Even though the event
concrete example for this:
is over and we are no longer at the park, language allows us
 Lips: The lips are crucial in producing bilabial sounds to convey this past experience.
(sounds formed by bringing both lips together), such as the
 Future: We can also talk about things that have not yet
"p" sound in the word "pat" or the "b" sound in "bat."
happened, like "Tomorrow, I will visit my grandmother."
When we make these sounds, the lips are specifically brought
The language lets us discuss a future event, even though it
together or allowed to part.
hasn’t occurred yet.
 Tongue: The tongue plays a major role in creating a wide
 Imaginary or Distant Things: We can talk about fictional
variety of sounds, especially alveolar sounds (made with the
characters like "Jack Frost" or "The Tooth Fairy," even
tongue against the roof of the mouth). For example, the "t"
though these are not real, or discuss distant planets like
sound in "top" and the "l" sound in "lip" are produced by the
"Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun," even though we
tongue’s contact with the alveolar ridge, just behind the upper
may never physically visit it.
front teeth.

 Throat (or Larynx): The larynx contains the vocal cords,

which vibrate to create voiced sounds. For example, the "g" 11. Productivity in language refers to the ability to create new,
sound in "go" or "z" in "zebra" involves the vocal cords never-before-heard utterances by combining existing
vibrating as air passes through the larynx. linguistic elements (such as words, phrases, and sentences) in
novel ways. This allows us to express an infinite number of
Each of these body parts is specialized to produce different speech
ideas and concepts, even ones that have never been spoken
sounds, making human speech communication possible.
before.

Concrete Example:
7. Semanticity refers to the idea that each signal (whether it's a
The sentence you provided, “The lady who lived in my closet told me
word, gesture, or sound) has a specific, understood meaning.
that Mer who is in Jupiter will come and celebrate the birth of the
This means that for every linguistic signal, there is a concept
emperor of the Earth and free all prisoners in jail,” is a perfect
or object it refers to.
example of productivity. The sentence is entirely new and likely never
This principle of semanticity applies to all languages—every word or uttered by anyone before, but it’s still grammatically correct and
symbol has a meaning that speakers of the language associate with it, understandable.
which is why communication is possible. For example, the signal
The speaker combined:
“apple” in English corresponds to the fruit, while in Spanish, the
equivalent signal would be "manzana," both carrying the same  Known words (e.g., "lady," "closet," "celebrate," "prisoners")
meaning in their respective languages.
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  Familiar structures (e.g., relative clauses like "who lived in
FEATURES OF HUMAN LANGUAGE
my closet")
BY HOCKETT
 Creative, novel elements (e.g., "Mer," "emperor of the Earth,"
"Jupiter") to form a completely original sentence. Charles Francis Hockett

Through this combination, language allows us to invent new thoughts, - was an American linguist known for his significant contributions to
stories, and ideas on the fly, giving us the flexibility to communicate an the field of linguistics, particularly in the areas of phonology and the
unlimited range of concepts. This creativity is what allows languages to study of language structure. He made notable advancements in the
evolve and adapt to new contexts over time. understanding of language and communication.

13 Features of Human Language

12. Traditional Transmission refers to the idea that language is Vocal- auditory channel - human language occurs as a vocal type of
not innate or instinctive; instead, it is learned through social communication, which is perceived by hearing.
interaction and exposure. Humans acquire language through
communication with others, and this process requires effort Brodcast transimission and directional reception - human language
and learning over time. signals when sent can be perceived in limited directions though sent in
all direction.
Concrete Example:
Rapid Fading (transitoriness) - speech waveforms fade rapidly which
 A child born into a community that speaks English will not is why the human language signal does not persist over time.
automatically know English. Instead, the child must learn
English by listening to the people around them, mimicking Interchangeability - this means that the speaker can receive and send
their speech, and gradually understanding the rules and the same language signal.
structure of the language through interaction. This process
Total feedback - unlike traffic signs, which cannot monitor its
involves effort, as the child has to be exposed to language and
function, we can hear ourselves while we speak.
engage with others in order to learn how to speak,
understand, and use language appropriately. Specialization - humans have lips, tongue, throat, etc, and each organ
has its own specific function in speech.
 Similarly, a child in a Spanish-speaking environment will
learn Spanish in the same way, not because the ability to Semanticity - this means that for every signal there is a corresponding
speak Spanish is hardwired into their brain, but because they meaning.
are surrounded by the language and learn it through
observation and interaction with caregivers and peers. Arbitrariness - sometimes we ask, why we assign "bird" to refer to the
small flying animals. Human language is arbitrary, meaning, there is no
This concept highlights the role of social and environmental factors in necessary correction to the form and the thing assigned to.
language acquisition—language is passed down through generations,
learned from others, and shaped by the community in which an Discreteness - the basic speech units can be categonzed. There is no
individual is raised. It’s not an automatic skill but a learned one. gradual continuous shading from one sound to another in the linguistics
system, although there may be a continuum in the real physical world.
13. The Duality of Patterning refers to the way that language
has two levels of structure: Displacement - sometimes we speak about things in the past or future,
and our language allows us to do so. We can even talk about distant
1. The first level involves the combination of distinct, things, like the planets and things which do not exist, like Jack Frost or
meaningless units (like sounds or phonemes) to create the Tooth Fairy.
words.
Productivity - we can create never-before-heard utterances. For
2. The second level involves the combination of these example, “The lady who lived in my closet told me that Mer who is in
meaningful units (words, phrases) to form new, more Jupiter will come and celebrate the birth of the emperor of the Earth
complex meanings or ideas. The key idea here is that small, and free all prisoners in jail.”
discrete units can be recombined systematically to create new
forms and meanings. Traditional Transmission - learning language requires effort because
human language is not inborn.
Concrete Example:
The Duality of Pattering - this means that the discrete part of a
1. Phonemic Level: language can be combined in a systematic way to create new forms. It
At the first level, the sounds /b/, /a/, and /t/ are meaningless is the ability to recombine small units in different orders.
on their own, but when combined in a specific order, they
form the word "bat". This word has meaning, but the
individual sounds don’t.

