LECTURE 1

MEC 3302

SOLID MECHANICS/MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

By
Abdul Azeez A. Aliyu Garo, Ph.D, MNSE

Presented to: Level 300 Mechanical/Automobile Engineering Students

Bayero University Kano, Nigeria

Presentation Date: 15.02.2024 1
 COURSE CONTENT
2

 Complex systems for stress and strain

 Thermal effects and combined stresses
 Mohr's circle for stress and strain
 Theories of Elastic Failure
 Thick cylinders; Lame's Theory; Force fits; compound cylinders
 Bending of thick curved beams; the Winkler Theory
 Unsymmetrical bending. Composite beams.
 Force analysis of statically indeterminate beams
 Column and beam-column theory; Euler columns and real columns
 Introduction to energy methods of structural analysis, complementary energy, and strain
energy.
 Castigliano's and Engesser's theorems; the theorem of stationary complementary
energy; potential energy; stationary potential energy; Rayleigh-Ritz method;
approximate methods of solution
 BOOKS FOR REFERENCE
3

 Mechanics of Materials, by E.P.Popov

 Mechanics of Materials, by E J Hearn
 Strength of Materials, by Beer and Johnston
 Strength of Materials, by F L Singer & Andrew Pytel
 Strength of Materials, by B.S. Basavarajaiah & P. Mahadevappa
 Strength of Materials, by Ramamruthum
 Strength of Materials, by S S Bhavikatti
 INTRODUCTION
4

The subject; solid mechanics deals with the relations between externally
applied loads and their internal effects on bodies. The bodies are no longer
assumed to be rigid and the deformations, however small, are of major interest

The subject, solid mechanics or mechanics of materials involves analytical

methods for determining the strength, stiffness (deformation characteristics),
and stability of various load-carrying members.

Alternatively, the subject may be called the mechanics of solids, Strength of

Materials, Solids, Strengths, Deformable bodies, Mechanics II.
 BRANCHES OF MECHANICS
5

Engineering Mechanics

Mechanics of Solids Mechanics of Fluids

Rigid Deformable Ideal Viscous Compressible

Bodies Bodies Fluids Fluids Fluids

Dynamics Strength of Materials

Statics Theory of Elasticity

Theory of Plasticity
 INTRODUCTION
6

Why do we study Mechanics of Materials?

 INTRODUCTION
7

Why do we study Mechanics of Materials?

While a structure may still be intact, it could
 Account for deformation and the potential for be viewed as having failed if there is a
failure when designing systems subjected to forces. permanent deformation. A bicycle that has
deformed this much is unlikely to be useful

 In most situations, try to avoid failure and keep

deformations within acceptable limits.
Some products must deform to carry out their
function. They are designed to have a desired
 Deformation is desirable in some situations where it relation between the deformation and the
acting forces. For example, such products
depends predictably on the forces. include pole vaults that flex to temporarily
store energy that later propels the vaulter,

 Occasionally, failure is desirable, if it occurs at a

reproducible level of load.
For the transmission shaft in a drive train, such a system that
protects the shaft is called a torque fuse. Just as an old-fashioned
electric fuse breaks when the current is too high, the pins in the
torque fuse break when the torque is too high.
 GENERAL CONCEPTS
8

STRESS
No engineering material is perfectly rigid and hence, when a material is
subjected to external load, it undergoes deformation.

While undergoing deformation, the particles of the material offer a resisting

force (internal force). When this resisting force equals applied load the
equilibrium condition exists and hence the deformation stops.

These internal forces maintain the externally applied forces in equilibrium.

 GENERAL CONCEPTS
9

STRESS
No engineering material is perfectly rigid and hence, when a material is
subjected to external load, it undergoes deformation.

While undergoing deformation, the particles of the material offer a resisting

force (internal force). When this resisting force equals applied load the
equilibrium condition exists and hence the deformation stops.

These internal forces maintain the externally applied forces in equilibrium.

The internal force resisting the deformation per unit area is called as stress or
intensity of stress.
 GENERAL CONCEPTS
10

Stress = internal resisting force / resisting cross sectional area

= R/A (unit: N⁄m2 or Pa)
Consider a uniform bar of cross-sectional area A, subjected to a
tensile force P.
Consider a section AB normal to the direction of force P
Let R is the total resisting force acting on the cross-section AB.
Then for the equilibrium condition,
R=P

Then from the definition of stress,

normal stress = σ = R/A = P/A
 GENERAL CONCEPTS
11

STRAIN
When a load acts on the material it will undergo deformation. Strain is a
measure of deformation produced by the application of external forces.

If a bar is subjected to a direct load, and hence a stress, the bar will change in
length. If the bar has an original length L and change in length by an amount
δL, the linear strain produced is defined as,

δL Change in length
Linear strain, ε= =
L Original length

Strain is a dimension less quantity.

