sensors

Article
Detection System for U-Shaped Bellows Convolution
Pitches Based on a Laser Line Scanner
Yutu Yang 1,† , Zengtao Chen 2, *,† , Ying Liu 1,† , Yuting Li 1 , Zhongkang Hu 1 and Binli Gou 1
1 College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China;
[email protected] (Y.Y.); [email protected] (Y.L.); [email protected] (Y.L.);
[email protected] (Z.H.); [email protected] (B.G.)
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
* Correspondence: [email protected]
† These authors contributed equally to this work.




Received: 16 January 2020; Accepted: 12 February 2020; Published: 15 February 2020


Abstract: An expansion joint is mainly composed of bellows and other components; it is attached on
a container shell or pipe to compensate for the additional stress caused by temperature differences
and mechanical vibrations. In China, the expansion joint fatigue tests are often used to assess the
quality of products. After fatigue tests, convolution pitch will be changed. The amount of change is
an important index that can be used to evaluate bellows expansion joints. However, the convolution
pitch detection is mainly done manually and randomly by inspection agencies before shipping to the
end users. This common practice is not efficient and is often subjective. This paper introduced a novel
method for automatically detecting the change of the convolution pitch based on a laser line scanner
and data processing technology. The laser line scanner is combined with a precision motorized stage
to obtain the point cloud data of the bellows. After denoising and fitting, a peak-finding algorithm
is applied to search for the crest of a convolution. The method to find the convolution pitch and
the decision that needs to be made to ensure product eligibility are described in detail. A DN500
expansion joint is used as a sample to illustrate the efficiency of the system. The application of the
technique intuitively allows a higher precision and relative efficiency in quality inspection of bellows
expansion joints. It has also been implemented in the Special Equipment Safety Supervision and
Inspection Institute of Jiangsu province with great success.

Keywords: bellows expansion joint; laser line scanner; S-G algorithm; convolution pitch detection

1. Introduction
An expansion joint is a connector that can expand under different forms of loading while remaining
structurally sound [1–3]. It is composed of bellows and other components and can compensate for
thermal and mechanical deformations, absorb mechanical vibrations, reduce stress, and increase
the average service lives of pipes and tubes. Expansion joints have been widely used in multiple
fields, such as petrochemical, steel, aerospace, and nuclear power. The convolution pitch of a bellows
expansion joint is an important parameter in quality inspection; it is a key consideration when making
the decision of whether bellows expansion joints meet quality requirements. After thousands of tensile
and compression fatigue tests, the method of detecting the convolution pitch deformation is usually
done manually. It is typically found with a caliper that measures the distance from crest to crest. Then,
the collected data is processed to determine the quality of the bellows expansion joint. This type of
inspection is overly dependent on manual work, which leads to low efficiency and accuracy. Brazhkin
and Mirotvorskii [4] introduced a method for detecting a curved surface using the tangent point of
a curve. They used the Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) to collect data and extract features

Sensors 2020, 20, 1057; doi:10.3390/s20041057 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2020, 20, 1057 2 of 15

from the surface. However, the long measuring cycle and the extremely expensive testing equipment
needed for the CMM prevent the quality determination for large-diameter bellows. At the same time,
the strict requirements of the detecting environment suggest that this method is not suitable for on-line
measurement of bellows expansion joints.
In order to solve all of the mentioned problems, a system using a laser line scanner (LLS) and a
non-destructive measurement method to estimate the quality of expansion joints has recently been
built. The system has solved several problems in traditional quality detection methods. Moreover,
quality inspection of bellows for special circumstances and requirements (such as bellows expansion
joints with nuclear security levels) can significantly advance non-destructive testing techniques. When
a laser is projected onto the surface of a bellows, the raw point cloud data is collected automatically via
a laser scanner. After noise reduction and curve fitting, the convolution pitch data are found via a
peak-searching algorithm.
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. The mechanical structure of the laser scanning
detection system (LSMS) and the detection procedure are presented in Section 2. In Section 3, the
failure judgment algorithm of the test piece is introduced in detail. Section 4 presents the detail of the
convolution pitch search method, including point cloud noise reduction, coordinate transformation,
curve fitting, and convolution pitch calculation, etc. The application and error analysis are proposed in
Section 5. Lastly, the conclusions of our work are given in Section 6.

2. LSMS

2.1. Design Requirements

According to the standard requirements (obtained from Jiangsu Province Special Equipment
Safety Supervision and Inspection Institute) for bellows expansion joints, the developed detecting
device needs to use a laser scanner to automatically measure the convolution pitch of the bellows.
The data is collected from at least four angles before and after the fatigue test to determine whether
the expansion joint is qualified for service or not. Therefore, the bellows expansion joints need to
be rotated 360 degrees around the central axis during data collection. The required accuracy of the
convolution pitch detection is less than 0.1 mm.
Because the measurement range of the laser scanner is limited, the distance between the scanner
and the expansion joint specimen is required to be adjustable. The scanner can move along the radial
direction of the expansion joint, and can be adjusted to the proper distance according to the diameter
of the bellows.
It is necessary to connect two bellows expansion joints in series for the purpose of fatigue testing.
Different specifications of bellows have different lengths. Therefore, the scanner needs to be adjustable
in the axial direction of the expansion joint.

2.2. Mechanical Structure

A 3-D model that lists the detecting device components is shown in Figure 1. The specific mechanical
structure of the detecting device includes a radial movement mechanism, an axial movement mechanism,
and a rotating movement mechanism. The radial movement mechanism includes a set of ball screws,
two sets of rolling linear guides, and a moving platform. The moving platform, which is driven by the
ball screws, moved back and forth along the radial direction of expansion joints. The radial movement
system mainly guarantees a fixed distance between the laser scanner and the expansion joint. The axial
movement mechanism includes a two-way ball screw, two sets of rolling linear guides, two sliders, and
two laser scanners (fixed to the slider). The axial movement device drives the laser scanner to move to
the appropriate height along the axial direction of the expansion joint. The rotating mechanism includes
a motor and a rotating platform which can rotate around its own central axis. The laser scanner can be
easily damaged. To avoid damage, a proximity sensor is placed on the laser scanner and a set of limit
devices is mounted on the guiding mechanism. In order to save space and for the convenience of the
fatigue test, the device adopts a vertical layout.
 Sensors 2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 16

In order to achieve online detection, convolution pitch detection and the fatigue test are
performed
Sensors on the same device. This paper does not cover fatigue testing, so the fatigue testing system3 of 15
2020, 20, 1057
is not introduced.

