Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 561–571

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Internal combustion engines: Progress and prospects

Avinash Alagumalai
Internal Combustion Engineering Division, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering, Sriperumbudur 602105, Tamil Nadu, India

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Indeed, the engine industries have seen a tremendous growth in the research and development of new-age
Received 17 March 2014 technologies over the past ten years or so. Even though a huge database is now available on present-day
Received in revised form engine technologies, a skillful presentation of those data is a demanding task. At this count, an endeavor has
5 May 2014
been made here to brief the pros and cons of present-day engine technologies in an elusive manner. In a
Accepted 18 June 2014
nut–shell, this article provides an extensive review of the primary principles that preside over the internal
combustion engines design and operation, as well as a simplifying framework of new-age engine
Keywords: technologies has been organized and summarized in an elegant way to contribute to this pragmatic field.
Engine & 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Alternative fuel technology
Performance
Emission

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
2. Variables influencing engine performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
2.1. Combustion chamber geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
2.1.1. Open combustion chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
2.1.2. Divided combustion chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
2.2. Compression ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
2.3. Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
2.4. Ignition delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
2.5. Preheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
2.5.1. Air preheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
2.5.2. Fuel preheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
2.6. Injection parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
2.6.1. Injection pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
2.6.2. Injection timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
2.6.3. Water emulsion/injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
3. Non-conventional IC engines operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
3.1. Dual-fuel engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
3.2. Free-piston engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
3.3. Gasoline direct injection (GDI) engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
3.4. Homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
3.5. Lean-burn engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
3.6. Variable compression ratio (VCR) engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
4. The future of IC engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
4.1. Emissions: the technology enforcer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
4.2. Bio-fuels: a prudent step. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
5. Conclusions and recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569

E-mail address: [email protected]

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.06.014
1364-0321/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
562 A. Alagumalai / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 561–571

1. Introduction with the above work, a significant contribution was made by

Mamilla et al. [14] in evaluating the effects on engine performance
Perhaps the most graceful invention by humankind that ever by varying the open combustion chamber geometry. The study
had a greater impact on society, the economy, and the environ- was carried out in a single cylinder, direct-injection diesel engine
ment is the reciprocating internal combustion engines, in general fueled with Jatropha bio-diesel. The experimental outcomes
called as IC engines [1,2]. Although several researchers made proved superior performance characteristics for the toroidal com-
noteworthy contributions in the development of IC engines, the bustion chamber when compared to the other open type combus-
historical breakthrough by Nicolaus Otto (1876) and his counter- tion chambers.
part Rudolf Diesel (1892) in the development of Spark Ignition (SI) Besides the experimental investigations on the effects of
engine and Compression Ignition (CI) engine is globally praised combustion chamber configurations, various optimization techni-
[3,4]. For decades, their magnificent inventions proved to play a ques to evaluate the effects of combustion chamber geometry on
vital role in the automobile system, used almost exclusively today. engine performance were carried out by several researchers. One
Unfortunately, at present there is a pressing need to develop such contribution was made by Park [15]. Park evaluated the
advanced combustion engines that maximize the engine efficiency effects of optimization of combustion chamber geometry and
and totally mitigate the exhaust emissions [5,6]. In this regard, the engine operating conditions for CI engines fueled with di-methyl
hybrid electric vehicles would be the major part of future trans- ether (DME). In the study, the DME was chosen as an alternative
portation systems, because of their eco-friendliness and flexibility fuel to diesel since DME roughly contains about 35 wt% of oxygen,