 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
12

STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIP
In order to compare the strength of various materials it is necessary to carry out
some standard form of test to establish their relative properties.
 One such test is the standard tensile test in which a circular bar of uniform
cross section is subjected to a gradually increasing tensile load until failure
occurs.
 Measurement of change in length over a selected gauge length of the bar are
recorded throughout the loading operation by means of extensometers.
A graph of load verses extension or stress against strain is drawn as shown in
figure.
 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
13

STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIP
Limit of Proportionality :
From the origin O to a point called proportionality limit the stress strain
diagram is a straight line. That is stress is proportional to strain. Hence
proportional limit is the maximum stress up to which the stress – strain
relationship is a straight line and material behaves elastically.

Proportionality limit From this we deduce the well-known relation, first postulated by
Robert Hooke in 1678, that stress is proportional to strain.

Beyond this point, the stress is no longer proportional to strain

PP Load at propotional limit

σP = =
Typical tensile test curve for mild steel A Cross − sectional area
 COMPLEX STRESSES
14

• The state of stress on any plane in a strained body is said to be ‘Complex or Compound Stress’,
if, both Normal and Shear stresses are acting on that plane. For, example, the state of stress on
any vertical plane of a beam subjected to transverse loads will, in general, be a Compound
Stress.
• In actual practice the state of Compound Stress is of more common occurrence than Simple state
of stress.

In a compound state of stress, the normal and shear stress may have a greater magnitude on some
planes which are inclined (or, Oblique) to the given stress plane. Hence it is necessary, in a
compound state of stresses, to find:
I. The normal and shear stress on a plane which is inclined (or, Oblique) to the given stress plane
II. The inclination of max. and min. normal stress planes and the values of the normal stress (max. /
min.) on them
III. The inclination of max. shear stress planes and the values of the shear stress (max.) on them.
 COMPLEX STRESSES
15

TYPES OF STRESSES
Only two basic stresses exists Uniaxial state of stress
 normal stress
 shear stress.
Other stresses either are similar to these basic stresses or are a
combination of these e.g. bending stress is a combination of tensile,
compressive and shear stresses. Torsional stress, as encountered in
twisting of a shaft is a shearing stress.

Normal stresses : If the stresses are normal to the areas concerned,

then these are termed as normal stresses. The normal stresses are
Normal stresses
generally denoted by a Greek letter (σ)

Shear stresses : Where the cross-sectional area of a block of material

is subjected to a distribution of forces which are parallel, rather than
Shear stresses
normal, to the area concerned. Such forces are associated with a
shearing of the material, and are referred to as shear forces.
 COMPLEX STRESSES
16

In actual Engineering problems combination of stresses will act. The member may be
subjected to direct stresses in different directions. The shear stresses (direct or due to
torsion) may also act. A beam is always under bending and shear. A shaft may be under
torque, bending and direct forces.

Three-dimensional stress system

 PLANE STRESS
17

A state of stress is said to be a plane state of stress when there is no stress in any one
direction or plane. If we consider no stress in the z-direction, the plane stress condition
exists. So setting the stresses in the z-direction or z-plane zero, the state of stress will
become plane stress.

Two-dimensional stress system (plane stress system)

 STRESS ON INCLINED PLANE
18

(i) Normal & Shear stress on plane inclined (Oblique) to given stress plane:
 Consider a bar subjected to biaxial load as shown. The stresses on an element, located at an angle θ
to one of the loading axis i.e. normal and shear stress acting on a plane inclined at an angle θ with
respect to the x-axis can be determined.
 The ABCD is a plane subjected to biaxial stresses.
 Let EF be an oblique plane inclined at an angle θ to the x-axis.
 STRESS ON INCLINED PLANE
19

The forces acting on the element EFG: 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥 sin 𝜃𝜃

𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥 cos 𝜃𝜃

𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥′

𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥 ′𝑦𝑦𝑦 cos 𝜃𝜃

𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥

𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥 ′𝑦𝑦𝑦
𝜏𝜏
𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦
 SIGN CONVENTION
20

σx  Normal Stress in x- direction

σy  Normal Stress in y- direction
τ Shear Stresses in x & y – directions
θ  Angle made by inclined plane wrt vertical σnn
σnn Normal Stress on inclined plane AE
τns Shear Stress on inclined plane AE
All the parameters are shown in their +ve sense in the Fig.

Normal stresses, σ  Tensile stresses +ve.