2. Word Level:
At the second level, we can take the word "bat" and
combine it with other words to form new phrases or
sentences. For example:

o "The bat flies" (subject + verb)

o "A bat in the cave" (article + noun + prepositional

phrase)

o "The black bat" (adjective + noun)

In these examples, the basic speech units (the phonemes) are

recombined in different ways to create new words, and these words are
recombined to form new ideas. This duality allows for immense
creativity in language, as a limited set of sounds or words can be THE 7 FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
rearranged to express an almost infinite number of ideas.

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Michael Alexander Kirkwood Halliday was a British linguist who Expressing individually and personal feelings; making
developed the internationally influential systemic functional linguistics public his/her own individuality.
(SFL) model of language.

Halliday described language as a semiotic system, "not in the sense of a Examples include:
system of signs, but a systemic resource for meaning".
“I know that movie because I saw that when I was 5”
Halliday viewed language as a cultural code that teaches us how to be
part of society, rather than simply a method of communication. “I’ve got a pet dog!”
THE FIRST 4 FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE THE NEXT 3 FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
The following functions describe how children acquire and use The next three language functions that are part of
language. The first four of Halliday's functions relate to how children's
Halliday's functions of language describe how children
social, emotional, and physical needs are met through language.
adapt to their environment through learning language.
HEURISTIC: Tell me why
This term refers to language associated with discovery and
explanation, usually in the form of questions or a running
commentary
Seeking and learning; using language to explore his/her
environment; a way of learning about things.
Examples include:
“Why do you like that song?”
INSTRUMENTAL: I want
“Why can’t we live with grandma and grandpa?”
The instrumental function of language refers to when
IMAGINATIVE: Let’s pretend
language is used to fulfil a need, such as requiring food,
drink, or comfort. Creating stories, games, and new worlds; linguistic play
including poems, rhymes, and riddles; not necessarily
Getting things done; satisfying materials need.
‘about’ anything at all.
For example, the phrases 'I want', 'Can I have', and 'I need'
Tell stories and create imaginary friends or concepts in
are all examples of instrumental language.
their heads.
REGULATORY Do as I tell you
Examples include:
When a speaker commands, persuades or
“If we migrate to planet Mars, I will bring my phone and
requests something from someone else, this is known as a
charger.”
regulatory language function.
REPRESENTATIONAL:I’ve got something to tell you
Influencing the behavior, feelings and attitude of others.
Conveying message with a specific reference to the
Examples include:
processes, persons, objects, abstractions, qualities, states,
“You must follow all of my instructions” and relations of the real world around him/her.
“First, gather all the materials you need” Communicating information.
INTERACTIONAL Me and You Examples include:
Language used to develop social relationship and ease the “I made this bracelet to symbolize our friendship.”
process of interaction, concerned with the phobic
“It is raining heavy all day.”
dimension of talk.
ACCOUNTS ON THEORIGIN OF LANGUAGE
Getting along others; to include or exclude.
THEORIES AND HYPOTHESES ABOUT THE
Examples include:
ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE
“Can I please be next after you?”
THE BOW-WOW THEORY
“Do you like pancakes too, Ethan?”
This is based on the ideas that human imitate the sounds
PERSONAL: Here I come
Language imitates sound in nature for example splash,
This function defines how we refer to ourselves
oink,
and express our personal opinions, our identity, and our
feelings. bang, etc.