in operation [7]. Conversely, there are issues like power storage which would improve the combustion characteristics. In addition,
options allied with hybrid electric vehicles yet to be resolved [8]. the study stressed the need of optimization of combustion
Thus, undoubtedly hybrid vehicles would be the new age eco- chamber to achieve considerable improvement in the engine
friendly vehicles, which would find a potential global market in operating characteristics.
near future.
However, focusing on the present day scenario, several studies
2.1.2. Divided combustion chamber
have been conducted on improving the performance of conven-
In the past twenty five years or so, abundant research works
tional IC engines by using alternate fuels, without much modifica-
had been carried out in a direct injection combustion chamber
tion in the engine system [9–12]. Since more than enough of the
(open combustion chamber) than indirect-injection combustion
research studies had been carried out in analyzing the perfor-
chamber (divided combustion chamber). This is due to the fact
mance and emissions of conventional IC engines by alternate fuels,
that the use of the divided combustion chamber is often accom-
an attempt has been made in this article to devise the principle
panied by high fuel penalties. However, with divided combustion
design and operating variables, such as compression ratio, ignition
chamber design, vigorous charge motions and faster combustion
period, injection parameters, etc., that influence the engine opera-
rates can be achieved [16]. In this regard, Rakopoulos et al. [17]
tion under diverse circumstances. In conjunction, an exertion has
dealt with the determination of combustion mechanisms in the
been made to discuss briefly the pros and cons associated with
divided combustion chamber. The analysis results provided a basis
non-conventional IC engine's operation.
for construction of the divided combustion chamber, and exhibited
the most appealing results with heat release rate mechanism.
2. Variables influencing engine performance
2.2. Compression ratio
While designing any potential heat engine, a formidable
challenge lies in designing it to produce a twin advantage of Like the combustion chamber configuration, the compression
maximum mechanical power and minimum engine-out exhaust, ratio (CR) is also an equally important design parameter that has a
by supplying less energy input to the engine. Although 100% momentous effect on performance and emission characteristics,
occurrence of the above incident is cumbersome, however, to because CR is a chief concern for flexible fuel technology devel-
some extent, the engine's performance could be influenced by opment [18]. To substantiate the above actuality, several research
varying the design and operating variables. Amongst several works had been carried out by the analysts throughout the world.
variables, the emphasis here is on the combustion chamber Below are some of the remarkable contributions made by the
geometry, compression ratio, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), researches on the effects of varying CR on the engine performance.
ignition delay, injection parameters, and intake system heating. Raheman and Ghadge [19] studied the impact of varying CR of a
Ricardo diesel engine fueled with Mahua bio-diesel. It was
2.1. Combustion chamber geometry apparent from the study that the performance characteristics of
diesel engine fueled with B20 (20% bio-diesel and 80% diesel)
2.1.1. Open combustion chamber Mauha bio-diesel by varying compression ratio from 18:1 to 20:1
In general, a typical IC engine's performance, emission, and disclosed about 29.5% increase in brake thermal efficiency (BTE).
combustion characteristics strongly rely on the combustion cham- Similar to prior work, Sayin and Gumus [20] investigated the
ber configuration. To assist the above fact, several noteworthy influence of CR on a single cylinder, direct-injection diesel engine
experimental investigations on the effects of varying combustion fueled with bio-diesel blended diesel fuel. The experimental
chamber geometry were demonstrated by numerous researchers. results showed substantial improvements in BTE, fuel economy,
In that count, Jaichandar et al. [13] studied the effects of varying CO, HC, and smoke opacity along with sharp increase in NOx
the open combustion chamber geometry in a single cylinder diesel emission when the CR was raised from the standard settings.
engine fueled with Pongamia methyl ester. The experimental In recent days, gaseous fuels are attractive owing to their ability
outcomes revealed improved characteristics for the toroidal com- to form near homogenous mixture and due to their wider flamm-
bustion chamber when compared to the shallow depth combus- ability limits. An experimental work by Porpatham et al. [21] on
tion chamber and hemispherical combustion chamber. This trend the effects of CR on the performance mechanism of a modified
was principally due to the improved air motion by employing diesel engine operated with bio-gas revealed an increase in BTE,
toroidal combustion chamber, which might have enhanced the HC and NO emissions to increase in CR. This significant increase
mixture preparation and combustion mechanism. In the sequence was noted to be the highest at the CR of 15:1. The chief reason for
 A. Alagumalai / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 561–571 563