Shear Stresses, τ, in x – direction & Inclined Plane  Clockwise +ve.
Shear Stresses, τ, in y – direction  Anti-Clockwise +ve.
Angle, θ  measured wrt vertical, Anti-Clockwise +ve.
 STRESS ON INCLINED PLANE
21

Resolving the forces in the x-direction, we can write the equilibrium condition as
� 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = 0
𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥 cos 𝜃𝜃 x 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 − 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥 ′𝑦𝑦𝑦 sin 𝜃𝜃 x 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 − 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 x 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 − 𝜏𝜏 x 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = 0

𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥 cos 𝜃𝜃 x 𝐴𝐴 − 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥 ′𝑦𝑦𝑦 sin 𝜃𝜃 x 𝐴𝐴 − 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 x 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜃𝜃 − 𝜏𝜏 x 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝜃𝜃 = 0

𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥 cos 𝜃𝜃 − 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝑦𝑦𝑦 sin 𝜃𝜃 − 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 cos 𝜃𝜃 − 𝜏𝜏 sin 𝜃𝜃 = 0

� 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = 0
𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥 sin 𝜃𝜃 x 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 + 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥 ′𝑦𝑦𝑦 cos 𝜃𝜃 x 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 − 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 x 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 − 𝜏𝜏 x 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 0
 STRESS ON INCLINED PLANE
22

𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥 sin 𝜃𝜃 x 𝐴𝐴 + 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝑦𝑦𝑦 cos 𝜃𝜃 x 𝐴𝐴 − 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 x 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝜃𝜃 − 𝜏𝜏 x 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜃𝜃 = 0

𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥 sin 𝜃𝜃 + 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥 ′𝑦𝑦𝑦 cos 𝜃𝜃 − 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 sin 𝜃𝜃 − 𝜏𝜏 cos 𝜃𝜃 = 0

2 2
𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 sin 𝜃𝜃 + 𝜏𝜏 sin 2𝜃𝜃
 STRESS ON INCLINED PLANE
23

σ x +σ y   σ x −σ y 
σ θ =
𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥   +   cos 2θ + τ sin 2θ − − − (1) 1
 2   2 
𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥

𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 sin2 𝜃𝜃 + 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 cos 2 𝜃𝜃 − 𝜏𝜏 sin 2𝜃𝜃

σ x +σ y   σ x −σ y 
σ θ =
𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦𝑦   −
+   cos 2θ +
−τ sin 2θ − − − ((2)
1) 2
 2   2 
𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥

 σ x −σ y 
𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥 ′τ𝑦𝑦𝑦θ =   sin 2θ − τ cos 2θ − − − ((3)
2) 3
 2 
N/B 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 ′ + 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦′ = 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦
 PRINCIPAL PLANES/STRESSES
24
(ii) The inclination of max. and min. normal stress planes and the values of the
normal stress (max. / min.) on them
Let, θP be the inclination of the plane of max. or min. normal stress and σP be the value of the max. or
min. normal stress on that plane, then, from Eqn. (1):
Thus, the condition for max. or min. normal
stress to occur on a plane is, shear stress on that
σ x +σ y   σ x −σ y  plane should be zero. These planes on which
σ P =   +   cos 2θ P + τ sin 2θ P - - - (1)
(1) shear stress is zero and the normal stress on
 2   2  them being either the max. or the min. are
dσ P called ‘PRINCIPAL PLANES’.
For σ P to be max. or min., =0
dθ
 σ x −σ y 
⇒  (− 2 sin 2θ P ) + τ (2 cos 2θ P ) = 0
 2 
 σ x −σ y 
⇒  (sin 2θ P ) − τ (cos 2θ P ) = 0 (4) (5)
 2 
⇒ τθP = 0
 PRINCIPAL PLANES/STRESSES
25

 The above Eqn. (3), gives two values for θP, which differ by 900. Thus, there
are two mutually perpendicular Principal planes, on which there are only
normal stresses, shear stress being zero on them.

 On one of them, the value of the normal stress is the max.; it is called the ‘Major
Principal plane’, the max. normal stress on it is called the ‘Major Principal Stress’.

 On the other principal plane, the value of the normal stress is the min.; it is called the
‘Minor Principal plane’, the min. normal stress on it is called the ‘Minor Principal
Stress’.
 PRINCIPAL PLANES/STRESSES
26
τ
From tan 2θ P = , we get,
 σ x −σ y 
 
2 Above 4 equations gives two
 
values for principal stresses. The
τ numerically max. of the two
sin 2θ P = ±
2
 (σ 1 − σ 2 )  values (+ ve or − ve) is the Major
  + τ 2
Principal Stress, (σMajor or σMax)
2
and the numerically min. (+ ve or
cos 2θ P = ±
(σ 1 − σ 2 ) / 2 − ve) is the Minor Principal
 (σ 1 − σ 2 ) 
2
Stress (σMinor or σMin) .
  + τ 2