θ 3 = 180o θ 2 = 90o θ1 = 0o θ 4 = 270o

qq
yc
zc

xc

Figure 1. 1.3D
Figure 3Dmodel
modelof
ofthe
the laser scanningmeasurement
laser scanning measurement system.
system.

In order
2.3. to achieve
Detection Principleonline detection, convolution pitch detection and the fatigue test are performed
on the same device. This paper does not cover fatigue testing, so the fatigue testing system is not
Non-contact methods include optical, electromagnetic, and acoustic measuring devices [5].
introduced.
Optical measuring devices involve binocular vision, holographic interferometry, and laser
triangulation. The laser triangulation method is widely applied for accurate measurement because of
2.3. Detection Principle
its high measurement accuracy, small size device, and fast measurement speed [6–8]. So, the laser
scanning
Non-contactdetection was applied
methods includeto our system
optical, to obtain the outer
electromagnetic, contour measuring
and acoustic data of the expansion joints
devices [5]. Optical
of bellows.
measuring devices involve binocular vision, holographic interferometry, and laser triangulation.
The laserAstriangulation
shown in Figure 1, a laser
method transmitter
is widely and laser
applied receiver are
for accurate mounted ontobecause
measurement a laser scanner
of its high
measurement accuracy, small size device, and fast measurement speed [6–8]. So, the laseremits
(model: Gocator 2350) produced by LMI. When a laser beam hits an object, the laser transmitter scanning
a laser pulse; then, part of the laser energy is returned. The laser energy is then received by the laser
detection was applied to our system to obtain the outer contour data of the expansion joints of bellows.
receiver. If the returning energy exceeds the preset triggering threshold, the laser scanner calculates
As shown in Figure 1, a laser transmitter and laser receiver are mounted onto a laser scanner
its distance from the object. Based on this distance information, the location coordinates of the
(model: Gocator
contours 2350)
of the produced
object by LMI. When a laser beam hits an object, the laser transmitter emits
can be calculated.
a laser pulse; then,inpart
As shown of the
Figure laser
2, the energy in
resolution is the
returned. The laser
Z-axis direction ofenergy is then
the scanner received
is between by the
0.019 andlaser
receiver.
0.060 mm, while in the X-axis direction, it is between 0.150 and 0.300 mm. The total number of single its
If the returning energy exceeds the preset triggering threshold, the laser scanner calculates
distance
pointsfrom
thatthe
the object.
scannerBased on this
can collect in adistance information,
single scan is 1280. The the location coordinates
field-of-view (FOV) in the of the contours
X direction
is object
of the 158 to 365
canmm and the measurement range is 400 mm. The clearance distance is 300 mm.
be calculated.
As shown in Figure 2, the resolution in the Z-axis direction of the scanner is between 0.019 and
0.060 mm, while in the X-axis direction, it is between 0.150 and 0.300 mm. The total number of single
points that the scanner can collect in a single scan is 1280. The field-of-view (FOV) in the X direction is
158 to Sensors
365 mm and the measurement range is 400 mm. The clearance distance is 300 mm.
2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16

Gocator
z 2350

x
camera

Clearance
Distance

Near
Field of View
Measurement
Range

Far Field of View

Figure Laser
2. 2.
Figure Laserscanner.
scanner.

2.4. Detection Procedure

First, the outer contour of the bellows expansion joint is automatically scanned before and after
the fatigue test. The point cloud data are then transferred to a computer terminal via Ethernet cable.
Second, noise reduction is performed on the collected data to eliminate the influence of various noises
 Field of View
Measurement
Range

Far Field of View

Sensors 2020, 20, 1057 4 of 15
Figure 2. Laser scanner.

2.4. Detection Procedure

2.4. Detection Procedure
First,
First, the
the outer
outer contour
contour of of the
the bellows
bellows expansion
expansion joint
joint is
is automatically
automatically scanned
scanned before
before and
and after
after
the fatigue test. The point cloud data are then transferred to a computer terminal
the fatigue test. The point cloud data are then transferred to a computer terminal via Ethernet cable. via Ethernet cable.
Second,
Second, noise
noise reduction
reduction is is performed
performed on on the
the collected
collected data
data to eliminate the
to eliminate influence of
the influence various noises
of various noises
on
on the
the measurement
measurement accuracy.
accuracy. TheThe third
third step
step is
is to
to perform
perform curve
curve fitting
fitting on
on the
the processed
processed point
point cloud
cloud
data to facilitate the search for the peak points. The data of the convolution
data to facilitate the search for the peak points. The data of the convolution pitch of the bellows pitch of the bellows
expansion
expansion joint
joint is
is subsequently
subsequently obtained
obtained via
via aa peak-searching
peak-searching algorithm.
algorithm. ByBy comparing
comparing the the values
values of
of
the pitch before and after the test, the convolution pitch changes can be seen more intuitively.
the pitch before and after the test, the convolution pitch changes can be seen more intuitively. Then, Then, the
condition
the conditionand performance
and performanceof the bellows expansion
of the bellows joints can joints
expansion be inferred
can beviainferred
the data. via
Furthermore,
the data.
the surface of the
Furthermore, the outer contour
surface of theisouter
reconstructed
contour isby processing the
reconstructed bydata. Figure the
processing 3 isdata.
the flowchart
Figure 3 of
is the
the
detection procedure.
flowchart of the detection procedure.

Figure 3. Flowchart of the detection procedure.