this trend was noted to be the increase in combustion rate and the showed good harmony of the measured values with Arrhenius
reduction in delay period when CR increases. expressions.
A different study by Çelik et al. [22] on the use of pure In the same way, predictive correlations for the determination
methanol as sole fuel in a single cylinder gasoline engine at high of the ignition delay period for bio-diesel fueled diesel engine
CR of 10:1 exhibited increase in engine power and BTE of about were developed by Verhelst et al. [32]. The new correlations were
14% and 36%, respectively. On the other hand, obvious reductions developed taking into consideration of the major parameters like
in CO, CO2 and NOx emissions (except HC emission) were noticed equivalence ratio, the cylinder pressure and temperature. And,
at high CR of 10:1. The primary reason for this exponential hopeful results were noted with the values predicted by new
increase in HC emission with CR was found to be the increase in correlations. Likewise, Kasaby and Nemit [33] works on the
surface/volume ratio with the increase in CR. measurement of the delay period for different Jatropha bio-
Yet another assessment of the consequence of varying CR on diesel blends too exhibited reduction in delay period with increase
the engine performance was examined by Yücesu et al. [23]. in pressure, temperature and equivalence ratio.
A single cylinder, four-stroke gasoline engine fueled with ethanol–
gasoline blends was chosen to inspect the engine characteristics. In
the study, both the performance and emission characteristics were 2.5. Preheating
found to be good in accordance with higher CR.
A recent study by Pan et al. [24] on the dual effects of EGR and For a long period, heating induction system to assist fuel
CR in a port fuel injected gasoline engine at wide open throttle vaporization under the cold engine operation was employed [34].
operation portrayed a major reduction in cyclic variations by To legalize the above statement, numerous literature studies had
increasing CR for a given EGR ratio. This trend was predominantly been carried out. Among those, the notable works are collectively
due to the influence of laminar flame speed and turbulent organized and presented here.
intensity, which increased with increase in CR for both experi-
mental as well as computational analysis.
2.5.1. Air preheating
Yilmaz [35,36] investigated the effects of intake air preheating
2.3. Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
on the performance and emission trends of a diesel engine fueled
with bio-diesel–alcohol blends. In the study, the intake air was
Nowadays, in order to meet stringent vehicular emission
preheated to the upper limit of 85 1C. Based on the study, it was
norms, automotive engineers world-wide scuffle on designing
clearly suggested that complete combustion of bio-diesel in a
new technologies to considerably reduce the exhaust emissions.
diesel engine could be guaranteed by operating the engine with
In this regard, EGR technique would be the most effective pre-
bio-diesel–alcohol (either methanol or ethanol) blends under
treatment technique to combat NOx emission [25,26]. The estima-
warm environment.
tion made by a few scholars on the effects of EGR on the engine
performance and emission characteristics has been elaborated in
the upcoming paragraphs. 2.5.2. Fuel preheating
Agarwal et al. [27] evaluated the adverse effects of EGR on An investigation by Raheman et al. [37] on the effects of
diesel engine operational characteristics. The evaluation confirmed preheating Jatropha oil by means of residual gas exhibited greater
substantial reduction in NOx emission. But, the HC, CO and smoke influence on the performance and emission characteristics. For the
emissions exponentially increased with increasing EGR rates. purpose of preheating, a helical coil heat exchanger was fitted to
However, the most pleasing engine performance in terms of the raise the temperature of Jatropha oil, and the inlet temperature of
BTE, fuel economy, and emissions was found to be apparent up to the oil was maintained within a range of 770 1C throughout the
15% EGR rates. Yet another evaluation by Agarwal et al. [28] mode of engine operation. Overall, the experimental results
concluded that the simultaneous reduction in NOx and smoke indicated lower BTE and higher fuel consumption for preheated
emission was evident when both bio-diesel and EGR were Jatropha oil when compared to neat diesel operation. On the other
employed in diesel engines. hand, the reduced emission trends were also witnessed due to
Another study by Saleh et al. [29] on the impact of EGR on the preheating.
diesel engine characteristics operated with Jojoba methyl ester Another investigation on the effect of fuel preheating was
disclosed better emission trade-off characteristics when the opti- critically evaluated by Hazar and Aydin [38]. In the study, the
mal EGR level of 12% was maintained. Also, the study reported that performance and emission behavior of a CI engine fueled with
50–55% of NOx reduced at higher EGR rates of 25–40%, above preheated Rapeseed oil–diesel blends were explored. Hazar and
which the combustion characteristics deteriorated. Aydin elucidated in their work that the use of preheated oil–diesel
blends would offer smooth fuel flow with total evasion of fuel
2.4. Ignition delay filter clogging. This trend was primarily accomplished in their
study by preheating the oil to 100 1C. Also, the study clarified that
On behalf of engine performance analysis, the determination of the effect of preheating fuels tends to lower the power output as
optimal ignition timing is a key issue of study. The contributions the result of higher leakages in the pump and injector. Further-
made by some researchers on the effect of varying ignition timings more, analogous remarks on the effects of fuel preheating were
on engine performance and emissions have been presented in the noted by Bari et al. [39].
subsequent paragraphs.
An in-depth study on the effects of varying ignition timings
on a gasoline engine operated with methanol was analyzed by 2.6. Injection parameters
Li et al. [30]. They found improvements in BTE, in-cylinder pressure,
cyclic variation, and heat release rate at an optimal ignition timing. In line with other variables, the effect of injection parameters
And, this optimal value was noted to be 181 CA BTDC. on engine performance is of prime interest of study. In the
In addition, a systematic measurement of ignition delay for jet following sections, the effects of injection pressure, injection
fuels and diesel fuel in a heavy-duty, single cylinder diesel engine timing, and water injection on engine performance and emissions
was done by Rothamer and Murphy [31]. Their measurements have been expatiated.
564 A. Alagumalai / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 561–571