Substituting for sin 2θP and cos 2θP in Eqn. (1), we get the equation for
principal stresses as:
σP =
(σ x +σ y )
±
 σ x −σ y

2

 + τ 2
− − − (4 )
(6)
2  2 
 PRINCIPAL PLANES/STRESSES
27
(iii) Inclination of max. shear stress planes, Max. shear stress Equation.
Let, θS be the inclination of the plane of max. or min. shear stress and τS be the value of the max. or
min. shear stress on that plane, then, from Eqn. (3):
 σ x −σ y  Eqn. (7) gives two values for θS,
τS =   sin 2θ S − τ cos 2θ S − − − ((3)
2)
 2  which differ by 900. Thus, there are
dτ S two mutually perpendicular planes,
For τ S to be max. or min., =0 on which shear stress are max.;
dθ S
numerically equal but opposite in
 σ x −σ y  sense.
⇒  (2 cos 2θ S ) − τ (− 2 sin 2θ S ) = 0
 2  The planes of Max. Shear stresses
 σ x −σ y  are inclined at 450 to the Principal
 
 planes.
 2 
⇒ tan 2θ S = − (7)
- - - (5)
τ
NOTE : We have tan 2θ P × tan 2θ S = −1
 PRINCIPAL PLANES/STRESSES
28
 σ x −σ y 
 
 2  , we get,
From tan 2θ S = −
τ
τ
cos 2θ s = ±
2
 (σ 1 − σ 2 ) 
  + τ 2

sin 2θ S = ±
(σ 1 − σ 2 ) / 2
2
 (σ 1 − σ 2 ) 
  + τ 2

Substituting for sin 2θS and cos 2θS in Eqn. (3), we get the equation for Max. shear stresses as:

 σ x −σ y 
2 
τ max . = ±   + τ 2  Equation (8) gives two values for Max.
 2   − − − ((8)
6) shear stresses, which are numerically
 equal but opposite in sense.
⇒ τ max . = ± σ Major − σ Minor 
 PRINCIPAL PLANES/STRESSES
29
SUMMARY: NOTATIONS AND EQUATIONS
Normal Stress, 𝜎𝜎 σ𝑥𝑥𝑥
θ, and Shear stress,𝜏𝜏τ , on inclined plane are given by:
𝑥𝑥θ′ 𝑦𝑦𝑦

 σ x +σ y   σ x −σ y  Inclination of Principal planes θP .

σ𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥
θ =
  +   cos 2θ + τ sin 2θ − − − (1) There are two mutually perpendicular
 2   2  Principal planes
 σ x −σ y  τ
tan 2θ P = - - - - (5)
(3)
𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥τ θ = 
′ 𝑦𝑦𝑦
  sin 2θ − τ cos 2θ − − − ((3)
 2)  σ x −σ y 
 2   
 2 
The equation for Principal
σP =
(σ x +σ y )
±
 σ x −σ y


2

 + τ 2 − − − (6)
( 4)
stresses are: 2  2   σ x −σ y 
 
Inclination of Max. shear stress 2
planes θS = θP + 450. Also, 2  tan 2θ S = −  (7)
 - - - - (5)
 σ x −σ y   τ
given by Eqn (7). The two τ max . = ±   + τ 2
mutually perpendicular Max.  2   − − −(8)
( 6)

shear stress planes have equal ⇒ τ ± σ Major − σ Minor
max . = 
& opposite shear stresses.
 EXAMPLES
30

1]. The state of stress at a point in a strained material is shown in Fig.

(i) Locate the principal planes and find the principal stresses,
(ii) Locate the Max. shear stress planes and find the max. shear stress.

Solution
Inclination of Principal planes θP wrt Vertical :
τ 30
tan 2θ P = =
 σ x −σ y   80 − (−32) 
   
 2   2 
⇒ 2θ P = 28.180 or, θ P = 14.09 0 & 104.09 0.
σP =
(σ x +σ y )
±
 σ x −σ y


2

 + τ 2
2  2 

Principal stresses, σP : (80 + ( −32) ) 80 − ( −32)  2

2

⇒ ±  + 30
2  2 
⇒ + 87.53MPa (T); - 39.53 MPa (C)
 EXAMPLES
31
Que. 1 cont.….
Inclination of Max. shear stress planes θS = θP + 450.
θS = 14.090+ 450 = 59.090 &149.090. (wrt Vertical)

Max. shear stress τmax :

τ max . = ± σ Major − σ Minor
⇒ ± 87.53 − ( −39.53) = ± 63.53 MPa.

2]. The state of stress at a point in an elastic material is shown in Fig.

