Flow of Heat

1
 CONTENTS
• Objectives

• Applications and heat transfer mechanisms

• Fourier’s law

• Heat transfer by conduction, convection and radiation

• Heat interchangers and heat exchangers

2
 Introduction
Heat – a form of energy

Sources of heat:

• Sun – natural source

• Heat due to electricity and steam

• Heat obtained due to friction between two objects

• Heat due to chemical reaction while mixing of ingredients

Lab scale equipment – air-ovens, incubators, dryers,

refrigerators
3
 Objectives

Industrial scale equipment:

• To apply heat

• To remove heat

• To prevent heat loss

Understanding the basic principles involved in heat transfer is

essential for maintenance and efficient working of equipment.

4
 Mechanisms of heat transfer
Heat transfer – dynamic process where heat is transferred
spontaneously from a region of higher temperature to lower
temperature.

Heat flows from hot things toward cold ones and never the
other way around!!

Mechanisms of heat transfer:

1. Conduction

2. Convection

3. Radiation
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 Mechanisms of heat transfer

Conduction – heat flowing between:

Two solid objects that are at different temperatures and
touching one another
or
Between two parts of the same solid object if they're at
different temperatures

6
 Mechanisms of heat transfer
Conduction occurs due to transfer of momentum of
individual atoms/molecules without mixing.
e.g. flow of heat through the metal shell of a boiler

7
 Mechanisms of heat transfer
Convection – heat flow due to actual mixing of warmer
portions with cooler portions of the same material.
Convection is restricted to fluids (i.e. liquids and gases)
e.g. heating of water by a coil type water heater.

8
 Mechanisms of heat transfer
Radiation – flow of heat through space by means of
electromagnetic waves.
e.g. solar water heaters, microwave ovens, bath sonicators.
Radiation is rarely seen in solids

9
10
 Applications
Evaporation – to convert a liquid into a vapor, which is
subsequently removed.

• Used to prepare vegetable extracts

• E.g. shell and tube heat exchanger. Heat flow can be

quantified to estimate the efficiency of process.

Distillation – convert liquid into vapor, which can be

condensed at another place.

Drying – heat passed through a carrier gas over a bed of wet

solid mass for drying. 11
 Applications
Crystallization – heating a saturated solution to bring about
super-saturation which promotes crystallization of drugs.

Cooling of saturated solution also facilitates crystallization (for

purification of bulk drugs)

Sterilization – autoclaves are used with steam as heating

medium.

Dry heat – for sterilization of glass apparatus etc.

Other processes such as boiling, exsiccation, sublimation

and fusion also use heat.
12
 Fourier’s law – heat transfer by conduction
Heat transfer by conduction can be written in the form of a rate
equation as follows:
Driving Force
Rate of heat transfer = ………. (1)
Resistance

Driving force – temperature drop across the solid surfaces.

Greater the temperature drop, greater will be the rate of heat
flow.
Resistance – depends on the conductivity of the material

Thickness of surface (m)

Resistance = W
mean proportionality constant mk ×area of surface (m2)

𝐿
= ………….. (2)
13 km A
 Fourier’s law – heat transfer by conduction
Fourier’s law states that the rate of heat flow through a
uniform material is proportional to the area and
temperature drop and inversely proportional to the length
of the path of flow.
Mathematically,
area of surface m2 ×temperature difference (Δt)
Rate of heat flow ∝
Thickness (m)

𝐴.Δt
q ∝
𝐿

km 𝐴 Δt
or q= ………….. (3)
𝐿

Where km = mean proportionality constant, W/m.K.

