Fluid Mechanics

Index

Topics Page

1. Fluid Properties 2

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2. Manometry and Buoyancy & Hydrostatic Forces on Surface 14

3. Fluid Kinematics

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4. Fluid Dynamics and Flow Measurements

5. Flow-through Pipes & Boundary Layer Theory

37

46

54
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6. Pumps and Turbines 70

7. Dimensional Analysis 94
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8. Hydraulic Turbines and Pump 101

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 Fluid Properties

Basic Concept

• A substance in the liquid / gas phase is referred to as ‘fluid’.

• The distinction between a solid & fluid is made on the basis of the
substance’s ability to resist an applied shear (tangential) stress that
tends to change its shape. A solid can resist an applied shear by
deforming its shape whereas a fluid deforms continuously under the
influence of shear stress, no matter how small is its shape. In solids,
stress is proportional to strain, but in fluids, stress is proportional to

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‘strain rate.’

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Illustration of solid and fluid deformation
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Referring to Fig., the shear modulus of solid (S ) and coefficient of viscosity (µ
) for fluid can defined in the following manner;
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Here, the shear force (F ) is acting on the certain cross-sectional area ( A),
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h is the height of the solid block / height between two adjacent layer of the
fluid element,

∆x is the elongation of the solid block and ∆u is the velocity gradient between
two adjacent layers of the fluid.

• So, a Fluid is a substance which deforms continuously, or flows, when

subjected to shearing forces.
 • If a fluid is at rest there are no shearing forces acting. All forces must be
perpendicular to the planes which they are acting.
• Fluid can be treated as continuum and the properties at any point can
be treated as bulk behavior of the fluids.

Newton’s Law of Viscosity

• The shearing force F acts on the area on the top of the element. This
area is given by A = δz × δx . We can thus calculate the shear stress
which is equal to force per unit area i.e.

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shear stress, τ = F/A

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• The deformation which this shear stress causes is measured by the size
of the angle φ and is know as shear strain.
• In a solid shear strain, φ, is constant for a fixed shear stress τ.
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• In a fluid φ increases for as long as τ is applied - the fluid flows.

• If the particle at point E (in the above figure) moves under the shear
stress to point E’ and it takes time t to get there, it has moved the
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distance x. For small deformations we can write

shear strain, φ = x/y

rate of shear strain =φ/t = x/ty = x/t.1/y = u/y

where x/t = u is the velocity of the particle at E

Using the experimental result that shear stress is proportional to rate of shear
strain then
 τ = Constant × u/y

The term u/y is the change in velocity with y, or the velocity gradient, and may
be written in the differential form du/dy . The constant of proportionality is
known as the dynamic viscosity, µ , of the fluid, giving

Fluids vs. Solids

• For a solid the strain is a function of the applied stress (providing that
the elastic limit has not been reached). For a fluid, the rate of strain is
proportional to the applied stress.

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• The strain in a solid is independent of the time over which the force is
applied and (if the elastic limit is not reached) the deformation
disappears when the force is removed. A fluid continues to flow for as

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long as the force is applied and will not recover its original form when
the force is removed.

Newtonian / Non-Newtonian Fluids

• Fluids obeying Newton’s law where the value of µ is constant are known
as Newtonian fluids. If µ is constant the shear stress is linearly
dependent on velocity gradient. This is true for most common fluids.
• Fluids in which the value of µ is not constant are known as non-
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Newtonian fluids.

Other types of Fluids

• There are several categories of these, and they are outlined briefly
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below. These categories are based on the relationship between shear

stress and the velocity gradient (rate of shear strain) in the fluid. These
relationships can be seen in the graph below for several categories.
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Below are brief description of the physical properties of the several categories
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1. Plastic: Shear stress must reach a certain minimum before flow
commences
2. Bingham plastic: As with the plastic above a minimum shear stress
must be achieved. With this classification n = 1. An example is sewage
sludge.
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3. Pseudo-plastic: No minimum shear stress necessary and the viscosity

decreases with rate of shear, e.g. colloidial substances like clay, milk,
quicksand and cement.
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4. Dilatant substances; Viscosity increases with rate of shear

e.g. cornflour, printing inks and vinyl resin pastes.
5. Thixotropic substances: Viscosity decreases with length of time shear
force is applied e.g. thixotropic jelly paints.
6. Rheopectic substances: Viscosity increases with length of time shear
force is applied
7. Viscoelastic materials: Similar to Newtonian but if there is a sudden
large change in shear they behave like plastic.
8. There is also one more - which is not real, it does not exist - known as
the ideal fluid. This is a fluid which is assumed to have no viscosity.
 Properties of Fluid

• Any characteristic of a system is called property. It may either

be intensive (mass independent) or extensive (that depends on size of
system). The state of a system is described by its properties. Most
common properties of the fluid are:

1. Pressure ( p): It is the normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. More
details will be available in the subsequent section (Lecture 02). In SI
system the unit and dimension of pressure can be written as, N/m2 and
ML-1 T-2 , respectively.

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2. Density: The density of a substance is the quantity of matter contained
in unit volume of the substance.