Find the resultant stress on a plane AE inclined at 550 to horizontal.
Solution
Shear stress τ = 60 sin 20 = 20.52 Mpa
Normal stress σx = 60 cos 20 = 56.38 Mpa
Inclination of AE wrt Vertical θ = 90 – 55 = 350
 EXAMPLES
32
Que. 2 cont.….
Normal Stress, 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥 , and Shear stress, 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥 ′𝑦𝑦𝑦 , on inclined plane AE:
 σ x +σ y   σ x −σ y 
𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥
σ θ =   +   cos 2θ + τ sin 2θ
 2   2 
 56.38 − 40   56.38 − (−40) 
⇒ +  cos(2 × 35) + 20.52 sin( 2 × 35)
 2   2 
⇒ + 43.95 MPa (T)
Resultant stress, f𝑅𝑅θ and its inclination α :

𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥 ′τ𝑦𝑦𝑦θ =  σ x −σ y 
 sin 2θ − τ cos 2θ 2 2 2 2

 2 
𝑅𝑅fθ== 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥
σ θ+ +𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥τ′𝑦𝑦𝑦
θ = (43.95)2
+ (38.26 )
2

 56.38 − ( −40)  fθ = 58.27 MPa.

⇒ 𝑅𝑅
⇒  sin( 2 × 35) − 20.52 cos(2 × 35)
 2 
𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥τ′𝑦𝑦𝑦   38.26 
⇒ + 38.26 MPa (Clockwise) α =−1
tan 
𝜎𝜎σ  = tan  43.95 
−1 −1
𝛼𝛼 = tan θ

 𝑥𝑥𝑥θ 
⇒ α = 41.040
 EXAMPLES
33

3]. The principal stresses at a point in a strained material are 80 MPa and 40 MPa both tensile. Find
the normal, tangential and resultant stress on a plane inclined at 500 to the major principal plane.
Since σx and σy are principal stresses, the shear
stress, i.e, τ, on their planes is zero.
Normal Stress, 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥 , and Shear stress, 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥 ′𝑦𝑦𝑦 ,
on plane inclined at θ = 500 to plane of σx :
 σ x +σ y   σ x −σ y 
𝜎𝜎σ𝑥𝑥𝑥θ =   +   cos 2θ + τ sin 2θ
 2   2 
 80 + 40   80 − 40   σ x −σ y 
⇒ +  cos(2 × 50) + 0
 2   2  𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥 ′τ𝑦𝑦𝑦θ =   sin 2θ − τ cos 2θ
 2 
⇒ + 56.53 MPa (T)
 80 − 40 
⇒  sin( 2 × 50) − 0 ⇒ + 19.68 MPa (Clockwise)
 2 
 EXAMPLES
34
Que. 3 cont.….
Resultant stress, 𝑅𝑅fθ and its inclination α :
𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥τ′θ𝑦𝑦𝑦 −1  19.68 
fθ ==
𝑅𝑅 σ+
2
𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥
2
+𝑥𝑥 ′τ𝑦𝑦𝑦θ
θ 𝜏𝜏
2 2
= (56.53) 2
+ (19.68)
2
= tan   = tan 
α tan
𝛼𝛼 = −1−1 
σ𝑥𝑥𝑥θ 
 𝜎𝜎  56.53 
⇒ f𝑅𝑅θ = 59.86 MPa.
⇒ α = 19.19 0

4]. At a certain point in a shaft, the normal stresses across two planes at right angles to each other
are 60 MPa (C) and 40 MPa (T). The major principal stress is known to be 150 MPa (C). Find the
shear stresses on the two said planes.