14
 Fourier’s law – heat transfer by conduction
Fourier’s law can be applied to a metal wall through which
conduction of heat is taking place.
Area of wall = A, m2 Direction of heat
flow
Thickness of wall = L, m Higher
H temperature side
Face of wall (HH) is C
(t1)
maintained at a uniform and
higher temperature = t1, K
Face of wall (CC) is
maintained at a uniform A
lower temperature = t2, K

Lower
temperature side
(t2) dL
C H
L

15
 Fourier’s law – heat transfer by conduction
Heat flow will be at right angles to the plane A and is assumed
to be in a steady state.
Consider a thin section of thickness dL at an intermediate
point in the wall. This section is parallel to the plane A.
For this section, Fourier’s law may be applied as:
𝒅𝑸 − 𝒌.𝑨.𝒅𝒕
= ………….. (4)
𝒅𝜽 𝒅𝑳
Where Q = heat transferred, J
𝜽 = time, s
k = proportionality constant, W/mK

16
t = temperature, K
 Fourier’s law – heat transfer by conduction
The constant k is a function of temperature, but independent of
length. ‘Minus’ sign indicates decrease in temperature in the
direction of flow. (dt/dL) represents temperature gradient.
For steady state heat transfer
𝒅𝑸 − 𝒌.𝑨.𝒅𝒕
= constant (q) =
𝒅𝜽 𝒅𝑳

km 𝑨 𝚫𝐭
or q = ............. (5)
𝑳

Where q = rate of heat transfer J/s (or W)

Δ𝐭 {Rate of heat transfer =

Eqn 5 can be rearranged to obtain: 𝐪 = 𝐋
Driving Force
km.𝐀 Resistance
}
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 Fourier’s law – heat transfer by conduction

Comparing above equation with rate expression (Eqn 1) indicates that:

𝑳
Resistance =
km.𝑨
Hence Fourier’s law is used to define the resistance in quantitative terms.

Thermal conductivity is the reciprocal of thermal resistance

Coefficient of thermal conductivity is the quantity of heat that flows

across a unit surface in unit time, when temperature drop is unity. It
depends on :

• Nature of the material

• Temperature of the material

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 Fourier’s law – heat transfer by conduction

Thermal conductivities of some metals

Materials Thermal conductivity, W/m.K
Copper 379.0
Silver 410.0
Steel 43.0
Aluminium 24.2
Stainless steel 17.0
Carbon (graphite) 138.4
Glass (borosilicate) 1.0
Building bricks 0.69
Water 0.62
Air 0.03

19
 Fourier’s law – heat transfer by conduction
• Thermal conductivities of liquids and gases are very small
compared to most of the solids. Resistance offered by
liquids and gases is high (w.r.t. conduction)

• Metals have high conductivity, although values vary widely.

• Non-metallic solids have low conductivity than metals

(except carbon, which is widely used in heat exchangers)

• Low conductivity values lead to their wide use as heat

insulators.

20
 Fourier’s law – heat transfer by conduction
In steam jacketed vessels, the kettle (inner surface) must have
good conductivity.

• Copper has high thermal conductivity, hence it is a suitable

material for kettle (inner surface).

• Low thermal conductivity of iron suggests that it would be

suitable material for construction of jacket (outer surface).

Thermal conductivity values are useful in the construction of

evaporators and tubular heat exchangers.
21
 Heat transfer by convection
Heat transfer in fluids occurs due to actual mixing of its layers.

• Forced convection – heat transfer in which mixing of fluid

may be obtained by the use of a stirrer/ agitator or pumping
the fluid for recirculation. For e.g. in forced circulation
evaporators, the evaporating liquid is forced through tubes
under pressure.

• Natural convection – heat transfer in which mixing of fluid

is due to the currents set up, when body of fluid is heated.
For e.g. in pan evaporator, convection currents are set up in
22 the evaporating liquid.
 Heat transfer by convection
Fluids in natural convection:

Natural convection – heat transfer in which when a fluid is

heated, currents set up may cause mixing of fluid. Circulation
is caused by changes in densities due to differences in
temperature of fluids

Fluid circulations also changes with:

• Geometry of system – size, shape and arrangement of

heating surface

• Shape of vessel in which fluid is enclosed

23
 Heat transfer by convection
Fluids in forced convection:

Fluid flow may be laminar/ turbulent. When heat is passed

through the tube, stagnant films determine the rate of heat
transfer.

• When fluid exhibits viscous flow, velocity is 0 at actual

surface of wall. The layer of fluid adjacent to wall acts as a
stagnant film.