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It is expressed in three different ways; mass density (ρ = mass/volume),

specific weight(ρg ) and relative density/specific gravity water SG = ρ/ρwater

The units and dimensions are given as, For mass density; Dimension: M L-
3
Unit: kg/m3

For specific weight; Dimension: ML-2 T-2 Unit: N/m3

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The standard values for the density of water and air are given
as 1000kg/m3 and 1.2 kg/m3 , respectively. Many a times the reciprocal of
mass density is called as specific volume ( v ).

3. Temperature (T ): It is the measure of hotness and coldness of a system. In

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thermodynamic sense, it is the measure of internal energy of a system. Many

a times, the temperature is expressed in centigrade scale (°C) where the
freezing and boiling point of water is taken as 0°C and 100°C, respectively. In
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SI system, the temperature is expressed in terms of absolute value in Kelvin

scale (K = °C+ 273).

4. Viscosity: Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. It

determines the fluid strain rate that is generated by a given applied shear
stress.
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Velocity profile and shear stress

• A Newtonian fluid has a linear relationship between shear stress and

•
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velocity gradient:

The shear stress is proportional to the slope of the velocity profile and
is greatest at the wall.
The no‐slip condition: at the wall velocity is zero relative to the wall.
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•
This is a characteristic of all viscous fluid.
• The linearity coefficient in the equation is the coefficient of
viscosity, µ(Ns/m2), We can also use the kinematic viscosity ν(m2/s)
=µ/ρ
• Temperature has a strong and pressure has a moderate effect on
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viscosity. The viscosity of gases and most liquids increases slowly

with pressure.
• Gas viscosity increases with temperature. Two common
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approximations are the power law and the Sutherland law

• Liquid viscosity decreases with temperature and is roughly exponential.

5. Thermal Conductivity(k ): It relates the rate of heat flow per unit area (q)to
the temperature gradient dT/dx and is governed by Fourier Law of heat
conduction i.e.

q = -k.dT/dx
 In SI system the unit and dimension of pressure can be written as, W/m.K
and MLT-3 θ-1 , respectively

6. Surface Tension:

When a liquid and gas or two immiscible liquids are in contact, an unbalanced
force is developed at the interface stretched over the entire fluid mass. The
intensity of molecular attraction per unit length along any line in the surface is
called as surface tension. For example, in a spherical liquid droplet of radius
(r), the pressure difference (∆p) between the inside and outside surface of the
droplet is given by,

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∆p = 2 σ/ r

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Reason: - Cohesive force b/w molecules.

Definition: - Force required to maintain unit length of the film in equilibrium,

means force per unit length

Unit:- (N/m)

→ Due to surface tension

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Increasing internal pressure of droplet.

The tendency of liquid droplet to attain minimum surface area at a given

volume, only for this reason, shape of droplet is “Sphere”.

NOTE:-
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Minimum surface area at a given volume = surface area of sphere.

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Dependency of surface tension:-

Temperature:-

If temperature increases, cohesive force decreases and this will results in

decrease in surface tension

If continuous decreasing in temperature takes place than surface tension

becomes zero at “critical point of temperature”.
 Additives or {impurities}

Surfactants:-

→ Reduce the surface tension

Ex. Organic solute

Some salt [NaCl] increase the surface tension

Curved surface indicate pressure difference (mean pressure jump)

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Pressure higher on concave side (in given figure)

Pressure difference between pi and p0 for

Soap bubble:

Water Droplet:
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Where σ is surface tension and R is the radius of curvature for bubble or
droplets.
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7. Capillary action: Capillary action (sometimes capillarity, capillary motion, or

wicking) is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the
assistance of, or even in opposition to, external forces like gravity. It occurs
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because of intermolecular forces between the liquid and surrounding solid

surfaces. If the diameter of the tube is sufficiently small, then the combination
of surface tension (which is caused by cohesion within the liquid) and
adhesive forces between the liquid and container wall act to propel the liquid.
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Capillary action of water compared to mercury, in each case with respect to a
polar surface such as glass

Capillary Effect:

•
•
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Reason:- Cohesive force or surface tension and Adhesive forces. (Both force
responsible for Capillary effect)

Curved free surface inside the capillaries is called meniscus.

Rise or fall of liquid inside the tube is due to contact angle b/w liquid
surface and capillary tube.
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NOTE: if then

• Level of liquid inside the tube is rise

• Liquid is known as Wetting liquid
• In this case: cohesive force >adhesive force
 If then

• Level of liquid fall inside the tube

• liquid is known as Non-wetting liquid

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• In this case:-

contact point.

Height of a meniscus
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Angle b/w tangent to the liquid surface and solid surface at the

The height h of a liquid column is given by

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where γ is the liquid-air surface tension (force/unit length), θ is the contact
angle, ρ is the density of liquid (mass/volume), g is the local acceleration due
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to gravity (length/square of time), and r is the radius of tube.

Thus the thinner the space in which the water can travel, the further up it goes.
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Observations

• For water –glass interface

So this results in
 • Height of capillary rise is a function of

• If diameter of tube > 1 cm than Capillary effect negligible

8. Bulk Modulus of Elasticity:

• Compressibility of liquid is measured by bulk modulus of elasticity.

Bulk modulus is represented the compressive stress per unit volumetric

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•
strain.
• Bulk modules k

of pressure
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K → always positive or is a positive quantity having unit

• Truly incompressible substance: means

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So, K (bulk modulus) = ∞

Note:

K increase means Resistance to further compression increases.