σ major =
(σ x +σ y )
±
 σ x −σ y


2

 + τ 2
2  2 
(− 60 + 40 )  − 60 − 40 
2

 +τ
2
⇒ −150 = − 
2  2 
∴τ = ± 130.77 MPa.
 EXAMPLES
35
5]. A 50mm×100mm tie member of a timber truss has a glued joint (shown in Fig.) at an inclination
of 400 to the longitudinal axis. If it is subjected to an axial force of 200 kN, check whether there is a
risk of failure. The permissible normal and shear stress for the joint are 25 MPa and 16 MPa
respectively.
3 ⁄
Normal Stress 𝑥𝑥𝜎𝜎 = (200 x 10 ) (50 x 100)
σx = 40 MPa (T)
Normal Stress, 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥 , and Shear stress, 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥 ′𝑦𝑦𝑦 ,
on plane AE inclined at θ = 500 to vert. plane :
 σ x +σ y   σ x −σ y 
𝜎𝜎σ𝑥𝑥𝑥θ =   +   cos 2θ + τ sin 2θ
 2   2 
 40   40 
⇒   +   cos(2 × 50) + 0 ⇒ + 16.5 MPa (T)
 2   2 
 σ x −σ y 
𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥τ′θ𝑦𝑦𝑦 =   sin 2θ − τ cos 2θ
 2  𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥 ′𝑦𝑦𝑦
τθ > 16 MPa,
 40  There is a risk of failure.
⇒  sin( 2 × 50) − 0 ⇒ + 19.68 MPa (Clockwise)
 2 
 EXAMPLES
36
6]. Determine the max. safe uni-axial force that a strut of C/S area 60 ×103 mm2 can carry safely, if,
permissible normal and shear stress are 25 MPa and 12.5 MPa respectively, on a critical plane (shown
in Fig.) inclined at 300 to the vertical.
Let P be the max. safe load and σx be the stress under the load P.
Normal Stress, 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥 , and Shear stress, 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥 ′𝑦𝑦𝑦 ,
on plane AE inclined at θ = 300 to vert. :
 σ x +σ y   σ x −σ y 
𝜎𝜎σ𝑥𝑥𝑥θ =   +   cos 2θ + τ sin 2θ
 2   2 
 −σ x   −σ x 
⇒ −25 =  +  cos(2 × −30) + 0
 2   2 
⇒ σ x = + 33.33 MPa - - - - (1) From (1) and (2),
max. safe σx = 28.87 MPa
 σ x −σ y 
𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥τ′𝑦𝑦𝑦
θ = 
  sin 2θ − τ cos 2θ
 2  P = σx × a => 28.87 × 60 ×103
 −σ x  P = 1732.2 ×103 N = 1732.2 kN
12.5 =   sin( 2 × −30) − 0 ⇒ σ x = 28.87 MPa - -(2)
 2 
 MOHR’S CIRCLE METHOD
37

 It is a geometrical method to determine the normal and shear stresses on an inclined plane without
using the stress transformation equations
 It was developed by a German Engineer Otto Mohr

Uses and significances of Mohr's circle

 By drawing a single mohr’s circle, we can easily find normal and shear stresses at various
inclined oblique planes which is difficult by using the analytical method.
 By using mohr’s circle, it is easy to calculate principal stresses, maximum shear stress,
resultant stress, principal plane angle, etc.
 The method of mohr’s circle is a simple and faster method than the analytical method.
 MORH’S CIRCLE METHOD
38

Sign Convention and Key point

For Shear Stress For Normal Stress
𝜏𝜏
Tension

– 𝜏𝜏 + 𝜏𝜏 𝜎𝜎 + 𝜎𝜎

𝜏𝜏
𝜏𝜏 Compressive

+ 𝜏𝜏 – 𝜏𝜏 𝜎𝜎 – 𝜎𝜎
 MORH’S CIRCLE METHOD
39

Sign Convention and Key point

For oblique angle
 If the angle is measured in a clockwise direction from the reference plane then
it is considered as positive.
 If the angle is measured in an anticlockwise direction from the reference plane
then it is considered as negative.
 MORH’S CIRCLE METHOD
40

How to identify the reference plane?

The plane which has maximum axial stress is considered as a

reference plane.
 If σx > σy then vertical plane is considered as reference plane.

 If σy> σx then horizontal plane is considered as reference plane.

 MORH’S CIRCLE
41

Mohr’s circle applied to two mutually perpendicular direct normal and shear stresses:

Step 1. Draw, the vertical and horizontal axis with normal stress
(σn) as abscissa and shear stress (τ) as ordinate with the suitable
scale.
Step 2. Locate plane A on σn – τ plot.
 First locate σx on σn axis. If the σx is tensile then locate it on
positive σn axis from origin. And if the σx is compressive then locate
it on negative σn axis from origin.
From the endpoint of the σx, draw τxy in the vertical direction. If the nature
of τxy is clockwise, then draw it in positive τ direction and if anticlockwise then
draw it in negative τ direction.
For the given example, plane A is located as A (+ σx, + τxy), as shown in the
below figure.
 MORH’S CIRCLE METHOD
42

The steps to draw the Mohr’s circle from the normal and shear stresses:
Step 3. Locate plane B on σn – τ plot.
 Similarly, plot the plane B on σn – τ plot.
For the given example, plane B is located as B(σy, -τyx).

Step 4. Join points A and B.

Step 5. Draw a circle with radius AC or BC with
C as the center of the circle.

In this figure, point A indicates plane

A while point B indicates plane B.
 MORH’S CIRCLE METHOD
43

What are the principal stresses on a Mohr’s circle?