• In turbulent flow also, stagnant film can be observed. At the

center, fluid has turbulent flow, while at surface fluid exhibits
24 viscous flow.
 Heat transfer by convection

• Scales are deposited on the surface of metal wall and heat

must be conducted through scales.

• When steam gives up latent heat, water will condense on

the surface of the vessel (or tube). Again heat must be
conducted through this water film.

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 Heat transfer by convection
For heat transfer in a tube, heat must pass through the
stagnant film by conduction. Hence conductivity of these films
is important.

Conductivity of stagnant film is very less.

A film of water has a resistance of 500 times and a film of air

has 13,000 times greater than a copper sheet of the same
thickness.

Hence the resistance offered by these films is large for heat

flow.
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 Heat transfer by convection
Forced convection – temperature variation – individual heat
transfer coefficients

In heat transfer process,

overall coefficient depends on
many variables.

Consider a case of heat

flowing from a hot fluid
through a metal wall into a
cold fluid.
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 Heat transfer by convection
Metal wall:

• CC and HH represent boundaries

of the films in viscous flow on the
cold and hot sides respectively.

• Temperature gradient through tc td

is caused by flow of heat purely by
conduction through the metal
whose thermal conductivity is
known.

• Metal wall thickness is L

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 Heat transfer by convection
Hot fluid side:

• To the right of HH, fluid is

turbulent flow on hot side.

• ta is the maximum temperature

of hot fluid.

• tb is the temperature at the

boundary on the hot side
(turbulent and viscous flow
junction)
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 Heat transfer by convection
• tc is the temperature at the
actual interface (between fluid
and solid surface).

• Curve ta tb tc represents the

temperature gradient from the
bulk of the hot fluid to the
metal wall. This is caused by
flow of heat in forced
convection. t1 is the average
temperature on the hot side
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 Heat transfer by convection
Cold fluid side:

• To the left of CC, fluid is

turbulent flow on cold side.

• tf is the minimum temperature

of cold fluid.

• te is the temperature at the

boundary on the cold side
(turbulent and viscous flow
junction)
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 Heat transfer by convection
• td is the temperature at the
actual interface (between fluid
and solid surface).

• Curve td te tf represents the

temperature gradient from the
metal wall to the bulk of cold
fluid. This is caused by flow of
heat in forced convection. t2 is
the average temperature on the
cold side
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 Heat transfer by convection
Surface or film coefficients: The stagnant films (HH and CC)
determine the rate of heat transfer. Though these films are
thin, resistance offered by them is large.

Film coefficient is the quantity of heat flowing through unit

area of the stagnant film per unit drop in temperature. It is
the conductive capacity of stagnant film for transfer of heat.

Thickness of films cannot be known precisely. Hence, indirect

method of computation of surface coefficients is applied.

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 Heat transfer by convection
Let q watt (J/s) of heat be flowing from hot fluid to cold fluid. Same heat
passes through stagnant film on the hot side, through the metal wall and
through the stagnant film on the cold side. Hence,

Area of metal wall on the hot side = A1, m2

Area of metal wall on cold side = A2, m2

Average area of the metal wall = Am, m2

Surface or film coefficients on the hot side:

Amount of heat flowing

Film coefficient in hot side (W/m2.K) =
Area ×difference in temperature

𝐪
h1 =
A1×(t1−tc)
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 Heat transfer by convection
𝑳
Comparing with Resistance =
km.𝑨

Surface coefficient (h1) is analogous to the term k/L for a metal wall. Since
L/kA is the resistance term for metal wall, hence:

𝟏
is known as thermal resistance on hot side.
h1A1

Thermal resistance is due to combined effect of the viscous film and the
turbulent core. This resistance caused the difference in temperature, ta – tb.

𝒒
Film coefficient on the cold sided (h2) =
A2 ×(td−t2 )

𝟏
And is known as thermal resistance on cold side.
h2A2

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 Heat transfer by convection
Overall coefficient: In overall heat transfer, three resistance terms are
involved in series.
1
is the resistance on hot side.
h1A1
L
is the resistance on the metal wall
𝑘Am

1
h2A2
is the resistance on cold side.