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• For liquid K increases with decreases in temperature: with decrease in

temperature cohesive force between molecules increases, which results
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in higher resistance to further compression.

• For gases K increases with increases in temperature: With increase in
temperature, collision between gas particle increases and results in
higher internal pressure so the resistance to further compression
increases.

9. Vapour Pressure and cavitation:

 • Saturation Temperature:
For a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance
changes phase is known as saturation temperature
• Saturation Pressure:
At a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance changes
phase.

Example: at 1 atm pressure (const. pressure) saturation temperature is 100 c

and at constant temp. 100 c saturation pressure for water is 1 atm.

Vapour Pressure:

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• For liquid, pressure exerted by its vapour, in phase equilibrium with its
liquid at a given temperature
•

•
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Vapour pressure increases [with temperature with increases and rate
molecules escaping liquid surface increasing
When vapour pressure equal to pressure on the liquid – boiling occur.

Cavitation:

• Cavitation is a phenomenon which occurs in a liquid flow system.

• If liquid undergo pressure below vapour pressure
during flow, than sudden vaporization takes place
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• Vapour bubbles collapse as they are swept from the low
pressure region, generating highly destructive pressure waves.
• Cavitation can also occur if a liquid contains dissolved air or other
gases, {Reason-Solubilities Decrease with decreasing pressure}
• Risk of cavitation is greater at higher temperatures.
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Example: Given a flow system (water) and Temperature is 36 c. Find the

minimum pressure to avoid cavitation?
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Solution: Minimum pressure to avoid cavitation is equal to vapour pressure of

that liquid at given temperature for water

Note:

1. Partial pressure is the pressure exerted by a component in a mixture of

gases.
 2. for pure substance vapour pressure and saturation pressure, both are
equal.
3. If external pressure is equal to or less than the vapour pressure, boiling
of liquid will start no matter how much temperature.

Manometry and Buoyancy & Hydrostatic Forces on Surface

Manometry

• The pressure is proportional to the height of a column of fluid.

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• Manometry is the field of science which deals with the evaluation of the
pressure of the fluid.
• The instrument used to carry out the complete process is termed a

•
Manometer.

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Types of Manometers: Barometer, Piezometer and U-tube Manometer.

Manometers use the relationship between pressure and head to measure

pressure.

Relation between Hydrostatic pressure & Head

We have the vertical pressure relationship p = ρgz + constant measuring z from

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the free surface so that z = -h and surface pressure is atmospheric,patm
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 We generally assume atmospheric pressure as the datum,

Gauge pressure, pg = ρgh

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The lower limit of any pressure is the pressure in a perfect vacuum. Pressure
measured above a perfect vacuum (zero) is known as absolute pressure.

Absolute pressure, pa = ρgh+ patmospheric

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Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric

Piezometer Tube Manometer

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• The simplest manometer is an open tube. This is attached to the top of a

container with liquid at pressure. containing liquid at a pressure.
• The tube is open to the atmosphere, The pressure measured is relative to
atmospheric so it measures gauge pressure.
• Pressure at A = pressure due to column of liquid h1

pa = ρgh1

• Pressure at B = pressure due to column of liquid h2

 Pb = ρgh2

Limitations of Piezometer:

• Can only be used for liquids

• Pressure must above atmospheric
• Liquid height must be convenient i.e. not be too small or too large

U-tube Manometer

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It consists of a U shaped bend whose one end is attached to the gauge
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•
point ‘A’ and the other end is open to the atmosphere.
• It can measure both positive and negative (suction) pressures.
• “U”-Tube enables the pressure of both liquids and gases to be measured
“U” is connected as shown and filled with manometric fluid.
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Note:

• The manometric fluid density should be greater than of the fluid measured,
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ρman > ρ
• The two fluids should not be able to mix they must be immiscible.

• Pressure in a continuous static fluid is the same at any horizontal level,

pressure at B = pressure at C

PB = PC

• For the left-hand arm pressure at B

o pressure at A + pressure of height of liquid being measured
 PB = PA + ρgh1

• For the right-hand arm pressure at C =

o pressure at D + pressure of height of manometric liquid

PC = P + ρmanogh2

We are measuring gauge pressure we can subtract patmospheric giving

PB = PC

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PA = P +ρmanogh2- ρgh1

Differential U-Tube Manometer

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A U-Tube manometric liquid is heavier than the liquid for which the
pressure difference is to be measured and is not immiscible with it.
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• The pressure difference between A and B is given by equation

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PA – PB = ρ2h2 + ρ3h3 – ρ1h1

Inverted U-Tube Manometer

• Inverted U-Tube manometer consists of an inverted U Tube containing a

light liquid.
• This is used to measure the differences of low pressures between two
points where better accuracy is required.
• It generally consists of an air cock at top of the manometric fluid type.
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Micro Manometer

•
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Pressure difference can be calculated from equation:

P1 – ρ1gH2 – ρmg(H1– H2)=P2 – ρ2gH1

Micro Manometer is the modified form of a simple manometer whose one

limb is made of larger cross sectional area.
It measures very small pressure differences with high precision.
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•
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Let ‘a’ = area of the tube, A = area of the reservoir, h3 = Falling liquid level
reservoir,

h2 = Rise of the liquid in the tube,

 • By Volume Equality, Ah3 = ah2
• Equating pressure heads at datum,

P1 = (ρm – ρ1)gh3 + ρmgh2 – ρ1gh1

Inclined Manometer

• An inclined manometer is used for the measurement of small pressures

and is to measure more accurately than the vertical tube type manometer.
• Due to inclination, the distance moved by the fluid in manometer is more.