 The principal stresses are the normal stresses when the value
of shear stress (τ) is zero. On the Mohr’s circle, there are two
points that are ‘F’ and ‘G’.
Therefore, the major principal stress is,
 σ1 = Distance OF
And the minor principal stress is,
 σ2 = Distance OG
 MORH’S CIRCLE METHOD
44

Maximum shear stress from Mohr’s circle

 The magnitude of maximum shear stress (τmax) is equal to the radius
of mohr’s circle in the vertical direction.
 To find maximum shear stress from Mohr’s circle, follow the steps
given below:-

1] Draw a perpendicular line from the center ‘C’ of Mohr’s circle to

meet the Mohr’s circle.

2] Find the value of shear stress at the point where the perpendicular
line meets the Mohr’s circle.
Or by using principal stresses, the maximum shear stress can be
calculated as,
τmax = σ1−σ2
 MORH’S CIRCLE METHOD
45

Mohr’s circle applied to two stresses oriented at an angle θp

Consider a square element of a material subjected to
plane stress shown in the Fig., and let σx, σy and τxy be the
components of the stress exerted on the element

The direction of rotation of Ox

to Oa is the same as CX to CA.
 MORH’S CIRCLE METHOD
46

Mohr’s circle applied to two stresses oriented at an angle θp

 With Mohr’s circle uniquely defined, the state of

stress at other axes orientations may be depicted.

 For the state of stress at an angle q with respect

to the xy axes, construct a new diameter X’Y’ at
an angle 2q with respect to XY.

 Normal and shear stresses are obtained from the

coordinates X’Y’.
 MORH’S CIRCLE EXAMPLE
47

Example 1: For the given stress condition, σx = 100 MPa

find the principal stresses by using Mohr’s σy = 40 MPa
circle method. τxy = 20 MPa (Clockwise)
τyx = -20 MPa
Solution (Anticlockwise)
1] Draw σn and τ axis with suitable scale.
2] Plot plane ‘A’ with coordinates of A(100, 20).
3] Plot plane ‘B’ with coordinates of B(40, -20).
4] Join points ‘A’ and ‘B’. Therefore, from above
5] The line AB intersects the σn axis at point ‘C’.
Mohr’s circle, principal
stresses are,
6] Draw a circle with ‘C’ as the origin and ‘AC’ σ1 = OF = 106.05 MPa
as radius.
σ2 = OG = 33.95 MPa
7] Measure distance ‘OG’ and ‘OF’
As, σ1 = OF and σ2 = OG
 MORH’S CIRCLE ORIENTENTED AT AN ANGLE
48

Example 2: For the state of plane stress shown,

(a)construct Mohr’s circle, determine
(b)the principal planes,
(c) the principal stresses,
(d)the maximum shearing stress and the corresponding
normal stress.

SOLUTION:
• Construction of Mohr’s circle

σ ave =
σx +σ y
=
(50 ) + (− 10 )
= 20 MPa
2 2
CF = 50 − 20 = 30 MPa FX = 40 MPa
R = CX = (30)2 + (40)2 = 50 MPa
 MORH’S CIRCLE ORIENTENTED AT AN ANGLE
49

• Principal planes and stresses

σ max = OA = OC + CA = 20 + 50
σ max = 70 MPa

σ min = OB = OC − BC = 20 − 50

σ min = −30 MPa

FX 40
tan 2θ p = =
CP 30
2θ p = 53.1°

θ p = 26.6°
 MORH’S CIRCLE ORIENTENTED AT AN ANGLE
50

• Maximum shear stress

θ s = θ p + 45°
θ s = 71.6°
τ max = R
τ max = 50 MPa
σ ′ = σ ave
σ ′ = 20 MPa
 MORH’S CIRCLE ORIENTENTED AT AN ANGLE
51

Assignment 1
For the state of stress shown in beside Figure. Draw the
Mohr’s circle and determine:
(a) the principal planes and the principal stresses,
(b) the stress components exerted on the element obtained by
rotating the given element counterclockwise through 30
degrees.

Submit to [email protected] before next class.

 HOOKE’S LAW FOR PLANE STRESS
52

 The stress transformation equations derived in STRESS IN ONE DIRECTION

those discussions were obtained solely from
equilibrium, so the properties of the materials
were not needed.
 In this section, the strains in the material are
investigated, which means that the material Simple stress
properties must be considered. 𝜎𝜎 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
 The discussion is limited to materials that meet Poison’s ratio
two important conditions 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜀𝜀𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙.
𝜐𝜐 = − =
1) The material is uniform throughout the body and 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜀𝜀𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙.
has the same properties in all directions
Shear strain
(homogeneous and isotropic material)
𝜏𝜏 = 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
2) The material follows Hooke’s law (linearly
elastic material). 𝐺𝐺 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝛾𝛾 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 𝜏𝜏 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
 GENERALIZED HOOKE’S LAW (3D)
53