Applying principle of compound resistance in series, overall heat transfer

may be written as:

Δt
q=
1 L 1
+ +
h1A1 kAm h2A2

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 Heat transfer by convection

Multiplying both numerator and denominator of R.H.S. by A1,

A1 Δt
q=
1 LA1 A1
+ +
h1 kAm h2A2

Overall heat transfer coefficient U1 (W/m2.K) is defined by

1
U1 =
1 LA1 A1
h1
+ +
k A m h2 A 2

q = U1 𝚫𝐭 A1

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 Heat transfer by convection
Factors affecting film coefficients:

• Thermal conductivity of the liquid

• Specific heat of the film

• Density of liquid

• Turbulence of the fluid

• Thickness of the film

If films are thin, their resistance will be reduced. This can be

achieved by increasing the speed of steam on one side and
speed of liquid on the other side.
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 Heat transfer by radiation
Radiation – transfer of heat energy across a system boundary
due to a temperature gradient, by the mechanism of photon
emission or electromagnetic wave emission.

Unlike conduction and convection, no material medium is

required for heat transmission.

All solid bodies radiate energy when their temperatures are

above absolute zero. A solid surface continuously emits radiant
energy and distributes it over all wavelengths.

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 Heat transfer by radiation
Heat transfer is predominant as the temperature of body
increases. The amount and kind of thermal energy radiated
increases rapidly with temperature.

• Fused quartz transmits nearly all radiations that strike it.

• Mirror reflects most of the radiation falling on it

• Solar water heater, solar cookers, microwave oven etc.

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 Heat transfer by radiation
Suppose a cold substance is placed in the sight of a hot body
inside an enclosed space. The cold body intercepts radiation
emitted by the hot body.

A fraction of radiations falling on the body may be reflected –

reflectivity, ρ.

A fraction of radiations falling on the body may be absorbed –

absorptivity, α.

A fraction of radiations falling on the body may be transmitted –

transmissivity, τ .

41 ρ+α+τ=1
 Heat transfer by radiation
Black body is defined as a body that radiates maximum
possible amount of energy at a given temperature.

A blackbody is defined as a perfect emitter and absorber

of radiation. At a specified temperature and wavelength,
no surface can emit more energy than a blackbody.

No physical substance is a perfect black body. Amount of

energy radiated by a body has nothing to do with the color of
the body.

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 Heat transfer by radiation
A black body is considered to be an enclosed space with a
negligible opening at a constant temperature throughout when
viewed through a small opening.

For e.g. a tube of carbon

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 Heat transfer by radiation
Consider a small cold body with a surface area of A and
temperature of T2 is surrounded by a hot black body at
temperature T1. Thermal radiation entering the hole is
absorbed almost completely by walls of the chamber, hence
only a small fraction is emitted from the hole. The amount of
heat transferred in such a process is expressed by Stefan law,
which may be written as:

Q = bA (T14 – T24)

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 Heat transfer by radiation
Rate of radiation

Stefan-Boltzmann law gives total amount of radiation emitted

by a black body.

q = bAT4

Where q = energy radiated per second, W (or J/s)

A = area of radiating surface, m2

T = absolute temperature of the radiating surface, K

b = constant, W/m2 .K4

For a black body, b = 5.67 ×10-8 W/m2 .K4

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 Heat transfer by radiation
Actual bodies do not radiate as much as black body. Hence for
actual bodies

q = εbAT4

Where ε = emissivity of actual body. The emissivity of a

surface is defined as the ratio of the radiation emitted by the
surface to the radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same
temperature.

𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦

ε=
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦

ε = 1 for black body, ε < 1 for actual body

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 Heat transfer by radiation
Dark colored, opaque and rough surface bodies – absorb high
energy

Light colored, transparent and smooth surface – absorb least

energy

Grey body is defined as a body whose absorptivity and

emissivity is constant at all wavelengths of radiation at a given
temperature.

47
 Heat transfer equipment

Heat exchangers – devices used for transferring heat from

one fluid (hot gas or steam) to another fluid (liquid) through a
metal wall.