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•
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Pressure difference between A and B is given by equation

PA – PB = ρ2LsinΘ + ρ3h2 – ρ1h1

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Buoyancy

Buoyancy is also known as buoyant force. It is the force exerted on an object that
is wholly or partly immersed in a fluid.
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 Concept of Buoyancy: When a body is immersed in a fluid, an upward force is
exerted by fluid on the body which is equal to weight of fluid displaced by body.
This acts as upward.

Archimedes’ Principle: It states, when a body is immersed completely or partially

in a fluid, it is lifted up by a force equal to weight of fluid displaced by the body.

Buoyant force = Weight of fluid displaced by body

Buoyant force on cylinder =Weight of fluid displaced by cylinder

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VSm = Value of immersed part of solid or Volume of fluid displaced

FB = Pwater X g X Volume of cylinder immersed inside the water

=
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(w = mg = pVg)

Principle of Flotation: According to this principle, if weight of body is equal to

buoyant force then, body will float.

FB = mg
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• The factors that affect buoyancy are: the density of the fluid, the volume of
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the fluid displaced, and the local acceleration due to gravity.

• The buoyant force is not affected by the mass of the immersed object or
the density of the immersed object.

Center of Buoyancy: The point at which force of buoyancy acts is

called center of buoyancy. It lies on center of gravity of volume of fluid displaced
or center of gravity of the part of the body which is inside the water. Point B is
the center of buoyancy.
 Buoyancy on a submerged body:

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• The Archimedes principle states that the buoyant force on a submerged
body is equal to the weight of liquid displaced by the body, and acts

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vertically upward through the centroid of the displaced volume.
Thus the net weight of the submerged body, (the net vertical downward
force experienced by it) is reduced from its actual weight by an amount
that equals the buoyant force.

Buoyancy on a partially immersed body:

• According to Archimedes principle, the buoyant force of a partially

immersed body is equal to the weight of the displaced liquid.
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• Therefore the buoyant force depends upon the density of the fluid and the
submerged volume of the body.
• For a floating body in static equilibrium and in the absence of any other
external force, the buoyant force must balance the weight of the body.
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Metacentre of a Floating Body: If a body that is floating in liquid is given a small

angular displacement, it starts oscillating about some point M. This point is
called the metacentre.
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 The equilibrium of a submerged body in a liquid requires that the weight of the
body acting through its centre of gravity should be colinear with equal
hydrostatic lift acting through the centre of buoyancy. Let us suppose that a body
is given a small angular displacement and then released. Then it will be said to
be in distance MG is called metacentric height (it is the distance between the
gravity centre and metacentre)

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•
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Stability of Submerged Body: It is classified into three groups.

Stable Equilibrium: When the centre of buoyancy lies above the centre of
gravity, the submerged body is stable.
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• Unstable Equilibrium: When B lies below G, then body is in unstable

equilibrium.
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 • Neutral Equilibrium: When B and G coincide then, body is in neutral
equilibrium.

Stability of Floating Bodies: When the body undergoes an angular displacement

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about a horizontal axis, the shape of the immersed volume changes and so the
centre of buoyancy moves relative to the body.

• Stale Equilibrium: When a body is given a small angular displacement by

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external means and if body comes to its original position due to internal
forces then, it is called stable equilibrium.
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It occurs, when metacentre lies above centre of gravity.

• Unstable Equilibrium: In the above case, if body does not come in its
original position and moves further away then, it is known as unstable
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equilibrium. M lies below centre of gravity.

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• Neutral equilibrium: When a body is given a small angular displacement

and it sets on new position then, body is called in neutral equilibrium. In
this, M and G coincide.
 • Relation between B,G and M is

GM = I/V - BG

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Here, l = Least moment of inertia of plane of body at water surface

G = Centre of gravity

B = Centre of buoyancy

M = Metacentre
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V is volume submerged inside the water can be given as

Where b,d and x are the length, width and depth of the section or body.
 • BG is the distance between centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy. (In
other words, BG=distance between centre of gravity of whole body and

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centre of gravity of submerged part of body)
• When we find out GM then, we can determine the status of body as
o GM > 0 (stable equilibrium),
o GM < 0 (unstable equilibrium),

Fluid Statics

•
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o GM = 0 (neutral equilibrium )

Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces

Fluid Statics deals with fluids at rest while Fluid Dynamics studies fluids in
motion.
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• Any force developed is only due to normal stresses i.e, pressure. Such a
condition is termed the hydrostatic condition.
• Fluid Statics is also known as Hydrostatics.
• A static fluid can have no shearing force acting on it, and that any force
between the fluid and the boundary must be acting at right angles to the
boundary.
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• For an element of fluid at rest, the element will be in equilibrium. The sum
of the components of forces in any direction will be zero. The sum of the
moments of forces on the element about any point must also be zero.
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• Within a fluid, the pressure is same at all the points in all the directions.
• Pressure at the wall of any vessel is perpendicular to the wall
• Pressure due to depth is P = ρgh, and is the same at any horizontal level of
connected fluid.