3. Failure Judgment
3. Failure Judgment
As
As shown
shown in inFigure
Figure4,4,according
accordingtotothe theperformance
performance standards
standardsof bellows expansion
of bellows expansionjoints [9], [9],
joints the
main parameters of bellows expansion joints contain the convolution depth h,
the main parameters of bellows expansion joints contain the convolution depth h , convolution pitch convolution pitch q,
radius rc of rtheof
q , radius curvature of the of
the curvature crests, and rradius
and radius
the crests, r of ther curvature of the troughs [10]. For common
c r of the curvature of the troughs [10]. For
bellows, the purpose of the fatigue test is to detect the non-uniformity of the plastic deformation of
common bellows, the purpose of the fatigue test is to detect the non-uniformity of the plastic
all of the convolutions after 3000 to 5000 fatigue tests under a certain load. At a certain percentage,
deformation of all of the convolutions after 3000 to 5000 fatigue tests under a certain load. At a certain
the bellows is considered to have failed. The percentage of inhomogeneity that typically requires
percentage, the bellows is considered to have failed. The percentage of inhomogeneity that typically
maximum plastic deformation of the convolution pitch is less than or equal to 15% of the original
requires maximum plastic deformation of the convolution pitch is less than or equal to 15% of the
average convolution pitch. Before the fatigue test, every time that the expansion joints rotate to a
original average convolution pitch. Before the fatigue test, every time that the expansion joints rotate
certain angle, it triggers the laser scanning of the bellows to obtain the originally measured data, as
to a certain angle, it triggers the laser scanning of the bellows to obtain the originally measured data,
shown in Table 1. It is assumed here that the bellows has n + 1 convolutions and that data are collected
as shown in Table 1. It is assumed here that the bellows has n + 1 convolutions and that data are
from m positions. m is also the number of scanning instances. As shown in Figure 1, m = 4; we define
collected from m positions. m is also the number◦ of scanning instances. As shown in Figure 1, m = 4;
the position of the first scanning angle as θ1 = 0 , and theno rotate the bellows expansion joint to the
we define the position of the first scanning angle as θ ◦ = 0 , and then rotate the bellows expansion
second position for the next scanning, where θ2 = 901 , and soo on. Depending on the value of m,
jointangle
the to theofsecond
each turnposition forbellows
of the the nextexpansion
scanning, joint θ 2 = 90
whereis also , and soGenerally,
different. on. Depending on the value
the measurement
of performed
is m, the angle of each
according turnprinciple
to the of the bellows
of uniform expansion jointthat
distribution, is also different.
is, the angle of Generally,
rotation of thethe
bellows expansion joint is the same for each measurement. The total number of convolution pitches of
measurement is performed according to the principle of uniform distribution, that is, the angle is
rotation
m × n. of the
The bellowsofexpansion
calculation the relatedjoint is the same
parameters is for eachvia
conducted measurement.
Equations The [9].
(1)–(4) total number of
Sensors 2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 16
convolution pitches is m × n. The calculation of the related parameters is conducted via Equations
(1)–(4) [9].

Figure 4. Terminology
Figure4. Terminologyof
ofthe
thebellows.
bellows.

First,
First,the
theinitial
initialvalue
valueof
ofthe
theaverage
averageconvolution
convolutionpitch pitchbefore
beforethe
thefatigue
fatiguetest
testisisdetermined
determinedby
by

 qs = i=i 1=m×n

1  j =1 sji
 Pnn Pmm

 j=1 qq
sji
q = (1)
  ns ≥ 1, m m×≥n4 (1)


 n ≥ 1, m ≥ 4

where i is the convolution pitch number, j is the position number, n + 1 is the total convolution
number, m is the position number along the circumference, and qsji is the original value of the
convolution pitch, which is equal to the wave distance between the i th convolution and the (i + 1)th
convolution at the j th position before the fatigue test.
Sensors 2020, 20, 1057 5 of 15

where i is the convolution pitch number, j is the position number, n + 1 is the total convolution number,
m is the position number along the circumference, and qsji is the original value of the convolution pitch,
which is equal to the wave distance between the ith convolution and the (i + 1)th convolution at the jth
position before the fatigue test.

Table 1. Data of the convolution pitch of the bellows before the fatigue test.

Position
θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 ... θm
Convolution Pitch No.
No.1 qs11 qs21 qs31 qs41 ... qsm1
No.2 qs12 qs22 qs32 qs42 ... qsm2
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
No.n qs1n qs2n qs3n qs4n ... qsmn

Then, the tension and compression fatigue experiment is performed on the bellows expansion
joint. The convolution pitch is measured again by the laser scanner, as shown in Table 2. The value
of the deformation and the maximum deformation of a convolution pitch could be determined by
Equations (2) and (3), respectively. The maximum circumferential deformation unevenness coefficient
of the ith convolution pitch could be determined by Equation (4).

W ji = qeji − qsji (2)

∆WCi = W jimax − W jimin (3)

∆WCimax
τCi = × 100% (4)
qs
where W ji is the value of plastic deformation of the convolution pitch between the ith convolution and
the (i + 1)th convolution at the jth position after the fatigue test; qeji is the final value of the convolution
pitch, which is equal to the wave distance between the ith convolution and the (i + 1)th convolution at
the jth position after the fatigue test. W jimax is the maximum value of W1i , W2i , . . . , Wmi . W jimin
is the minimum value of W1i , W2i , . . . , Wmi . ∆WCi is the unevenness value of the ith convolution
pitch; τCi is called the maximum circumferential deformation unevenness coefficient (MCDUC) of the
ith convolution pitch.

Table 2. Data of the convolution pitch of the bellows after the fatigue test.

Position
θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 ... θm
Convolution Pitch No.
No.1 qe11 qe21 qe31 qe41 ... qem1
No.2 qe12 qe22 qe32 qe42 ... qem2
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
No.n qe1n qe2n qe3n qe4n ... qemn

Similarly, the value of the maximum axial deformation of a position could be determined by
Equation (5). The maximum axial deformation unevenness coefficient of the jth position can be obtained
by Equation (6).
∆WAj = W jimax − W jimin (5)
∆WAjmax
τAj = × 100% (6)
qs
where W jimax is the maximum value of W j1 , W j2 , . . . , W jn . W jimin is the minimum value of
W j1 , W j2 , . . . , W jn . ∆WAj is the axial unevenness value of the jth position; τAj is called the
maximum axial deformation unevenness coefficient (MADUC) of jth position.
 τ Aj = × 100% (6)
qs

where W ji max is the maximum value of W j1 , W j 2 ,..., W jn . W ji min is the minimum value of W j1 , W j 2 ,..., W jn .
ΔWAj is the axial unevenness value of the j th position; τ Aj is called the maximum axial
Sensors 2020, 20, 1057 6 of 15
deformation unevenness coefficient (MADUC) of j th position.
So, the maximum deformation unevenness coefficient τ of a bellows can be obtained by Equation
(7). The bellows
So, the expansion
maximum joints,unevenness
deformation which fail coefficient τ of a bellows
when τ exceeds 15%, can
are be
regarded
obtainedas
bysubstandard
Equation (7).
bellows expansion joints, which fail when τ exceeds 15%, are regarded as substandard products.
products.
The
τ = max(τ , τ ,..., τ , τ , τ ,..., τ ) (7)
τ = max(τC1 , τCC2
1
,C.2. . , τCn
Cn
, τA1A1 ,Aτ2 A2 , .Am. . , τAm ) (7)