Heat interchangers – devices used for transferring heat from

one liquid to another or from one gas to another through a
metal wall.

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 Heat transfer equipment
• Based on flow configuration

a) Counter flow

b) Co-current flow

c) Cross flow

d) Hybrid such as cross counter flow and multi pass

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 Heat transfer equipment
Counter flow heat exchanger: two fluids flow parallel to each
other but in opposite directions.

This type of flow arrangement allows largest change in

temperature of both fluids and is therefore most efficient.

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 Heat transfer equipment
Co-current flow heat exchanger: the streams flow parallel to
each other and in the same direction

Less efficient than countercurrent flow but provides more

uniform wall temperatures.

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 Heat transfer equipment
Cross flow heat exchanger: the streams flow at right angles
to each other

Intermediate in efficiency between countercurrent flow and

parallel flow exchangers.

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 Heat transfer equipment

Orientation of fluid stream in

heat exchanger:

(a) cross flow

(b) counter current flow

(c) parallel flow

53
 Heat transfer equipment
Hybrid flow heat exchanger: combined crossflow/ counter
flow heat exchangers and multi pass flow heat exchangers

Intermediate in efficiency between countercurrent flow and

parallel flow exchangers.
54
 Heat exchangers
Heat exchangers – These are indirect heat exchangers used
for transferring heat from one fluid (hot gas or steam) to
another fluid (liquid) through a metal wall.

Heat transfer equipment are:

1. Tubular heater (shell-and-tube heater)

2. Two-pass floating head heater

3. Multi-pass heater

55
 Tubular heater (shell-and-tube heater)
• Tubular heat exchangers consist of a series of tubes which
contain fluid that must be either heated or cooled, mounted in
a cylindrical shell.

• A 2nd fluid runs over the tubes (that are being heated or
cooled) so that it can either provide heat or absorb heat.

• The fluids can flow in a parallel or a cross/counter flow

arrangement.

• A set of tubes is called the tube bundle and can be made up

of several types of tubes: plain, longitudinally finned, etc.

56
 Tubular heater (shell-and-tube heater)
It is a single-pass tubular heater; simplest form of a tubular
heater; also called 1-1 heat exchanger
Construction:
• Bundle of parallel tubes
which are thin walled.
• Ends of these tubes are
expanded into two sheets
B1 & B2.
• Tubes are enclosed in a
cylindrical shell C to which

57
the tube sheets are fitted.
 Tubular heater (shell-and-tube heater)

Tube bundle fitted in two sheets

Tube bundle inside a shell

58
 Tubular heater (shell-and-tube heater)

• Distribution chambers,
D1 & D2 are provided at
each end of casing, cold
fluid inlet is provided to
D2. Heated fluid outlet is
provided to D1.

• E1 and E2 close the distribution chambers. Steam is

introduced through F. Non-condensable vapour escape
through K and condensed vapour drains at G.

59
 Tubular heater (shell-and-tube heater)
Working:
• Steam is introduced into the space surrounding tubes which
flows down the tubes.
• Tubes get heated rapidly due to high values of steam film
coefficients.

• Condensed vapours
drain into G and non-
condensable vapours
into K.

60
 Tubular heater (shell-and-tube heater)
• Fluid to be heated is pumped through cold fluid inlet into D2
and flows up through the tubes. The steam and fluid are in
thermal contact through the thin tube walls.
• The fluid in tubes get
heated due to heat transfer
by conduction through
metal wall, followed by
stagnant film and finally by
convection. The heated
fluid then reaches D1 and

61
leaves through outlet I.
 Tubular heater (shell-and-tube heater)
Advantages:

• In single pass tubular heater, large heating surface can be

packed into a small volume.

Disadvantages:

• The velocity of fluid flowing in the tubes is low, because of

large cross-sectional area or larger surface.

• The expansion of tubes and shell takes place due to

differences in temperatures. This may lead to loosening of
the tube sheets or buckles the tubes.