Fluid Pressure at a Point

• If a fluid is Stationary, then force acting on any surface or area is

perpendicular to that surface.
 • If the force exerted on each unit area of a boundary is the same, the
pressure is said to be uniform

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Pascal’s Law for Pressure At A Point

It states that pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a static fluid

(fluid is in rest) is equal in all directions. If fluid is not in motion then
according to Pascal’s law,
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px = py = pz

where, px, py and pz are the pressure at point x,y,z respectively.

General Equation For Variation Of Pressure in a Static Fluid

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(A cylindrical element of fluid at an arbitrary orientation)

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Vertical Variation Of Pressure in a Fluid Under Gravity
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Taking upward as positive, we have

Vertical cylindrical element of fluid cross sectional area = A

mass density = ρ
 The forces involved are:

• Force due to p1 on A (upward) = p1. A

• Force due to p2 on A (downward) = p2. A
• Force due to weight of element (downward) = mg

= mass density x volume x g

= ρ.g.A.(z2 - z1)

Thus in a fluid under gravity, pressure decreases linearly with increase in height

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p2 - p1 = ρgA(z2 - z1 )

This is the hydrostatic pressure change.

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Equality Of Pressure At The Same Level In A Static Fluid
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Horizontal cylindrical element cross sectional area = A

mass density =ρ
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left end pressure = pl

right end pressure = pr

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For equilibrium, the sum of the forces in the x direction is zero= pl. A = pr. A

pl = pr

So, Pressure in the horizontal direction is constant.

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As we know, pl = pr

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Thus, pressure at the two equal levels is the same.

Total Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surfaces

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• For horizontal plane surface submerged in liquid, or plane surface inside a

gas chamber, or any plane surface under the action of uniform hydrostatic
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pressure, the total hydrostatic force is given by

F = p. A

where p is the uniform pressure and A is the area.

• In general, the total hydrostatic pressure on any plane surface is equal to

the product of the area of the surface and the unit pressure at its center of
gravity.
 F = pcg. A

where pcg is the pressure at the center of gravity.

• For homogeneous free liquid at rest, the equation can be expressed in

terms of unit weight γ of the liquid.

F=γh'A

where h' is the depth of liquid above the centroid of the submerged area.

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Derivation of Formulas(Not required for exam)

The figure shown below is an inclined plane surface submerged in a liquid. The
total area of the plane surface is given by A, cg is the center of gravity, and cp is
the center of pressure.

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(Forces on a inclined plane surface)

The differential force dF acting on the element dA is

dF=p. dA

dF=γ. h. dA
 From the figure

h=ysinθ,
dF=γ.(ysinθ). dA

Integrate both sides and note that γ and θ are constants,

F=γ. sinθ. ∫y.dA

So, F=γ. sin⁡θ. ∫y.dA

Recall from Calculus that

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∫y.dA=A.y¯

Hence, F=(γ.sinθ)A.y¯

F=γ. (y¯sinθ). A
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From the figure, y¯sinθ=h¯, thus,

F = γh¯A

The product γh¯¯ is a unit pressure at the centroid at the plane area, thus, the
formula can be expressed in a more general term below:
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F = pcg. A

Location of Total Hydrostatic Force (Eccentricity)

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From the figure above, S is the intersection of the prolongation of the submerged
area to the free liquid surface. Taking moment about point S.
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Fyp=∫y. dF

Where

dF=γ(ysinθ)dA
F=γ(y¯sinθ)A

[γ(y¯sinθ)A]yp =∫y[γ(ysinθ)dA][γ(y¯sin⁡θ)A]yp

=∫y[γ(ysin⁡θ)dA]
 (γsinθ)Ay¯yp=(γsinθ)∫y2dA(γsin⁡θ)Ay¯yp

=(γsin⁡θ)∫y2dA

Ay¯yp=∫y2dA

Again from Calculus, ∫y2dA is called moment of inertia denoted by I Since our
reference point is S,

Ay¯yp=IS

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Thus,

yp =IS/Ay¯

become

yp=(Ig+Ay¯2)/Ay¯ or

yp=y¯+Ig/Ay¯
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By transfer formula for moment of inertia IS=Ig+Ay¯2, the formula for yp will

From the figure above, yp=y¯+e, thus, the distance between cg and cp is
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Eccentricity, e=Ig/Ay¯

Example 1
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An opening in a dam is covered with a plate of 1 m square and is hinged on the

top and inclined at 60 0 to the horizontal. If the top edge of the gate is 2 m below
the water level what is the force required to open the gate by pulling a chain set
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at 450 angle with the plate and set to the lower end of the plate. The plate weighs
2200 N.

Solution:
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jk

Total Hydrostatic Force on Curved Surfaces:

• In the case of curved surface submerged in liquid at rest, it is more

convenient to deal with the horizontal and vertical components of the total
force acting on the surface. Note: the discussion here is also applicable to
plane surfaces.
 • Horizontal Component: The horizontal component of the total hydrostatic
force on any surface is equal to the pressure on the vertical projection of
that surface.

FH=pcg. A

• Vertical Component: The vertical component of the total hydrostatic force

on any surface is equal to the weight of either real or imaginary liquid
above it.