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THE POOH-POOH THEORY to carry their babies on their backs needed to leave them
on the ground as they gather food and foraging. To make
This arose with the idea that people make instinctive
sure that the babies are ensured that they are not
sounds.
abandoned, the mother would call him/her and uses facial
According to this theory human language may have expressions. Aside from this, body language and tactile
started as natural cries of emotions such as expression of communication are also used like tickling
pain, anger, joy, suprise and
Whitney’s Origin of Language
other emotions theories about theoriginoflanguage
Whitney’s theory on the source of human speech anchored
THE DING-DONG THEORY on the natural sound of human cries. As humans express
their feelings and are being understood by others the use
This is based on the notion that people react to the world of language began. Next, according to Whitney, human
and make sound symbolism beingscome to use imitative or onomatopoetic utterances
Some people, including the famous linguist Max Muller, as the reproduction of the sound of crying.
have pointed out that there is a rather mysterious Theories in Language and Culture
correspondence between sounds and meaning .
The interconnectedness between Culture and
Small, sharp, high things tend to Language.
have have words with high front We can view the interrelatedness between culture and
vowels in many language. language in these three opposing aspects:

Ex. Peak (1) Language and culture are inseparable since language is
closely related to culture.
Big, round, low things tend
(2) Language and culture are independent because speech
THE YO-HE-HO THEORY is a means of exchanging information which can be used
in aspects that are not connected to culture.
This is based on the proof that humans create rhythmical
grunts which later developed into chants to address (3) Culture and language are partly interconnected.
physical environmental needs.
Krausch (1998) pointed three ways by which language
Sounds made due to physical effort involving several and culture are related.
people could be the source of our language: Grunts,
Groans , Curses Culture as Part of Language

THE LA-LA THEORY "Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method

of communicating ideas, emotions and desire by means of
The romantic side of human life is the sole factor that is voluntarily produced symbols" (Sapir, 1921).
responsible for the creation of language.
Risgar (2006) claims that language is a part of culture and
The idea that speech emerged from the sounds of inspired a part of epidermal behavior. It is predominantly held that
playfulness, love , poetic sensibility and song the task of language is to put thoughts into words, to
communicate pieces of information and to express
Genetic-mutation of Chomsky
feelings.
Noam Chomsky postulates in his theory that language was
In this area of study, Kramsch (1962) phrased the main
created from a genetic mutation from one of our human
functions of language in three aspects:
ancestors. This human ancestor developed the ability to
speak and understand language and he passed this on to  Language is the primary vehicle of communication.
his offspring.
 Language reflects both the personality of the
Vocal Grooming of Dunbar individual and the culture of history. In turn, it helps
in shaping both personality and culture.
Robin Dunbar’s theory is based on the notion that people
needed to find a more efficient form of grooming as  Language makes possible the growth and
communities began to groom larger. Wanting to keep their transmission of culture, the continuity of societies and
peers with them, humans groom themselves and so did the the effective functioning and control of social group.
vocals develop. Humans need to be together with other
humans so they needed to use sounds like early Language, Thought and Culture
conversations similar to gossip in our modern times. Benjamin Lee Whorf shared his theory on the
“Putting the Baby Down” Hypothesis significance of language in organizing our thoughts. He
espoused that our ways of looking at the world depend on
Dean Falk an anthropologist suggests that language the type of language that we use. His example is on the
developed from early humans-the mothers in particular. As word "snow". The word may mean differently to and
humans evolved and lost their fur, the mothers who used
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English person and an Eskimo person who may have 50
ways to describe the snow.

Culture and its Elements

It is undeniable that we learn culture through interaction
with people. Culture is not inborn but rather learned as it
is a social product. Words are the best tools of cultural
symbols, such as epics, myths, and stories. This helps
connect people. Aside from words or language, rituals,
beliefs and values are essential in the formation of culture.
Vygotsky's theory
Lev Vygotsky, a psychologist, believed that social
interactions between and among people are a key element
in acquiring knowledge, just like how a child watches and
learns from adults. The more experiences a child has to
imitate the greater his intellectual skills and language
development compared to those with less experience and
exposure.
Piaget's theory
In his theory, Piaget stressed that children create meaning
from the verbal and nonverbal cues received from their
environment and these meanings change as children learn
more because of maturity.
Jean Piaget contends that when children are born they
have an embedded basic structure for cognition as well as
for language.
Chomsky's Theory
Noam Chomsky is known for his Language Acquisition Sign language makes use of the hands,
Device (LAD) which is a built-in box in the brain facial expression and other gestures usually
responsible for creating and learning the language. For used by deaf or the bearing-impaired
him, practice is not important as children never acquire individuals. However, sign language may also
language through it. Furthermore, language structures can be very helpful for individuals with intellectual
change, develop and evolve given cultural interactions. and physical disabilities especially those with
communication problems like autism and
Semiotics which include those presented in the previous
apraxia of speech.
activities is a form of
language since there is meaning in every sign and symbol.
We see around us a lot of these symbols like brands and Fingerspelling
logos, emojis and traffic signs on the road.
Spelling words in signs may be done using
Semiotics was founded by a Swiss linguist, Ferdinand de fingerspelling strategy. There is manual for the
Saussure and refers to this as "the life of signs within English alphabets, which makes up important
society". parts of sign language. Fingerspelling is used
A semiotician is a person who studies or practices to emphasize specific words like pine, so p-i-n-
semiotics, deals with symbols. These may be in a form of e would be spelled referring to pine tree.
image, pattern, and motion and convey meaning.

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