4. Convolution
4. Convolution Pitch
Pitch Searching
Searching
An experimental
An experimental sample
sample containing
containing two two bellows
bellows expansion
expansion joints
joints produced
produced by by aa pressure
pressure vessel
vessel
manufacturer isisshown
manufacturer shownininFigure
Figure 5. 5.
The equipment
The equipment in the
in photo is an is
the photo actual experimental
an actual devicedevice
experimental which
includes two functions: Convolution pitch detection and fatigue testing.
which includes two functions: Convolution pitch detection and fatigue testing. The bellowsThe bellows expansion joint
was made of steel B315. The nominal diameter (DN) is 500 mm and the total
expansion joint was made of steel B315. The nominal diameter (DN) is 500 mm and the total heightheight of the sample is
1500
of themm. Eachisexpansion
sample joint has
1500 mm. Each four convolutions
expansion andconvolutions
joint has four was placed on andthe rotating
was placedplatform. When
on the rotating
the expansion joint was rotated to a fixed angle, the laser scanner was triggered (by
platform. When the expansion joint was rotated to a fixed angle, the laser scanner was triggered (bythe rotary encoder)
to scan
the theencoder)
rotary outer contour and
to scan theobtain
outerconvolution
contour andpitchobtaindata. Then, tension
convolution pitchand compression
data. fatigue
Then, tension and
tests were conducted 3000 times with an internal pressure of 4.0 MPa and with
compression fatigue tests were conducted 3000 times with an internal pressure of 4.0 MPa and withan axial displacement
of ±15
an axialmm. After that,of
displacement to±15
obtain
mm.the convolution
After pitch the
that, to obtain deformation,
convolution thepitch
sample was measured
deformation, by the
the sample
scanner
was again. by the scanner again.
measured

Figure 5. Actual
Figure 5. Actual experimental
experimental set-up.
set-up.

4.1. Denoising
4.1. Denoising
Placing the
Placing the part
part on
on the
the rotating
rotating platform, rotating the
platform, rotating the platform
platform toto aa specific
specific angle,
angle, and
and then
then
performing
performing aa scanscan to
to get
get 2D
2D point
point cloud
cloud data,
data, the
the 2D
2D point
point cloud
cloud information
information ofof the
the measurand
measurand waswas
obtained. The 2D information of the scanned point cloud data of the 0◦ position is shown in Figure 6.
obtained.
Sensors 2020,The
20, x2D
FORinformation
PEER REVIEWof the scanned point cloud data of the 0° position is shown in Figure 6.
7 of 16

6. Raw point cloud of the 00°◦ position.

Figure 6.
Figure

The original point data could be read from the LLS using the abovementioned system. The point
cloud of each scanning line includes 1280 points. Due to the surface roughness, surface
contamination, and material reflection, noise is inevitably produced during detection [11]. Although
the output point cloud was preprocessed by the scanning device itself, the noise points contained in
each scan line are limited. It can be seen that there was still noise existing in the raw result. Therefore,
an effective denoising method is essential for achieving high measurement accuracy.
Sensors 2020, 20, 1057 7 of 15

The original point data could be read from the LLS using the abovementioned system. The point
cloud of each scanning line includes 1280 points. Due to the surface roughness, surface contamination,
and material reflection, noise is inevitably produced during detection [11]. Although the output point
cloud was preprocessed by the scanning device itself, the noise points contained in each scan line
are limited. It can be seen that there was still noise existing in the raw result. Therefore, an effective
denoising method is essential for achieving high measurement accuracy.
The noise points in the original point cloud can be divided into two categories, over-range noise
points and outlier noise points, which require different methods for noise reduction. A pass-through
filter was used to filter the points that exceeded the measuring range of the sensor affected by the
environmental light [12]. Namely, for optical measurement, a pass-through filter served as an efficient
method for removing the noise data that were out of range.
The statistical filter could effectively remove the outlier noise points of the 3D point cloud, which
were mainly caused by the system noise or surface roughness [12]. However, this filtering method is not
suitable for the 2D point cloud. The Savitzky–Golay (S–G) algorithm is one of the effective methods for
noise reduction of electronic signals or vibration signals [13,14]. It is a novel method for random noise
reduction, in which the S–G filter adopts piecewise weighted polynomials via least-squares estimation.
Therefore, effective smoothing is achieved in extracting the original signal from the environmental
noise while retaining the shape as closely as possible to the original one. In fact, the 2D point cloud
data obtained from each line scanning can be regarded as electronic signals or vibration signals, the X
coordinate corresponds to the time axis, the Z coordinate corresponds to the amplitude, the shape
of the expansion joint is regarded as the original signal, and the outlier noise points are regarded as
noise signals. Then, S–G filters can be used to eliminate the outlier noise points. A large number of
subsequent tests have proven that this method has achieved appropriate results in noise reduction.
The S–G filter can be understood as a weighted moving average filter with weight coefficients
given as a polynomial of a certain degree. This method requires two key parameters: The window size
and the polynomial degree. It is important to choose the window length and the polynomial degrees
appropriately to achieve a good compromise between random noise reduction and effective signal
preservation [13]. In general, the polynomial degree varies from two to six. When the signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR) is high, a low-degree polynomial can be selected; otherwise, a high degree polynomial can
be selected. The window length could be adjusted by keeping the polynomial degree as a constant
until obtaining an optimal result. Generally, the SNR is usually lower in the part of the contour point
cloud data. Therefore, it is assumed in this paper that the polynomial degree is 2, 3, or 4, and the
window length is obtained through experiments.
From the discussions of above, the denoising performance of the proposed method was evaluated
on the point cloud data of bellows of different diameters. In order to find the appropriate number of
window points and polynomial degrees, the window lengths were selected to be 10 points, 20 points, 30
points, 40 points, and 50 points, and the polynomial degrees were 2, 3, or 4, respectively. A large number
of denoising tests were performed on the raw point cloud data of bellows of different specifications.
Finally, it was found that when the number of window points is 40, a good noise reduction result can
be obtained, and the polynomial degree has no obvious effect on denoising. To achieve a comparable
compromise between the denoising effect and calculation time, the final selection of window number is
40, and the polynomial degree is 3. Figure 7 show the results of the standard S–G filtering with different
numbers of window points, and the polynomial degree is 3. For easy comparison, the Z coordinates of
the point cloud data were translated for different window lengths in Figure 7. Figure 8 is a display of
two kinds of point graphs of a convolution in the same coordinate system: One is the raw dot graph
and the other is a dot graph obtained after filtering using the S–G algorithm. The polynomial degree of
the S–G algorithm is cubic and the window width is 40. It can be seen that the proposed method has
less signal distortion after denoising and has visibly better smoothing performance. After denoising,
the new point of the Z coordinate was obtained by fitting the curve while keeping the X coordinate
unchanged, and the point cloud after noise reduction was obtained.
coordinate system: One is the raw dot graph and the other is a dot graph obtained after filtering using
the S–G algorithm. The polynomial degree of the S–G algorithm is cubic and the window width is 40.
It can be seen that the proposed method has less signal distortion after denoising and has visibly
better smoothing performance. After denoising, the new point of the Z coordinate was obtained by
fitting the curve
Sensors 2020, 20, 1057while keeping the X coordinate unchanged, and the point cloud after noise reduction
8 of 15
was obtained.