2.6.1. Injection pressure variables on engine characteristics are organized in a simplified

Gumus et al. [40] analyzed the crucial effects of increasing the manner and presented in Table 1.
fuel injection pressure in a direct injection diesel engine operated On the whole, the following variables play a vital role in
with bio-diesel–diesel blends. For this study, four different injec- modern engine development.
tion pressures (180, 200, 220, and 240 bar) were considered to In case of SI engines, principle design parameters like compres-
evaluate the engine operation over the wide range of injection sion ratio, combustion chamber geometry, spark timing, design of
pressures. The experimental outcomes revealed improvements in intake ports for creating desired air motion (especially high swirl
fuel economy, HC, CO and smoke opacity, whereas a reverse trend to increase burn rate), etc., have to be optimized to significantly
was noted with CO2 and NOx emissions. In addition to, evaluations reduce emissions. Conjointly, significant improvements in fuel
made by Kannan and Anand [41] on the effects of varying injection efficiency can be attained by improving gas exchange process,
pressure in a diesel engine operated with distrol fuel (a blend of reducing pumping and heat loss at part loads, adoption of multi-
30% waste cooking oil methyl ester, 60% diesel and 10% ethanol) valves cylinders, variable valve actuation for varying valve timings
exhibited maximum BTE of around 31% at an optimum injection and lift, direct injection concept, engine downsizing, variable
pressure of 240 bar. As well, due to the effect of increasing the swept volume, supercharging, etc.
injection pressure, engine-out exhausts reduced considerably. On the other hand, in case of CI engines, significant improve-
Similarly, studies by Çelikten [42] and Puhan et al. [43] on the ments in combustion and substantial reductions in emissions
effects of injection pressure on engine operation disclosed (particularly NOx and PM) can be attained by optimization of
enhancement in performance and emission characteristics. combustion chamber design and in-cylinder air flow, use of high
fuel injection pressure along with small nozzle hole diameter to
enhance fuel atomization, optimizing ignition quality, volatility
2.6.2. Injection timing and aromatic content of fuel, precise control of injection rate and
To optimize the engine characteristics, various injection stra- injection rate shaping, multiple injections, EGR, variable boost
tegies such as multiple injections, injection angles, and advanced pressure, etc.
injection timings were adopted by many researchers [44,45].
Hereby, the highlight is made on the effects of the advancement
of injection timings on engine operational behavior. 3. Non-conventional IC engines operation
Nwafor et al. [46] presented the effects of advancing injection
timings of a single-cylinder, energy cell (indirect injection) diesel Over the last few decades, intensified efforts by several
engine fueled with crude rapeseed oil. They made a comparable researchers to improve the conventional IC engine performance
assessment on the effects of increasing the injection timings from primarily lead to the development of non-conventional IC engines.
the standard setting of 30 1C BTDC to 33.5 1C BTDC and 35.5 1C Among a number of non-conventional IC engines, the emphasis
BTDC. The test results showed smooth engine operation at 33.5 1C here is on the dual-fuel engine, free-piston engine, gasoline direct
BTDC and rough engine operation during 35.5 1C BTDC. Therefore, injection engine, homogeneous charge compression ignition
it was concluded from the study that the advancement of injection engine, lean-burn engine, and variable compression ratio engine.
timings fundamentally depends on the combustion duration of
particular fuels. In continuity of the above work, Nwafor [47] 3.1. Dual-fuel engine
evaluated the effects of advancing injection timings on engine
emissions using natural gas. The test results showed significant Reiter and Kong [53] investigated the combustion and emission
reductions in Greenhouse gas emissions (CO and CO2) with characteristics of a CI engine using ammonia–diesel dual-fuel
advanced timings. Apart from the experimental evaluations, simu- system. The primary observations exhibited the most encouraging
lation analysis too proved reduction in exhaust emissions at results in terms of fuel economy by using 40–60% concentration of
advanced injection strategies [48]. diesel in ammonia–diesel dual-fuel. Conversely, below 40% unfa-
vorable results were noticed in terms of fuel economy. And, when
the concentration exceeded above 60%, the combustion efficiency
2.6.3. Water emulsion/injection ruined. On the whole, the study suggested the need to impose
To overcome CI engine's shortcomings of poor fuel atomization varied injection strategies to optimize the combustion efficiency of
and high NOx emission, the water injection process in the ammonia–diesel dual-fuel engine.
combustion chamber has been proposed [49,50]. The effects of Furthermore, Selim [54] analyzed the mechanism of combus-
water injection on engine performance dealt in two recent tion noise and its cyclic variations in a single cylinder diesel engine
research works have been discussed in the following paragraphs. using diesel–liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and diesel–methane
A detailed experimental study by Fahd et al. [51] on the effects dual-fuels. The test results indicated higher combustion noise and
of 10% water emulsion in a direct injection diesel engine projected cyclic variations under diesel–LPG dual-fuel combustion than
comparable values of BTE when compared to without emulsion. diesel–methane dual-fuel combustion. Also, by the influence of
Moreover, substantial reductions in NO and CO emissions at various strategies like increasing CR, advancing the injection
maximum load operation were witnessed. Besides water/diesel timing, and by increasing the mass of pilot fuel exhibited an
emulsion technique to suppress NOx emission in CI engine, water analogous trend. However, the combustion noise and its cyclic
injection on the intake manifold or direct injection of water inside variations were drastically reduced with decreasing engine speeds.
the combustion chamber could be employed to lessen NOx Yet another study by Saleh [55] uncovered the effects of varying
emission [52]. In this regard, reports by Tesfa et al. [52] revealed LPG compositions on dual-fuel engine performance and emission
that water injection in the intake manifold would considerably characteristics. The study indicated that dual-fuel comprising 40%
reduce the NOx emission by affecting the premixed combustion mass fraction of diesel fuel with roughly 30% butane content in
temperature, which forms a basis for NOx formation. Furthermore, LPG would improve the engine operating characteristics.
the results proved that the power output and fuel economy were Similarly, Papagiannakis et al. [56] witnessed extensive reduc-
unaltered during water injection. tions in NO and soot emissions by using natural gas/diesel dual-
Based on the above observations, the inferences made by fuel technique. Yet, BTE, CO, and HC trends were greatly affected
researchers on the effects of fundamental design and operating during natural gas/diesel dual-fuel combustion. Also, observations
 A. Alagumalai / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 561–571 565

Table 1
Effects of engine variables on engine performance.