62
 Floating-head Two-pass heater
Construction: Similar to tubular heater with some
modifications. Tube fluid is passed twice hence also called a 1-
2 exchanger
• Bundle of parallel tubes which are thin walled enclosed in a
shell.
• Right-side of distribution
chamber is partitioned and
fluid inlet and outlet are
connected to same chamber;
partition such that both have
equal number of tubes.
63
 Floating-head Two-pass heater

• On left-side, distribution chamber is not connected to the

casing, it is independent and hence known as floating head.
• Ends of the tubes are structurally independent of the shell

https://www.youtube.com
/watch?v=8rGLrhVeZvw

64
 Floating-head Two-pass heater
Working:
• Steam is introduced through
inlet. As steam flows down,
tubes get heated.
• Fluid to be heated is
introduced into distribution
chamber on right-side of
heater.
• Fluid flows through few tubes
present in that part of
65 partition.
 Floating-head Two-pass heater

• The fluid reaches floating

head and changes direction.
Passes back to next part of
partition chamber on right-
side.
• Fluid gets heated due to heat transfer by conduction through
metal wall, followed by stagnant film and finally by convection.
• Fluid leaves outlet provided in shell

66
 Floating-head Two-pass heater

Inlet for Inlet for

cold fluid steam

Partition

Outlet for Outlet for

hot fluid condensed
gases
67
 Floating-head Two-pass heater
Advantages:

In shell and tube heat exchanger, tubes and shell may get
expanded due to differences in temperature. Similarly,
contractions can occur when heater is switched off.

This leads to loosening of tube sheets or buckles the tubes.

Floating head heaters are independent of the shell and thus

helps overcome the above effects.

68
 Multi-pass heater

Inlet for Inlet for

cold fluid steam

Partition

Partition

Outlet for Outlet for

hot fluid condensed
gases

69
 Multi-pass heater
• For a given number of tubes; the area available for flow of
the tube side fluid is inversely proportional to the number of
passes.

• Greater the number of pass, lesser is the surface area.

Hence, velocity of fluid is increased; hence heat transfer
coefficient also increases.

The liquid to be heated is passed through the tubes several

times before leaving the equipment. This facilitates effective
heat transfer. Hence multi-pass tubular heaters are
superior to single-pass shell-and-tube heaters.
70
 Multi-pass heater
Advantages:

• Decrease cross section and hence increases fluid velocity.

Hence superior to single-pass shell-and-tube heaters.

Disadvantages:

• Fabrication is more complicated

• Pressure drop through apparatus is increased because of

enhanced velocity of flow.

• More number of exit and entrance points increase friction

losses. This increases cost of pumping fluid.
71
 Heat interchangers
Heat interchangers – devices used for transferring heat from
one liquid to another or from one gas to another gas through a
metal wall.

In heat interchangers, heating medium is a hot liquid. Liquid

to be heated is the cold liquid. Film coefficients both inside &
outside the tubes are of same magnitude.

Film coefficient can be enhanced by increasing the velocity of

flow. It is difficult to increase the velocity of hot fluid outside the
tubes. However, surface area of contact can be increased by
introducing baffles in the construction
72
 Heat interchangers
Baffles: circular discs of metal
sheet with one side cut away.
These are perforated to
receive tubes. To minimize
leakage, clearance between
baffles, shell and tubes must
be small. Baffles are supported
by one or more guide rods
which are fastened between
tube sheets by set-screws.
73
 Heat interchangers
Working: baffles are placed outside tubes and increase the
velocity of liquid outside tubes. Baffles makes the liquid to flow
at right angles to tubes, creating more turbulence. This helps
in reducing resistance to heat transfer outside the tubes.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r6hk92HNosU

74
 Liquid-to-liquid interchanger

Construction:

• Tube sheets and baffles

are assembled first and
then tubes are installed.
• Baffles are placed at appropriate places using guide rods.
They are arranged with appropriate spacing. They have
perforations through which tubes are inserted.

• Ends of tubes are expanded and the assembly is enclosed in

75 a shell.
 Liquid-to-liquid interchanger

• There is a provision for

introducing hot fluid. Outlet
for hot fluid is at right-side
top. On the side of each
tubes, 2 distribution
chambers are provided.
On one side – inlet for cold
liquid and on other side
outlet for heated liquid.