Figure
Figure 7.
7. Graph
Graph of
of cubic
cubic polynomial
polynomial S–G
S–G filtering
filtering with
with different
different window points.

Figure
Figure 8. Graph
Graph of
of cubic
cubic polynomial
polynomial S–G
S–G filtering
filtering with
with 40 window points and raw dots.

4.2. Coordinate
4.2. Coordinate Transformation
Transformation
The installation
The installation errors
errors are
are inevitable
inevitable in
in an
an LSMS,
LSMS, which
which will
will affect
affect subsequent
subsequent convolution
convolution pitchpitch
detection. The installation errors are mainly generated during mounting of
detection. The installation errors are mainly generated during mounting of the bellows and the LLS.the bellows and the LLS.
According to
According to the
the principle
principle of of relative
relative motion,
motion, both
both installation
installation errors
errors cancan be
be normalized
normalized to to the
the LLS
LLS
installation errors. The installation errors mainly refer to the fact that the z -axis of
installation errors. The installation errors mainly refer to the fact that the zcc-axis of the laser scanner the laser scanner
and
and the
Sensors
the x-axis
2020, 20, x of
x-axis FOR
of the
PEER
the bellows
REVIEW
bellows is not
is not perpendicular, which will
perpendicular, which will cause
cause the the most
most serious deviations
serious deviations 9 ofin
16
in
subsequent convolution
subsequent convolution pitch pitchcalculations.
calculations.The
Theinstallation
installationerrors
errorsarearepresented
presented inin
Figure
Figure 9. 9.
Owing
Owing to
squares
the fact method.
that the z The
-axis fitted
of the straight
laser line
scanner equation
is not can be expressed
perpendicular to the as Equation
x-axis of the (8), where
bellows, a
shown is the
in
to the fact that thec zc-axis of the laser scanner is not perpendicular to the x-axis of the bellows, shown
intercept
Figure and
9a,9a,
thetheb is thecloud
point slope.data
in Figure point cloud dataobtained
obtainedbybyscanning
scanningwillwillbebedeflected,
deflected,shown
shownin in Figure
Figure 9b. In order
9b. In order
to reduce the deflection error, coordinate transformation
to reduce the deflection error, coordinate transformation should be performed, and the least
zc = a + bxc should be performed, and the least squares squares
(8)
method can
method can be
be adopted.
adopted.
Since the bellows has two cylindrical AB and CD segments at both ends, as shown in Figure 9a,
the point cloud data obtained from these two segments can beOfitted
c
zc
to a straight line using the least
A A'
B B'
O z Oc
zc
q q

C
D β
C'
β D'

x xc xc
(a) (b)
Figure 9.
Figure 9. (a)
(a) Installation
Installation error
error in
in 3D
3D space;
space; (b)
(b) point
point cloud
cloud data
data coordinate
coordinaterelationship.
relationship.

In order
Since to get the
the bellows convolution
has two pitch
cylindrical value,
AB and CDthe point cloud
segments at bothdata
ends,need to beincoordinate-
as shown Figure 9a,
transformed.
the point cloudThe coordinate
data obtainedtransformation
from these twoconsists of can
segments twobebasic transformations.
fitted The
to a straight line firstthe
using stepleast
is a
translation, that is, translating the fitted line along the Z-axis and passing the coordinate origin. The
second step is the rotation, that is, rotating the line clockwise to coincide with the X-axis. The new
point cloud coordinates after transformation can be obtained by Equation (9). Figure 10 is the result
of coordinate transformation using the above method of Figure 6.

 x  1 0 0  cos( − β ) sin( − β ) 0   xc 
 B B'
O z Oc
zc

q q
C
D β
C'
Sensors 2020, 20, 1057 β D' 9 of 15

x xc xc
squares method. The fitted straight line (a) equation can be expressed(b) as Equation (8), where a is the
intercept and b is the slope.
Figure 9. (a) Installation error in 3D space; (b) point cloud data coordinate relationship.
zc = a + bxc (8)

In order
ordertotogetget
thethe convolution
convolution pitchpitch
value,value, thecloud
the point pointdata
cloud
needdata
to beneed to be coordinate-
coordinate-transformed.
transformed.
The coordinate The coordinate transformation
transformation consists of two consists
basic of two basic transformations.
transformations. The first stepTheis afirst step is a
translation,
translation, that is, the
that is, translating translating the
fitted line fittedthe
along line alongand
Z-axis thepassing
Z-axis and passing theorigin.
the coordinate coordinate origin. step
The second The
second step is the
is the rotation, thatrotation, thatthe
is, rotating is, line
rotating the line
clockwise to clockwise to coincide
coincide with withThe
the X-axis. the new
X-axis. Thecloud
point new
point cloud after
coordinates coordinates after transformation
transformation can be obtained can by
be Equation
obtained (9).
by Equation
Figure 10(9). Figure
is the result10ofiscoordinate
the result
of coordinate transformation
transformation using the above using the above
method method
of Figure 6. of Figure 6.
   x  1 0 0 cos( − β ) sin( − β ) 0  xc  
 x   1 0 0  cos(−β) sin(−β) 0  xc 
   z  = 0 0 0 − sin( − β ) cos( − β ) 0  z 
(9)

    0  0 0  − sin(−β) cos(−β)  0 c  zc 
 z  =     (9)
   1  0 −a 1 0 0 1   1 
 1  1 
1 0 −a 1 0 0
 

1 0 0   cos(− β ) sin( − β ) 0 

 1 0 0    cos(−β) sin(−β) 0 
where  0 0 0 is a translation matrix, and a is the intercept; − sin(  − β ) cos( − β ) 0 is a rotation
where  0 0 0  is a translation matrix, and a is the intercept;   − sin(−β) cos(−β) 0  is a
   
 0 −a 1 
 0 −a 1  0 0 0 
10
 
1
matrix,
rotationand β isand
matrix, theβtilt
is angle
the tiltofangle
the fitted
of thestraight line. line.
fitted straight

Figure 10. Results

Results of
of the
the coordinate
coordinate transformation of Figure 8.