FV=γ. V

e
• Total Hydrostatic Force:

F=√(FH2+FV2)

• Direction of F:

tanθx=FV/FH
om
Case 1: Liquid is above the curve surface

The vertical component of the hydrostatic force is downward and equal to the
volume of the real liquid above the submerged surface.
c hr
jk
 Case 2: Liquid is below the curve surface

The vertical component of the hydrostatic force is going upward and equal to the
volume of the imaginary liquid above the surface.

e
Example 2
om
hr
The length of a tainter gate is 1 m perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Find
out the total horizontal force on the gate and the total hydrostatic force on the
gate.

Solution:
c
jk
 e
Example 3:
om
A quarter circle (10 m diameter) gate which is 10 m wide perpendicular to the
paper holds water as shown in the figure. Find the force required to hold the gate.
hr
The weight of the gate can be neglected.

Solution:
c
jk
 e
om
hr
Fluid Kinematics

• Fluid Kinematics deals with the motion of fluids such as displacement,

velocity, acceleration, and other aspects. This topic is useful in terms of
exam and knowledge of the candidate.
Kinematics is the branch of classical mechanics that describes the
c

•
motion of bodies and systems without consideration of the forces the
cause the motion.
jk

Types of Fluid Flows

Fluid flow may be classified under the following headings;

Steady & Unsteady Flow

 e
Uniform & Non-uniform Flow

om
hr
Laminar & Turbulent Flow
c
jk

Rotational & Irrotational Flow

 Combining these, the most common flow types are:

e
• Steady uniform flow
o Conditions do not change with position in the stream or with time.
o E.g. flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter at a constant

•
velocity.

om
Steady non-uniform flow
o Conditions change from point to point in the stream but do not
change with time.
o E.g. Flow in a tapering pipe with constant velocity at the inlet.
Unsteady uniform flow
o At a given instant in time the conditions at every point are the
same but will change with time.
hr
o E.g. A pipe of constant diameter connected to a pump pumping at
a constant rate which is then switched off.
• Unsteady non-uniform flow
o Every condition of the flow may change from point to point and
with time at every point.
c

o E.g. Waves in a channel

Flow Pattern
jk

Three types of fluid element trajectories are defined: Streamlines,

Pathlines, and Streaklines.

• Pathline is the actual path travelled by an individual fluid particle over

some time period. The pathline of a fluid element A is simply the path it
takes through space as a function of time. An example of a pathline is
the trajectory taken by one puff of smoke which is carried by the steady
or unsteady wind.
• Timeline is a set of fluid particles that form a line at a given instant.
 • Streamline is a line that is everywhere tangent to the velocity field.
Streamlines are obtained analytically by integrating the equations
defining lines tangent to the velocity field as illustrated in the figure
below:

e
om
hr
where u,v, and w are the velocity components in x, y and z directions
respectively as sketched

• Streakline is the locus of particles that have earlier passed through a

c

prescribed point.A streakline is associated with a particular point P in

space which has the fluid moving past it. All points which pass through
this point are said to form the streakline of point P. An example of a
jk

streakline is the continuous line of smoke emitted by a chimney at point

P, which will have some curved shape if the wind has a time-varying
direction
• Streamtube: The streamlines passing through all these points form the
surface of a stream-tube. Because there is no flow across the surface,
each cross-section of the streamtube carries the same mass flow. So
the streamtube is equivalent to a channel flow embedded in the rest of
the flow field.
 Note:

e
• The figure below illustrates streamlines, pathlines, and streaklines for
the case of a smoke being continuously emitted by a chimney at point
P, in the presence of a shifting wind.
•
•
om
In a steady flow, streamlines, pathlines, and streaklines all coincide.
In this example, they would all be marked by the smoke line.
c hr

Velocity of Fluid Particle

jk

• Velocity of a fluid along any direction can be defined as the rate of

change of displacement of the fluid along that direction
• Let V be the resultant velocity of a fluid along any direction
and u, v and w be the velocity components in x, y and z directions
respectively.
• Mathematically the velocity components can be written as

u = f ( x, y, z, t )

w = f ( x, y, z, t )
 v = f ( x, y, z, t )

• Let VR is resultant velocity at any point in a fluid flow.

• Resultant velocity VR = ui + vj + wk

Where u=dx/dt, v=dy/dt and w=dz/dt are the resultant vectors in X, Y and Z
directions, respectively.

Acceleration of Fluid Particle

e
• Acceleration of a fluid element along any direction can be defined as
the rate of change of velocity of the fluid along that direction.
•

om
If ax , ay and az are the components of acceleration along x,
y and z directions respectively, they can be mathematically written
as ax = du/ dt.
c hr
jk
 Stream Function

• The partial derivative of stream function with respect to any direction

gives the velocity component at right angles to that direction. It is
denoted by ψ.

• Continuity equation for two-dimensional flow is

e
•

•
om
Equations of Rotational Flow

As ψ satisfies the continuity equation hence if ψ exists then it is a

possible case of fluid flow.
Rotational components of fluid particles are:
c hr

Equation of Irrotational Flow

jk

• If ωx = ωy = ωz then, flow is irrotational.

• For irrotational flow, ωz = 0
 • This is Laplace equation for ψ.