Refs. Test fuel Design consideration Variables Inferences made

treated

[13] Pongamia methyl ester Toroidal combustion Higher BTE (30.3%) with substantial reductions in HC (6%), CO (12%) and smoke density
chamber (20%) when compared to standard engine with diesel operation.
[14] Jatropha Bio-diesel Spherical, toroidal and Higher BTE (33.92%) with reductions in smoke density, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons
re-entrant combustion were witnessed for toroidal combustion chamber.
chambers
[15] Di-methyl ether Combustion chamber Improvement in merit value (136%) was noted during the optimization process
geometry (optimized) from the baseline to the optimized design.
[17] Diesel Divided combustion Enhancement in heat release rate accompanied by high fuel penalty.
chamber
[18] Ethanol/gasoline blend CR Improved engine performance for both fuels throughout all the speed range
and hydrous ethanol at higher compression ratios.
[19] Mahua bio-diesel CR Almost same engine performance as that with diesel at any of the compression ratio.
[20] Bio-diesel blended CR With the increase in CR, BSFC and BTE considerably improved. Also, smoke opacity,
diesel CO and HC emissions reduced with the increase in CR.
[21] Bio-gas CR 10% increase in power output along with reduction in delay period at CR of 15:1.
[22] Methanol CR Improvements in BTE (36%) and engine power (14%) together with considerable reductions
in CO (37%), CO2 (30%) and NOx (22%) emissions by increasing CR from 6:1 to 10:1.
[23] Ethanol–gasoline CR Both the performance and emission characteristics were found to be good at higher
blends compression ratio.
[27] Diesel EGR The most pleasing engine performance in terms of BTE, fuel economy and
emissions were found to be apparent up to 15% EGR rates.
[29] Jojoba methyl ester EGR 50–55% reduction on NOx at higher EGR rates of 25–40%.
[35] Bio-diesel–methanol Air preheating Prospective reductions in HC and CO emissions with sharp increase in NOx emission
blends at an elevated preheat temperature of 85 1C.
[36] Bio-diesel–alcohol – Air preheating Potential reductions in CO and HC emissions due to the effect of intake air preheating.
blends
[37] Jatropha oil – Fuel preheating Substantial reductions in CO2 (5.28%), HC (2.67%) and NOx (37.2%) emissions
with steep raise in CO (85.63%) emission.
[38] Rapeseed oil–diesel Fuel preheating Some positive effects on the engine performance and emissions
blends when the rapeseed oil was heated to 100 1C.
[39] Crude palm oil Fuel preheating Heating of crude palm oil (up to 100 1C) showed no significant advantages in terms of
performance, but was necessary for the fuel to flow smoothly in the fuel system.
[40] Bio-diesel–diesel blends Injection Improvements in HC, CO and smoke opacity with increase in CO2, O2 and
pressure NOx emissions.
[41] Diestrol fuel Injection Significant improvement in performance, combustion and reduction in emission
pressure and characteristics at an optimum injection pressure (240 bar) and injection timing
timings (25.51 bTDC).
[46] Crude rapeseed oil Injection timing Drastic reduction in mechanical efficiency with significant improvements
in CO and CO2 emissions at optimal injection advancements.
[51] Diesel Water emulsion Improvements in fuel economy with diminution of exhaust gas temperature
and NO emission for 10% water emulsion.
[52] Rapeseed oil bio-diesel Water emulsion Without any loss of power and any negative effect on fuel consumption, the water injection
into the intake manifold can be employed to reduce NOx emission (up to 50%).

made by Lakshmanan and Nagarajan [57,58] obviously depicted 3.2. Free-piston engine
that the implementation of port-fuel injection technique under
dual-fuel mode in a direct injection diesel engine, using diesel as The term free-piston has been proposed to distinguish a linear
the primary fuel and acetylene gas as secondary fuel could greatly engine from the rotary shaft engine. In fact, free-piston engines are
reduce the engine-out exhausts, seldom affecting the engine's ‘crank less’ engines, wherein the reciprocating piston is directly
brake thermal efficiency. coupled to a linear load device such as hydraulic pump, so the
The effects of pilot injection timings on engine behavior under piston motion is not restricted by the position of rotating crank-
diesel–compressed natural gas (CNG) dual-fuel mode and bio- shaft as in conventional engines [65]. The recent reports submitted
diesel–CNG dual-fuel mode was assessed by Liu et al. [59] and by some researchers on free-piston engine developments have
Ryu [60]. The test results indicated a 30% reduction in NOx been presented here.
emission with an increase in PM emission during diesel–CNG Xiao et al. [66] studied the motion characteristics of a free-
dual-fuel combustion by raising the pilot fuel quantity. On the piston linear alternator. The study projected that free-piston linear
other hand, marginal reduction in smoke emission and steep rise alternator would be an effective energy conversion device due to
in NOx emission with the advancement of pilot injection timing its continuous power generation with low friction and noise.
was evident from bio-diesel–CNG dual-fuel engine. Additionally, to improve the dynamic performance of the piston
Likewise, investigations of CI engine behavior by bio-diesel– motion and engine compression ratio, the piston motion control
biogas dual-fuel combustion showed significant reductions in soot scheme has to be developed for free-piston IC engines [67].
and NOx emissions together with higher concentration of HC and Furthermore, recent research works on free-piston engines are
CO emissions. Also, superior thermal efficiency by abetting super- focused on the development of hydraulic free-piston engines,
charged mixing system under bio-diesel–biogas dual-fuel techni- because of their potential advantages of simplicity, low frictional
que was apparent [61,62]. In addition to, significant advantages loss, less maintenance cost, and higher operational flexibility [68].
were noted with Greenhouse gas emissions by converting the In this view, an experimental study conducted by Zhao et al. [68]
conventional diesel engine run as a diesel–ethanol dual-fuel proved that hydraulic free-piston engines are competent energy
engine and diesel–hydrogen dual-fuel engine [63,64]. conversion devices with which the maximum indicated thermal
566 A. Alagumalai / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 561–571

Table 2
Operational behavior of non-conventional IC engines.