76
 Liquid-to-liquid interchanger
Working:

• Hot fluid is pumped. Fluid

flows outside tubes and
moves down directly to
the bottom.
• It changes direction and rises again. This continues till it
leave the heater.

• Baffles increase the velocity of liquid outside tubes. It makes

the liquid to flow at right angles to tubes creating more

77
turbulence.
 Liquid-to-liquid interchanger
• This helps in reducing resistance to heat transfer outside the
tubes. It lengthens the path and decreases the cross-section
of path of cold fluid.

• Baffles get heated and provide greater surface area for heat
transfer.

78
 Liquid-to-liquid interchanger

• During the flow, tubes

also get heated. As a
result, film coefficient
inside the tube also
increases.

• The liquid to be heated is pumped through inlet.

• Liquid passes through tubes and gets heated. The flow of

liquid is single-pass.

• The heated liquid is collected from the outlet.

79
 Liquid-to-liquid interchanger
Advantages:

Heat transfer is rapid as the liquid passes at high velocity

outside the tubes and flows at right angles to the tube creating
turbulence.

80
 Double-pipe heat interchanger
When few tubes per pass is
desirable, double pipe heat
interchanger is used.

Construction:

• Two pipes are used: one

is inserted in the other.

• The inside pipe is used for pumping of cold liquid; outer pipe
acts as jacket for circulation of hot liquid.

• All jacketed sections are inter-connected.

81
 Double-pipe heat interchanger
• Number of pipes is few,
and length is also less.

• Glass tube, standard iron

pipe and graphite are
used to construct outer
pipes.

• Standard metal pipes are

assembled with standard
return bends.
• Pipes are connected in parallel and stacked vertically.
82
 Double-pipe heat interchanger
Working:

• Hot liquid is pumped into

jacketed section and
circulated through out.
Finally, it leaves the jacket
through outlet.
• Pipes get heated and hot fluid loses its temperature.

• Liquid to be heated is pumped through the inlet. Liquid gets

heated up and flows through the bent tubes into the next
section of pipe.
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 Double-pipe heat interchanger
• Liquid further gets heated. The same liquid continues to flow
and finally leaves interchanger through exit-point.

Useful when not more than 0.9-1.4 m2 of surface is required.

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 Scaling or Fouling
Surfaces of heat exchanger get coated with deposits and
scales which decrease the efficiency of exchanger. Such
deposits are called as fouling and are detrimental to heat
exchange process.

Fouling can be caused due to several reasons and may

significantly affect performance of heat exchanger.

• Scaling – most common form of fouling and is associated

with inverse solubility salts. Examples of such salts are
CaCO3, CaSO4, Ca(OH)2, Mg(OH)2, MgSiO3, Na2SO4,
LiSO4, and Li2CO3.
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 Scaling or Fouling
• Corrosion fouling – is caused by chemical reaction of
some fluid constituents with the heat exchanger tube
material.

• Chemical reaction fouling – involves chemical reactions in

the process stream which results in deposition of material
on the heat exchanger tubes; commonly occurs in food
processing industries.

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 Scaling or Fouling
• Freezing fouling – occurs when a portion of the hot stream
is cooled to near the freezing point for one of its
components. This commonly occurs in refineries where
paraffin frequently solidifies from petroleum products at
various stages in the refining process, obstructing both flow
and heat transfer

• Biological fouling – common where untreated water from

natural resources such as rivers and lakes is used as a
coolant. Microorganisms such as algae or other microbes
can grow inside heat exchanger and hinder heat transfer.
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 Scaling or Fouling
• Particulate fouling – results from the presence of
microscale sized particles in solution. When such particles
accumulate on a heat exchanger surface they sometimes
fuse and harden. Like scale, these deposits are difficult to
remove.

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 Scaling or Fouling
Effect of scales and deposits is usually represented by a
fouling factor or fouling resistance.

Fouling leads to energy losses due to thermal efficiencies,

additional costs for periodic cleaning etc.

Fouling factor is a resistance which should be added to other

thermal resistances for calculation of overall heat transfer
coefficient.

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