Note: It can be concluded that if stream function (ψ) exits, it is a possible case
of fluid flow. But we can’t decide whether flow is rotational or irrotational. But
if stream function ψ satisfies Laplace equation then, it is a possible case of
irrotational flow otherwise it is rotational flow.

Velocity Potential Function

e
• It is a scalar function of space and time such that its negative derivative
with respect to any direction gives the fluid velocity in that direction. It is
denoted b φ

om
We know that continuity equation for steady flow is
c hr
jk

• If φ satisfies the Laplace equation, then it is a possible case of fluid

flow.

Rotational component ωz can be given by

 • It shows that φ exits then, flow will be irrotational.

Relation between Stream Function and Velocity Potential

We know,

e
and
om
hr
Stream versus Velocity Function
c
jk

Equipotential Line versus Stream Line

 e
Fluid Dynamics and Flow Measurements

Fluid Dynamics

om
Fluid Dynamics is the beginning of the determination forces which cause
motion in fluids. This section includes various forces such as Inertia, Viscous,
etc., Bernoulli's theorems, Vortex motion, forced motion etc.

Include momentum correction factor, the impact of jets etc.

Dynamics is that branch of mechanics which treats the motion of bodies and
hr
the action of forces in producing or changing their motion.

Flow rate

• Mass flow rate

c
jk

• Volume flow rate - Discharge

o More commonly we use volume flow rate Also know as discharge.
The symbol normally used for discharge is Q.

Discharge, Q = Volume / Time

Continuity
 This principle of conservation of mass says matter cannot be created or
destroyed. This is applied in fluids to fixed volumes, known as control
volumes (or surfaces).

e
• For any control volume, the principle of conservation of mass defines,

Mass entering per unit time = Mass leaving per unit time + Increase of mass

•
volume,
om
in control vol per unit time

For steady flow there is no increase in the mass within the control

Mass entering per unit time = Mass leaving per unit time

Applying to a stream-tube
hr
Mass enters and leaves only through the two ends (it cannot cross the stream
tube wall).
c
jk

for steady flow,

ρ1∂A1u1 = ρ2∂A2u2= Constant= Mass flow rate

This is the continuity equation.

 Some example applications of Continuity

A liquid is flowing from left to right. By the continuity, ρ1A1u1 = ρ2A2u2

e
As we are considering a liquid,

ρ1=ρ2
Q1 = Q2
A1u1=A2u2
om
Velocities in pipes coming from a junction
hr
mass flow into the junction = mass flow out
c

ρ1Q1= ρ2Q2 + ρ3Q3

jk

When incompressible,

Q 1 = Q2 + Q 3

A1u1=A2u2 + A3u3

Vortex flow

• This is the flow of rotating mass of fluid or flow of fluid

along curved path.
 e
Free vortex flow

•
om
No external torque or energy required. The fluid rotating under certain
energy previously given to them. In a free vortex mechanics, overall
energy flow remains constant. There is no energy interaction between
an external source and a flow or any dissipation of mechanical energy in
the flow.
• Fluid mass rotates due to the conservation of angular momentum.
hr
• Velocity inversely proportional to the radius.
• For a free vortex flow

vr= constant

v= c/r
c

• At the center (r = 0) of rotation, velocity approaches to infinite, that

point is called singular point.
jk

• The free vortex flow is irrotational, and therefore, also known as the
irrotational vortex.
• In free vortex flow, Bernoulli’s equation can be applied.

Examples include a whirlpool in a river, water flows out of a bathtub or a sink,

flow in centrifugal pump casing and flow around the circular bend in a pipe.

Forced vortex flow

 • To maintain a forced vortex flow, it required a continuous supply of
energy or external torque.
• All fluid particles rotate at the constant angular velocity ω as a solid
body. Therefore, a flow of forced vortex is called as a solid body
rotation.
• Tangential velocity is directly proportional to the radius.
o v=rω
o ω = Angular velocity.
o r = Radius of fluid particle from the axis of rotation.
• The surface profile of vortex flow is parabolic.

e
om
hr
• In forced vortex total energy per unit weight increases with an increase
in radius.
• Forced vortex is not irrotational; rather it is a rotational flow with
constant vorticity 2ω.

Examples of forced vortex flow is rotating a vessel containing a liquid with

c

constant angular velocity, flow inside the centrifugal pump.

Energy Equations
jk

• This is the equation of motion in which the forces due to gravity and
pressure are taken into consideration. The common fluid mechanics
equations used in fluid dynamics are given below
• Let, Gravity force Fg, Pressure force Fp, Viscous
force Fv , Compressibility force Fc , and Turbulent force Ft.

Fnet = Fg + Fp + Fv + Fc + Ft
 • If fluid is incompressible, then Fc = 0

∴ Fnet = Fg + Fp + Fv + Ft

This is known as Reynolds equation of motion.

• If fluid is incompressible and turbulence is negligible, then, Fc = 0, Ft = 0

∴ Fnet = Fg + Fp + Fv

This equation is called as Navier-Stokes equation.

e
• If fluid flow is considered ideal then, a viscous effect will also be
negligible. Then

Fnet = Fg + Fp

om
This equation is known as Euler’s equation.