Engine type Operation

Dual-fuel Dual-fuel engine operates on two fuels. Of which, one is gaseous fuel called primary fuel is either introduced along with intake air or injected directly
engine into the engine cylinder and compressed but does not auto-ignite due to its very high self-ignition temperature. And, the ignition of homogeneous
air–gas mixture is accomplished by timed injection of small quantity of diesel called pilot fuel near the end of the compression stroke [57].
Free-piston Free-piston engines are ‘crank less’ engines, wherein the piston is directly coupled to a linear load device such as hydraulic pump or electric power,
engine so the piston motion is not restricted by the position of rotating crankshaft as in conventional IC engines [65].
GDI engine In a GDI engine, the fuel injection is made directly into the cylinder avoiding the fuel film related problems in the port. The other remarkable
advantages with GDI are the fuel cut-off in deceleration and the cooling of the inducted charge. Also, the evaporation of the fuel droplets cools
the air and this allows higher compression ratios and lowers the octane requirement of fuels. In addition, the volumetric efficiency can be improved
if the injection occurs during the induction event [70].
HCCI engine HCCI engine is a hybrid of conventional SI and CI engines. The HCCI ignition is controlled by the charge mixture composition and its temperature
history. So, HCCI is a capable alternative combustion technology to produce near zero NOx and soot emissions with high fuel efficiency [82].
Lean-burn In lean-burn engine, relative air–fuel ratio used is higher than the stoichiometric requirements. Therefore, lean operation is an attractive operational
engine condition; it is known as one of the techniques to enhance the thermal efficiency, fuel economy, and to decrease exhaust emissions [88].
VCR engine In VCR engine, a relatively high compression ratio is employed for excellent stability at low load operation, and low compression ratio is used at full
load operation to achieve high specific outputs [98].

efficiency (41%) and higher indicated mean effective pressure 3.4. Homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) engine
(5.2 bar) could be obtained by means of a constant volume
combustion process. In addition, there is a necessity to optimize HCCI engines combine the best features of conventional SI and
cycle-to-cycle variations in piston dynamics and cycle stability of CI engines. In HCCI engines, the pre-mixed air–fuel mixture is
hydraulic free-piston engines in future studies [69]. inducted as in conventional SI engine and the auto-ignition
process takes place as in the conventional CI engine. Thus, HCCI
is a promising alternative combustion technology to produce near
zero NOx and soot emissions with high fuel efficiency [76–79].
3.3. Gasoline direct injection (GDI) engine Cinar et al. [80] evaluated the effects of pre-mixed ratio of
di-ethyl ether (DEE) on combustion and exhaust mechanism of a
From the time when cleaner emissions and fuel economy single-cylinder direct injection diesel engine. In their study, the
targets became apparent, the automotive manufacturers' world- pre-mixed fuel–air ratio was varied from 0% to the maximum of
wide focused on the development of a dominant IC engine, which 30%, due the fact that the pre-mixed ratio above 30% resulted in
could offer diesel like efficiency and gasoline specific power. In this audible knock. The experimental outcomes revealed distinct cyclic
view, GDI engines are more attractive, and could serve better in variations with increase in pre-mixed fuel–air ratio. But, with
the place of conventional SI engines. increase in pre-mixed fuel ratio of DEE, the NOx and soot
Apart from visible advantages, there are several constraints emissions drastically decreased.
coupled with the GDI engines operation, however, to be resolved. Overall, in most of the literature works, drastic reduction in
In GDI engines, the fuel injection is made directly into the NOx and soot emissions from the HCCI engine using pre-mixed
combustion chamber, so within this short span of time, the better fuels were confirmed [81,82]. At the same time, experimental
mixture formation and evaporation considerably reduces [70]. study by Wang et al. [83] disclosed negative trends with NOx
In this view, the primary interest of study lies in inspecting the levels with an increase in the DEE ratio in a DEE-diesel dual-fuel
fuel sprays characteristics and atomization performance of GDI pre-mixed charge compression ignition engine. As a result, the
engines. One such investigation was carried out by Park et al. [71]. characteristics of HCCI engines strongly depend on the mode of
Their study was concerned with evaluating the spray behavior and engine operation.
atomization performance of three different fuels, such as neat In most cases, HC and CO emissions greatly suffered during
gasoline, bio-ethanol and bio-ethanol/gasoline blends. Their eva- HCCI operation due to the greater influence of cylinder crevices
luations confirmed that among three test fuels, bio-ethanol had a and local air–fuel equivalence ratio. However, the increasing HC
larger droplet size region than the other two. Thus, the use of bio- and CO emissions during HCCI mode operation could be easily
ethanol/gasoline blends could afford better combustion character- reduced by using direct oxidation catalysts and by the influence of
istics in GDI engines. To visualize this trend, the combustion second fuel injection timings as suggested by Fang et al. [84] and
performance of a GDI engine using gasoline/bio-ethanol blends Turkcan et al. [85].
was inspected by Turner et al. [72]. Their experimental test was Also, to overcome the lack of combustion stability in HCCI
carried out on a direct injection spark ignition engine at part load engines several control strategies could be employed. A recent
and speed conditions. The experimental outcomes revealed report portrayed that the assistance of spark in the HCCI combus-
improvements in engine efficiency and combustion stability with tion process could effectively control cycle-to-cycle variations and
reduced combustion initiation duration due to the fact of higher combustion phasing [86].
flame speeds and advanced combustion.
Furthermore, the spray pattern and mixture preparation play a
foremost role in PM emission from direct injection SI engines 3.5. Lean-burn engine
[73,74]. The preliminary investigation by Myung et al. [75] on the
control of PM emission from direct injection SI engines disclosed The lean-burn engine is one of the advanced technologies to
superior control of PM emission by the optimization of the engine obtain superior fuel efficiency and thermal efficiency. However,
operating variables and fuel injection strategies. Therefore, future lean-burn operation requires effective control of NOx emission and
research and development works have to be concentrated on GDI cycle-to-cycle variations [87,88]. In this regard, various methods to
engines to optimize the engine performance, emission and com- control cyclic variations and NOx emission during the lean-burn
bustion characteristics by controlling engine variables. combustion are discussed below.
 A. Alagumalai / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 561–571 567

Table 3
Pros and cons of non-conventional IC engines.