4.3. Cubic B-Spline Curve Fitting

4.3. Cubic B-Spline Curve Fitting
After noise reduction and coordinate transformation, in order to find the peak point of convolution,
After noise reduction and coordinate transformation, in order to find the peak point of
the curve fitting is usually adopted as an effective method. The bellows profile is a free-form curve, and
convolution, the curve fitting is usually adopted as an effective method. The bellows profile is a free-
the B-spline is the most effective mathematical representation of the free-form curve. It is widely used in
form curve, and the B-spline is the most effective mathematical representation of the free-form curve.
many fields such as computational geometry, image processing, machining, and measuring [15–17]. The
It is widely used in many fields such as computational geometry, image processing, machining, and
cubic B-spline curve fitting generates smooth curves with confined errors and acceptable computation
measuring [15–17]. The cubic B-spline curve fitting generates smooth curves with confined errors and
times. The experimental results encourage us to generalize this model to the bellows’ profile fitting.
acceptable computation times. The experimental results encourage us to generalize this model to the
A general pth degree planar B-spline curve f (t) with n + 1 control point ci = (xi , zi ) ∈ R2 can be
bellows’ profile fitting.
defined as 2
A general pth degree planar B-spline curveX n f ( t ) with n + 1 control point ci = ( xi , zi ) ∈ R can be
defined as f (t) = Bi,p (t)ci (10)
i=0

where Bi,p (t) is the ith Bernstein function normalized with the pth degree defined on the knot vector
n o
U = t0 , t1 , . . . , tm+p , tm+p+1 , (m + p) ≤ n. In this paper, we investigate the cubic B-spline curve, i.e., p
= 3; hence, Bi,3 (t) is the ith cubic Bernstein basis function.
Given knots t0 < t1 <, . . . , < tm+3 < tm+4 , the cubic Bernstein basis functions are defined as

i f ti ≤ t < ti+1
(
1
Bi,0 (t) = (11)
0 otherwise

f or p = 1, 2, 3, i = 0, 12, 3, . . . , m + 3 − p

t − ti ti+p+1 − t
Bi,p (t) = Bi,p−1 (t) + Bi+1,p−1 (t) (12)
ti+p − ti ti + p + 1 − ti + 1
Sensors 2020, 20, 1057 10 of 15

n o
It was found that Bi,p (t) is only associated with the knots U = ti , ti+1 , . . . , ti+p+1 . According to
the above definition, the curve in [ti , ti+1 ], i = 3, . . . , m is as follows:

fi (t) = Bi,3 (t)ci + Bi−1,3 (t)ci−1 + Bi−2,3 (t)ci−2 + Bi−3,3 (t)ci−3 (13)

According to the recurrence formulas (11) and (12), the Bernstein basis function can be represented
as follows:
( t − ti )
Bi,3 = (14a)
(ti+3 − ti )(ti+2 − ti )(ti+1 − ti )
(t−ti−1 )2 (ti+1 −t)
Bi−1,3 = (ti+2 −ti−1 )(ti+1 −ti−1 )(ti+1 −ti )
(t−t )(t−t )(t −t)
+ (t −t i−1)(t i−t i)(+t2 −t ) (14b)
i+2 i−1 i+2 i i+1 i
(t−t )2 (ti+3 −t)
+ (t −t )(ti −t
i+3 i i+2 i )(ti+1 −ti )

(t−ti−2 )(ti+1 −t)2

Bi−2,3 = (ti+1 −ti−2 )(ti+1 −ti−1 )(ti+1 −ti )
(t−t )(t −t)(ti+1 −t)
+ (t −t i−1)(t i+2−t )( (14c)
i+2 i−1 i+1 i−1 ti+1 −ti )
(t−t )2 (t−t )
+ (t −t )(i+t 2 −t )(i t −t )
i+2 i−1 i+2 i i+1 i

(ti+1 − t)3
Bi−3,3 = (14d)
(ti+1 − ti−2 )(ti+1 − ti−1 )(ti+1 − ti )
Thus, according to the above definition, the Formula (13) can be rewritten as:

(t−ti )3
fi ( t ) = (c − ci−1 )
(ti+3 −ti )(ti+2 −ti )(ti+1 −ti ) i
(t−ti−1 )3
+ (t −t )(t −t )(t −t ) (ci−2 − ci−1 )
i+2 i−1 i+1 i−1 i+1 i
(t−t )3 (15)
+ (t −t )(t i+2−t )(t −t ) (ci−2 − ci−1 )
i+2 i−1 i+2 i i+1 i
3
(t−ti+1 )
+ (t (ci−2 − ci−3 )
i+1 −ti−2 )(ti+1 −ti−1 )(ti+1 −ti )
(3t−(ti−1 +ti +ti+2 ))
+ (ti+1 −ti )
(ci−1 + ci−2 ) + ci−2 (t ∈ [ti , ti+1 ])

Furthermore, the first and second derivatives of fi (t), t ∈ [ti , ti+1 ] are

3(t−ti )2
fi0 (t) = (c − ci−1 )
(ti+3 −ti )(ti+2 −ti )(ti+1 −ti ) i
2
3(t−t )
+ (t −t )(t i−1 (ci−2 − ci−1 )
i+2 i−1 i+1 −ti−1 )(ti+1 −ti )
2
3(t−t 2 ) (16)
+ (t −t )(t i+−t (ci−2 − ci−1 )
i+2 i−1 i+2 i )(ti+1 −ti )
3(t−ti+1 )2
+ (t −t )(t −t )(t −t ) (ci−2 − ci−3 )
i+1 i−2 i+1 i−1 i+1 i
+ (t 3−t ) (ci−1 + ci−2 )
i+1 i

00 6(t−ti )
fi ( t ) = (c − ci−1 )
(ti+3 −ti )(ti+2 −ti )(ti+1 −ti ) i
6(t−ti−1 )
+ (t −t )(t −t )(t −t ) (ci−2 − ci−1 )
i+2 i−1 i+1 i−1 i+1 i
6(t−t ) (17)
+ (t −t )(t i+−t2 )(t −t ) (ci−2 − ci−1 )
i+2 i−1 i+2 i i+1 i
6(t−ti+1 )
+ (t −t )(t −t (ci−2 − ci−3 )
i+1 i−2 i+1 i−1 )(ti+1 −ti )

4.4. Convolution Pitch Calculation

As shown in Figure 11, the convolution pitch q is equal to the absolute value of the X-coordinates
subtracted from two adjacent convolutions peak points. As long as the X-coordinates of the convolutions
peak points can be explored, the convolution pitch q can be obtained. There are many peak-searching
Sensors 2020, 20, 1057 11 of 15

algorithms with different application fields [18–21]; e.g., the direct peak-searching method, the Gauss
product peak-searching method, and the second-order derivative-searching method. The peak point of
the bellows expansion joint fitting curve met the condition that the first derivative was 0 and that the
00
second derivative was negative, that is, fi0 (t) = 0 and fi (t) < 0. Therefore, the second-order derivative
searching
Sensors 2020,method
20, x FORisPEER
adopted in this paper.
REVIEW 12 of 16

f i '' (tk ) < 0 f j'' (tl ) < 0

'
f i ( tk ) = 0 f j' (tl ) = 0
Sensors 2020, 20, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16

f i '' (tk ) < 0 f j'' (tl ) < 0

f i ' ( tk ) = 0 f j' (tl ) = 0
11. Convolution
Figure 11.
Figure Convolution pitch
pitch peak
peak points.
points.