Generalized Hooke’s law

𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥
𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 = 𝐸𝐸𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 =
𝐸𝐸
𝜐𝜐
𝜀𝜀𝑦𝑦 = −𝜐𝜐𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 = − 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥
𝐸𝐸
𝜐𝜐
𝜀𝜀𝑧𝑧 = −𝜐𝜐𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 = − 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥
𝐸𝐸
𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦
𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 = 𝐸𝐸𝜀𝜀𝑦𝑦 ⇒ 𝜀𝜀𝑦𝑦 =
𝐸𝐸
𝜐𝜐
𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 = 𝜀𝜀𝑧𝑧 = − 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦
𝐸𝐸
𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧
𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 𝐸𝐸𝜀𝜀𝑧𝑧 ⇒ 𝜀𝜀𝑧𝑧 =
𝐸𝐸
𝜐𝜐
𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 = 𝜀𝜀𝑦𝑦 = − 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧
𝐸𝐸
 SPACIAL CASE HOOKE’S LAW (2D)
54
When one of the axes Formulars for calculating Formulars for calculating
strain from stress stress from strain
is zero

When the thickness is unlimited

 TRANSFORMATION OF PLANE STRAIN
55
 TRANSFORMATION OF PLANE STRAIN
56
 State of strain at the point Q results in
different strain components wrt the xy
and x’y’ reference frames.
Q . Q . ε (θ ) = ε x cos 2 θ + ε y sin 2 θ + γ xy sin θ cosθ

ε OB = ε (45°) = 12 (ε x + ε y + γ xy )
O O
γ xy = 2ε OB − (ε x + ε y )
εx + ε y εx − ε y γ xy
ε x′ = + cos 2θ + sin 2θ
2 2 2
εx + ε y εx − ε y γ xy
 Applying the trigonometric relations used for ε y′ = − cos 2θ − sin 2θ
the transformation of stress, 2 2 2
γ x′y′ εx − ε y γ xy
=− sin 2θ + cos 2θ
2 2 2
 TRANSFORMATION OF PLANE STRAIN
57
 MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRAIN
58

 The equations for the transformation of plane strain are

of the same form as the equations for the transformation
of plane stress - Mohr’s circle techniques apply.
 Abscissa for the center C and radius R ,
2 2
εx + ε y  ε x − ε y   γ xy 
ε ave = R =   +  
2  2   2 
 Principal axes of strain and principal strains,
γ xy
tan 2θ p =
εx − ε y
ε max = ε ave + R ε min = ε ave − R γp = 0
 Maximum in-plane shearing strain,
γ max = 2 R = (ε x − ε y )
2 2
+ γ xy
 EXAMPLES PLANE STRAIN
59

Example 1: For an element with plane strains shown, determine the strains for an element at the
same point in the material oriented 15⁰ counterclockwise from the origin orientation.
Demonstration
 EXAMPLES PLANE STRAIN
60

Example 2: For an element with plane strains shown, determine the principle strains (as well as
orientations).
To check which angle gives max or
min principal strain

Min P/strain
 EXAMPLES PLANE STRAIN
61

Demonstration Example 3: For an element with plane strains shown,

determine its maximum in-plane shear strains (as well as
orientations).
 EXAMPLES PLANE STRAIN
62
Demonstration
 MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRAIN
63
 STRAIN GUAGE ROSETTE
64

 Strain rosette can be defined as the arrangement of strain gauges

in three arbitrary directions.
 These strain gauges are used to measure the normal strain in those
three directions.
 Single strain gauges can only measure strain effectively in one
direction, so the use of multiple strain gauges enables more
measurements to be taken, providing a more precise evaluation of
strain on the surface being measured.
 STRAIN GUAGE ROSETTE
65

Types of Strain Rosette

 Tee Rosette is used only when principal strain directions are
Known
 If among the three strain gauges two of them are mutually
perpendicular then it is called Rectangular Rosettes
 If all three strain gauges are at an equal angle from each
other is called Delta Rosette

Delta Rosette Star Rosette

Rectangular Rosette
 STRAIN GUAGE ROSETTE
66

Equations
 A normal arrangement is to have three strain
gauges oriented at three different angles w.r.t the
horizontal axis of the structure, like this:
 Because we have three unknown terms and you
want to find, εxx, εyy, γxy , use equation:

For 60⁰ Rosette

For 45⁰ Rosette
 EXAMPLES
67
 EXAMPLES
68

𝜀𝜀𝑦𝑦 = −374 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

 EXAMPLES
69

Principal Strains
 EXAMPLES
70
 EXAMPLES
71

Since 𝜀𝜀𝑝𝑝𝑝 is positive and 𝜀𝜀𝑝𝑝2 is negative,

the absolute max. shear strain is max.
in-plane shear strain
 BAYERO UNIVERSITY KANO
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Kano, Nigeria

72

Thank You