Engine type Pros Cons

Dual-fuel engine [56,61,62,102] Fuel diversity, clean-fuel burning, diesel-like efficiency and Dual-fuel conversions suffer from major increases in carbon
brake mean effective pressure along with much lower monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbon (HC) emissions and loss of
emissions (especially of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and fuel efficiency at light loads.
particulate matter).
HCCI engine [76,78,103] Improvements in fuel economy and thermal efficiency with Difficult control over combustion with predominantly
significantly lower NOx and soot emissions. higher HC and CO emissions.
GDI engine [70,73,74,104] Accurate control over amount of fuel and injection timings, Difficulty in controlling the stratified charge combustion
which affords better atomization and higher rates of fuel over the required operating range and relatively high light-
vaporization, so, improved fuel economy and improved load UBHC emissions along with high local NOx emission
transient response. under stratified charge operation. Besides, soot formation
for high-load operation and increased particulate emissions
were noticeable.
Free piston engine [68,105] Higher part load efficiency and multi-fuel possibilities due to Loss of engine performance under transient conditions and
combustion optimization flexibility and reduced frictional greater cycle-to-cycle variations.
losses due to mechanical simplicity. In addition, reduced heat
transfer losses and NOx emission due to faster power stoke
expansion.
Lean burn engine [106,107] Fuel flexibility, efficient combustion process and higher Meeting the demands of practical lean combustion systems
power with significant reductions in exhaust emissions. is complicated by low reaction rates, extinction, instabilities,
mild heat release, and sensitivity to mixing.
VCR engine [98,108] Control over engine performance and peak cylinder pressure, Decrease in mechanical efficiency and suitable only
improved cold-start ability, multi-fuel capability, improved for part load operation.
fuel economy and reduction of emissions.

In lean-burn engines when the relative air–fuel ratio increases, Moreover, the combustion instability and substantial increase
the cycle-to-cycle variations exponentially increase. Therefore, in NOx emission at higher CR operation are in need of effective
optimizations of cycle-to-cycle variations are very much important control techniques to optimize the engine characteristics in VCR
to maximize the engine performance during lean-burn combus- engines [101].
tion. One way of controlling cyclic variations in lean-burn SI On the whole, the operational behavior of different non-
engines is by introducing gaseous fuels. Hence gaseous fuels are conventional engines dealt in this article has been keyed out in
clean, economical and abundant fuels that can advance the lean Table 2. Moreover, a detailed analysis on the inherent advantages
operating limits and thus decrease the cyclic variations [88,89]. and disadvantages of various non-conventional engines empha-
And, higher levels of NOx during the lean-burn combustion are sized in this article are discussed in Table 3.
mainly due to high combustion chamber temperature. Huang et al.
[90–96] extensive studies on NOx emission control for lean-burn
engines suggested solid oxide fuel cells and electrochemical- 4. The future of IC engines
catalytic cells to effectively treat NOx emission. Also, NOx emission
from lean-burn engines could be greatly reduced by applying two- “Are engine development opportunities of the future down to
stage combustion system [97]. the wire or up the ante?”
In this ‘viewpoint’, an in-depth analysis of the development
opportunities, as well as future market trend of IC engines is
3.6. Variable compression ratio (VCR) engine discussed in detail in the succeeding paragraphs.

In recent days, the effects of varying CR on engine performance 4.1. Emissions: the technology enforcer
have been extensively studied. This is due to the fact that
operating at different CRs; the engine performance can be opti- Fortunately or unfortunately automobile emissions, drive pre-
mized for a full range of driving conditions [98]. In this perspec- sent day engine technologies. As outlined by National Academy of
tive, the influences of VCR engine on engine operating Sciences, a concept of the standards-setting method for mobile-
characteristics are briefly discussed in the subsequent paragraphs. source emissions is “technology forcing”.
Muralidharan and Vasudevan [99] investigated the impacts of “The technology forcing refers the establishment by a regula-
varying CR on a VCR engine using waste cooking oil methyl esters tory agency of a requirement to achieve an emissions limit, within
and diesel blends. The analysis had been conducted at different a specified time frame, that can be reached through use of
CRs (18:1, 19:1, 20:1, 21:1 and 22:1). The experimental outcomes unspecified technology or technologies that have not yet been
clearly exhibited a proportionate increase in BTE with an increase developed for widespread commercial applications and have been
in CR. And, significant improvements in terms of fuel economy shown to be feasible on an experimental or pilot-demonstration
were also noticed. In addition, enhanced combustion character- basis” [107].
istics were evident for VCR engine fueled with bio-diesel blends Over the last 150 years, human activities are liable for the
operated at higher CR. majority increase in Greenhouse gas emissions [109]. Among the
In a similar way, the engine performance and emission char- other primary sources that contribute to Greenhouse gases, emis-
acteristics of VCR engine fueled with waste cooking oil–bio-diesel sions from burning of fossil fuels need more effective control
blends were modeled using artificial neural network by Shivaku- measures [110]. Year by year, rising global temperatures have been
mar et al. [100]. The test results showed that the relative mean accompanied by dangerous shifts in climate and weather. A recent
error values of the proposed model in terms of performance and report by NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)
emissions were within the acceptable limits. National Climatic Data Center on global climate analysis for the
568 A. Alagumalai / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 561–571

Table 4 Table 5
Total CO2 emissions per country (2012). World Bio-fuels Consumption 2015 and 2030 in Mtoe (million tones of oil
Source: Olivier et al. [112]. equivalent).
Source: Biofuels: policies, standards and technologies. World Energy Council 2010,
Rank (largest emitters) Country CO2 (megatons) obtained from IEA World Energy Outlook, 2006/updated 2009 [117].