As shown in
5. Application andFigure
Error11, after two adjacent convolution fitting curves were obtained, the two peak
Analysis
points can be found by using the above derivative-searching algorithm. Then, the convolution pitch
q5.1.
is Application
Figure 11. Convolution q = |t −pitch tl | peak points. (18)
The LSMS mentioned above was evaluated onk various bellows with a range of nominal diameter
00 00
(DN)
where
5. fi0 (tk )500
from
Application to f1500
=and
0, iError
<Analysis
(tk )mm. For comparison
0 and (tl ) <manual
f j0 (tl ) = 0, f j with 0. measurements, a bellows with a nominal
diameter of 500 mm was implemented in our experiments. Figure 12 shows the detection operation
5.1.
and
5. Application
the displayand
Application interface of the convolution pitch values using the LSMS before the fatigue test. The
Error Analysis
curve in Figure 12b is a raw dot plot, and the convolution pitch values are obtained after noise
5.1. The LSMS mentioned above was evaluated on various bellows with a range of nominal diameter
Application
reduction, curve fitting, and the derivative-searching algorithm. At the same time, in order to
(DN) from 500 to 1500 mm. For comparison with manual measurements, a bellows with a nominal
compare
The of with manual
LSMS measurement, we also use on avarious
caliperbellows
to measure athe convolution pitch at the
diameter 500 mentioned above was evaluated
mm was implemented in our experiments. Figure 12 with
shows range of nominal
the detection diameter
operation
corresponding
(DN) from 500 toposition
1500 mm. before and after
Forconvolution
comparisonpitchthe fatigue
withvaluestest
manual of the same bellows
measurements, expansion
a bellows joint. The
with atest. data
nominal
and the display interface of the using the LSMS before the fatigue The
of the
diameter convolution
of 500 mm pitch in Tables 3 and 4 were obtained before and after the fatigue test by the LSMS
curve in Figure 12bwas is aimplemented
raw dot plot, in and
our experiments.
the convolution Figure 12 shows
pitch valuesthe aredetection
obtained operation and
after noise
anddisplay
the the caliper, respectively.
interface of the convolution pitch values using the LSMS before the fatigue test. The curve in
reduction, curve fitting, and the derivative-searching algorithm. At the same time, in order to
Figure 12b
compare is a manual
with raw dot measurement,
plot, and the convolution
we also use pitch valuestoare
a caliper obtained
measure the after noise reduction,
convolution pitch atcurve
the
fitting, and the derivative-searching
corresponding position before and after the fatigue algorithm. At the same time, in order to compare
test of the same bellows90expansion joint. The datawith manual
0o o

measurement,
of the convolution we pitch
also use a caliper
in Tables 3 and to measure the convolution
4 were obtained before andpitch
afteratthe
thefatigue
corresponding
test by the position
LSMS
before and after the
and the caliper, respectively. fatigue test of the same bellows expansion joint. The data of the convolution pitch in
Tables 3 and 4 were obtained before and after the fatigue test by the LSMS and the caliper, respectively.

0o 90o

180o 270o

(a) (b)
°
Figure 12. Convolution pitch detection operation and display interface. (a) Detection operation
180o 270o
interface. (b) Raw dot plot and convolution pitch values display interface.

Table
(a) 3. Data of the convolution pitch before the fatigue test
(b)(unit: mm).
Figure
Figure 12. Position
12. Convolution
Convolution pitch 0° operation
pitch detection
detection and90°
operation and display interface.180°
display interface. (a)
(a) Detection 270°
Detection operation
operation
Convolution
interface.
interface.(b)
(b)Raw
Rawdot
dotplot
plotand
and convolution
convolution pitch values
valuesdisplay
pitchLSMS display interface.
interface.
LSMS Caliper Caliper LSMS Caliper LSMS Caliper
Pitch No
No.1Table 3. Data of55.425 55.68 pitch
the convolution 61.539 61.28
before the 54.440
fatigue test (unit:54.24
mm). 56.920 56.42
No.2 59.071 58.80 54.359 54.42 55.116 55.32 57.592 57.22
No.3 Position 51.770 0° 51.40 57.94990° 57.82 48.351180° 48.50 57.424270° 57.64
Convolution
LSMS Caliper LSMS Caliper LSMS Caliper LSMS Caliper
Pitch No
No.1 55.425 55.68 61.539 61.28 54.440 54.24 56.920 56.42
Sensors 2020, 20, 1057 12 of 15

Table 3. Data of the convolution pitch before the fatigue test (unit: mm).
Position 0◦ 90◦ 180◦ 270◦
Convolution Pitch No LSMS Caliper LSMS Caliper LSMS Caliper LSMS Caliper
No.1 55.425 55.68 61.539 61.28 54.440 54.24 56.920 56.42
No.2 59.071 58.80 54.359 54.42 55.116 55.32 57.592 57.22
No.3 51.770 51.40 57.949 57.82 48.351 48.50 57.424 57.64

Table 4. Data of the convolution pitch after the fatigue test (unit: mm).
Position 0◦ 90◦ 180◦ 270◦
Convolution Pitch No LSMS Caliper LSMS Caliper LSMS Caliper LSMS Caliper
No.1 55.935 55.86 58.555 58.12 56.380 56.66 56.966 56.88
No.2 56.420 56.88 55.269 55.86 55.843 55.62 58.435 58.24
No.3 52.675 52.36 56.985 56.14 49.978 50.14 58.685 58.46

According to Equation (2), the dimensional change of the convolution pitch before and after the
fatigue test of the expansion joint is shown in Table 5. A negative value indicates that the convolution
has undergone compressive plastic deformation at this position, while a positive value implies that the
convolution has undergone tensile plastic deformation.

Table 5. Dimensional change of the convolution pitch (unit: mm).

Position 0◦ 90◦ 180◦ 270◦
Convolution Pitch No LSMS Caliper LSMS Caliper LSMS Caliper LSMS Caliper
No.1 0.510 0.18 −2.984 −3.16 1.940 2.42 0.046 0.46
No.2 −2.651 −1.92 0.910 1.44 0.727 0.30 0.843 1.02
No.3 0.905 0.96 −0.964 −1.68 1.627 1.64 1.261 0.82

According to Equation (1) and the data in Table 3, using the LSMS and calipers to measure the
convolution pitch, the calculated qs values were 55.83 and 55.73 mm, respectively. According to
Equations (4), (6), and (7) and the data in Table 5, we calculated τCi and τAi , shown in Tables 6 and 7.
It can be seen from Tables 6 and 7 that the maximum deformation unevenness coefficients τ were
8.82% and 10.1%, respectively. Whether it was measured with a caliper or the LSMS, if the maximum
deformation unevenness coefficient did not exceed a maximum limit of 15%, then the expansion joint
did not fail, meaning that the expansion joint is a qualified product. That is to say, the result is the
same whether measured with calipers or the LSMS.

Table 6. Maximum circumferential deformation unevenness coefficient (MCDUC) for different convolutions
(unit: %).

Convolution Pitch No No.1 No.2 No.3

MCDUC LSMS Caliper LSMS Caliper LSMS Caliper
τCi 8.82 10.1 6.38 6.03 4.64 5.96

Table 7. MCDUC for different positions (unit: %).

Position 0◦ 90◦ 180◦ 270◦

MCDUC LSMS Caliper LSMS Caliper LSMS Caliper LSMS Caliper
τAi 6.37 5.17 6.97 8.25 2.17 3.80 2.18 1.00

5.2. Comparative Analysis

As shown in Table 5, due to the difference in the accuracy between the calipers and the LSMS, the
values of W ji at the same position are almost different from each other. The difference of the W ji using
the LSMS and calipers to detect can be expressed by Equation (19).
Sensors 2020, 20, 1057 13 of 15

∆ = LW ji − CW (19)
ji

where LW ji is equal to the value of W ji , which is obtained after calculations based on the LSMS detection
data; similarly, CW is equal to the value of W ji , which is obtained after calculations based on caliper
ji
detection data.
According to Equation (19) and the data in Table 5, the values of ∆ at any position are shown in
Table 8. The maximum, minimum, and average of ∆ are 0.731, 0.013, and 0.37 mm. Compared with
the measurement accuracy of calipers, the fluctuation range of ∆ is a bit large. We believe that this
is mainly due to the lack of a fixed detection datum when using calipers to detect. There is a large
random error in the measurement process, that is, traditional detection methods rely heavily on the
operator. In addition, 0.37/qs = 0.37/55.83 = 0.66% << 15%, the probability of misjudgment using
manual measurement is not very high. However, compared with automatic measurement using the
LSMS, the efficiency and accuracy of manual measurement are relatively low.

Table 8. Data of ∆ at different positions (unit: mm).

Position 0◦ 90◦ 180◦ 270◦

Convolution Pitch No ∆
No.1 0.33 0.176 0.48 0.414
No.2 0.731 0.53 0.427 0.177
No.3 0.055 0.716 0.013 0.441

5.3. Error Analysis

According to the analysis, as long as the same position data detected before and after the fatigue
test are compared, the influence of other measurement errors due to mechanical transmission on the test
results can be ignored. So, we did repeated positioning error analyses. This system uses a closed-loop
drive system. A 5000-plus rotary encoder was installed under the motorized rotating platform so that
◦
the maximum angular error of the bellows would not exceed 0.072 , and the nominal diameter range
of the detected bellows was from 500 to 1500 mm. The circumferential error range was from 0.628 to
1.884 mm. That is, the deviation of the position detected before and after the fatigue test did not exceed
1.884 mm. Because the shape of the bellows changed continuously, the change of the convolution pitch
was very small in the range of arc length of less than 2 mm.
In order to verify the influence of the repeated positioning accuracy of the system on the
measurement error, we performed multiple measurements on a bellows expansion joint. Table 9 shows
the detection results of a nominal diameter of 500 mm at a position of 270◦ . To ensure the data is reliable,
it must return to the zero degree position after each scan, that is, after each measurement, the bellows is
rotated to the 0◦ position and then rotated to the 270◦ position for the second measurement.

Table 9. Convolution pitch data of multiple measurements at the 270◦ position (unit: mm).
Measurement No
Convolution Pitch No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
No.1 56.920 55.924 55.926 55.922 55.915 55.920 55.922 55.923
No.2 57.592 57.596 57.595 57.588 57.590 57.591 57.593 57.594
No.3 57.424 57.428 57.422 57.420 57.425 57.420 57.430 57.428

Based on the first measurement result, it can be seen from the data in Table 8 that the maximum
repeatability error is 0.006 mm. The measurement accuracy required by this detection system is
0.05 mm, so the repeat positioning accuracy of the wave distance measurement system meets the
requirements. This result is consistent with the above analysis.
Sensors 2020, 20, 1057 14 of 15

6. Conclusions
The primary aim of this paper was to propose a new method for convolution pitch detection
of bellows expansion joints. According to the requirements of convolution pitch detection and the
external shape characteristics of bellows, a non-contact measuring system based on laser scanning has
been developed in the present work. The system was used in the laboratory for more than two years
and has been continuously improved. After convolution pitch detection of 34 bellows expansion joints
of different specifications, the system tends to be stable and runs well. Compared with traditional
manual detection methods, which rely heavily on the operator, several problems have been solved;
for example, the detection time is only one third of the manual detection time. At the same time,
the proposed method has several other advantages, such as improving the accuracy, realizing online
automatic detection, and reducing the labor intensity of detection. However, the convolution pitch
cannot be detected dynamically during the fatigue test in the developed LSMS, and there is a certain
blind zone in the laser scanning measurement. The binocular vision technology can be employed in
the future to eliminate the measurement blind zone and to realize the dynamic detection of bellows
expansion joints.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.L. (Ying Liu), Z.C. and Y.Y.; methodology, Y.L. (Ying Liu), Z.C. and
Y.Y.; validation, Y.Y., Y.L. (Yuting Li) and Z.H.; software, Y.L. (Yuting Li) and Z.H.; resources, Z.C., Y.Y. and B.G.;
writing—original draft preparation, Y.Y. and Y.L. (Yuting Li); writing—review and editing, Y.L. (Ying Liu) and
Z.C.; visualization, Y.Y., Y.L. (Yuting Li) and Z.H.; supervision, Y.Y.; project administration, Y.L. (Ying Liu) and
Y.Y.; funding acquisition, Y.L. (Ying Liu) and Y.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This study was funded by the Scientific Project of General Administration of Quality Supervision,
Inspection and Quarantine of the People’s Republic of China (AQSIQ) (Project#: 2014JIANGS09) and the Project of
Jiangsu Province Special Equipment Safety Supervision and Inspection Institute (Project#: KJ(Y)2014013).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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