1 China 9860 2004 2010 2015 2030

2 US 5190
3 EU 27 3740 OECD n
8.90 30.50 39.00 51.80
4 India 1970 North America 7.00 15.40 20.50 24.20
5 Russian Federation 1770 United States 6.80 14.90 19.80 22.80
6 Japan 1320 Canada 0.10 0.60 0.70 1.30
7 South Korea 640 Europe 2.00 14.80 18.00 26.60
8 Canada 560 Pacific 0.00 0.30 0.40 1.00
9 Mexico 490
10 Indonesia 490
Transition economies 0.00 0.10 0.10 0.30
11 Brazil 460
Russia 0.00 0.10 0.10 0.30
12 Saudi Arabia 460
13 Australia 430
14 Iran 410 Developing countries 6.50 10.90 15.30 40.40
15 South Africa 330 Developing Asia 0.00 1.90 3.70 16.10
16 Ukraine 320 China 0.00 0.70 1.50 7.90
17 Taiwan 280 India 0.00 0.10 0.20 2.40
18 Thailand 260 Indonesia 0.00 0.20 0.40 1.50
Middle East 0.00 0.10 0.10 0.50
Africa 0.00 0.60 1.10 3.40
North Africa 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.60
Latin America 6.40 8.40 10.40 20.30
Brazil 6.40 8.30 10.40 20.30
year 2013 disclosed that the year 2013 (tied with 2003) was
recorded to be the fourth warmest year globally since records World 15.50 41.50 54.40 92.40
began in 1880 [111].
n
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development.
In concurrence, the global CO2 emissions more than doubled
over the last 40 years [112]. Also, in the year 2012, China, the
United States and EU27 were the world's three largest CO2
emitters (Table 4). However, it is anticipated that there would be
a stable decline of emissions, if was recognized that each state faces several issues in implement-
ing a viable bio-fuel market primarily due to climate, economic or
 China achieves its own energy targets for 2015 and 2020. supply security, food-fuel conflicts, and impacts of the bio-fuel
 When the U.S. continues to increase its share of gas and policy on agricultural markets and land use [117–119].
renewables in the energy mix. Despite fragile bio-fuel market of present day, the demand for
 EU by restoring the effectiveness of the Emissions Trading bio-fuels will grow all over the world in near future. For instance,
System [113]. the European Union aims at 10% bio-fuels of the entire road
transport demand by 2020. The majority of bio-fuels will continue
In addition, according to the report on EU, the CO2 reduction to be produced and consumed domestically, although the inter-
target was set at 50% by 2050 and around 20–30% by 2020 [114]. national trade in bio-fuels is also anticipated to extend appreci-
Besides, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has ably. And, bio-ethanol produced from sugar cane will account for
recently finalized tight vehicle and fuel standards (release date: the major share of exports [117].
03/03/2014) to substantially reduce emissions and protect public Also, the ethanol supply and demand outlook reveals that there
health [115]. will be regional inequity that will require trade between the
regions. Specifically, North and Latin America are expected to have
4.2. Bio-fuels: a prudent step a surplus of ethanol production while Asia Pacific and the EU are
expected to rely on imports. Both Africa and the Commonwealth
In fact, bio-fuels would be one of the feasible solutions to cut of Independent States (CIS) should be balanced regions [120].
Greenhouse gas discharges into the air. In this view, the research- A recent study by Hart Energy [120] has forecasted a shortfall of
ers from the Swiss federal institute for materials science and 500 million gallons of ethanol for the EU by 2015 and 140 million
technology have provided a perfect characterization of environ- gallons of ethanol for Japan in 2015. These two regions and
mental benefits and costs of different bio-fuels. The survey countries are estimated to entail Brazilian ethanol for reasons of
disclosed that most bio-fuels considerably reduced the Green- Greenhouse gas savings and sustainability. However, Brazilian
house emissions when compared to fossil fuels. Also, the survey ethanol exports are not expected to arrive at that level in 2015.
exposed that the fuels which showed over 50% reduction in Overall, the technology is a key component to enhance bio-energy
Greenhouse gases when compared with fossil fuels were bio- production and increase the output without adverse economic and
diesel prepared from several sources [116]. And, according to the environmental implications.
estimate of The International Energy Agency (IEA), world bio-fuels Although the engine development opportunities of the future
consumption would annually increase at an average pace of 7%, are not substantial due to the economic and environmental
which intends that by 2030 bio-fuels would account for approxi- consequences, as well as the likely future opportunities in electric
mately 5% of the total road transport [117]. Also, the projected powertrains which would someday eventually replace IC engines.
world bio-fuels consumption up to 2015 and 2030 is presented in Nevertheless, the present day research and development activities
Table 5. One could comprehend from the table that there would be can be centered on substantially reducing the emissions from
tripling of the world bio-fuels production from 16 Mtoe in 2004 to automobile sources so as to safeguard the human race from the
almost 55 Mtoe in 2015 and over 90 Mtoe in 2030. Contrariwise, it contrary effects of pollution.
 A. Alagumalai / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 561–571 569

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