• Euler’s equation can be written as:

hr
Bernoulli’s Equation

It is based on law of conservation of energy. This equation is applicable when

it is assumed that
c

• Flow is steady and irrotational

• Fluid is ideal (non-viscous)
Fluid is incompressible
jk

It states in a steady, ideal flow of an incompressible fluid, the total energy at

any point of the fluid is constant.

The total energy consists of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential
energy or datum energy. These energies per unit weight of the fluid are:

• Pressure energy
 • Kinetic energy

• Datum energy = z

e
Bernoulli’s theorem is written as:

•
om
Bernoulli’s equation can be obtained by Euler’s equation

As fluid is incompressible, ρ = constant

c hr
jk

where, Head = Energy / Weight

• Restrictions in the application of Bernoulli’s equation

o Flow is steady
o Density is constant (incompressible)
o Friction losses are negligible
o It relates the states at two points along a single streamline, (not
conditions on two different streamlines)
 The Bernoulli equation is applied along streamlines like that joining points 1
and 2

Total head at 1 = Total head at 2

e
om
This equation assumes no energy losses (e.g. from friction) or energy gains
(e.g. from a pump) along the streamline. It can be expanded to include these
simply, by adding the appropriate energy terms
c hr

Note Point:

The Bernoulli equation is often combined with the continuity equation to find
jk

velocities and pressures at points in the flow connected by a streamline.

Kinetic Energy Correction Factor (α)

In a real fluid flowing through a pipe or over a solid surface, the velocity will be
zero at the solid boundary and will increase as the distance from the boundary
increases. The kinetic energy per unit weight of the fluid will increase in a
similar manner.
 The kinetic energy in terms of average velocity V at the section and a kinetic
energy correction factor α can be determined as:

In which m = ρAVdt is the total mass of the fluid flowing across the cross-
section during dt. By comparing the two expressions for kinetic energy, it is
obvious that,

e
om
The numerical value of α will always be greater than 1

Flow-through Pipes & Boundary Layer Theory

Flow-through Pipes
c hr
jk

Major Loss: It is calculated by Darcy Weisbach formulas

Loss of head due to friction

 where,

L = Length of pipe,

v = Mean velocity of flow

d = Diameter of pipe,

e
f = Coefficient of friction

omfriction factor
hr
For turbulent flow, coefficient of friction
c

Chezy’s Formula: In fluid dynamics, Chezy’s formula describes the mean flow
jk

velocity of steady, turbulent open channel flow.

 e
v= c √mi, c= Chezy's Constant = √(8g/f)

i = Loss of head per unit length of pipe

om
(hydraulic slope tan θ)

m = Hydraulic mean depth

hr
Relation between Coefficient of Friction and Shear Stress
c
jk

We get

where,

f = Coefficient of friction
 τ0 = Shear stress

Minor Loss:

The another type of head loss in minor loss is induced due to following
reasons

Loss due to Sudden Enlargement

e
Head loss

om
Loss due to Sudden Contraction

Head loss, hL = 0.5 v22/ 2g

Remember v2 is velocity at point which lies in contracted section.

Loss of Head at Entrance to Pipe

hr
Head loss,

Loss at Exit from Pipe

c

Head loss,
jk
 e
om
Note: In case 1 and 2, flow occurs between pipe to pipe, while in case 3 and 4,
flow occurs between tank and pipe. We are taking entry or exit w.r.t. pipe. So,
be careful.

Combination of Pipes: Pipes may be connected in series, parallel or in both.

hr
Let see their combinations.

Pipe in Series: As pipes are in series, the discharge through each pipe will be
same.
c
jk

Q = A1v1 = A2v2 = A3v3

 Total loss of head = Major loss + Minor loss

Major loss = Head loss

due to friction in each pipe

e
While, minor loss = Entrance loss + Expansion loss + Contraction loss + Exit
loss
om
If minor loss are neglected then,
c hr
jk
 Pipes in Parallel: In this discharge in main pipe is equal to sum of discharge in
each of parallel pipes.

e
Hence, Q = Q1 + Q2

om
Loss of head in each parallel pipe is same
hr
where, and are head loss at 1 and 2 respectively.

Equivalent Pipe: A compound pipe which consists of several pipes of different

lengths and diameters to be replaced by a pipe having uniform diameter and
c

the same length as that of compound pipe is called as equivalent pipe.

jk

(where, L = L1 + L2 + L3)

If f = f1 = f2 = f3

Then,
 Hydraulic Gradient Line (HGL) and Total Energy Line (TEL)

e
om
HGL → It joins piezometric head (p/ρg + z) at various points.

TEL → It joins total energy head at various points:

hr
{(p/ρg + z) + v2/2g}

Note: HGL is always parallel but lower than TEL.

Power Transmission through Pipe (P)

c
jk
 Power delivered by a given pipe line is maximum when the flow is such that
one third of static head is consumed in pipe friction. Thus, efficiency is limited
to only 66.66%

e
Maximum efficiency,

om
Water Hammer: When a liquid is flowing through a long pipe fitted with a vale
at the end of the pipe and the valve is closed suddenly a pressure wave of
high intensity is produced behind the valve. This pressure wave of high
intensity is having the effect of hammering action on the walls of the pipe.
This phenomenon is known as water hammer.
hr
Intensity of pressure rise due to water hammer,
c

When valve is closed gradually when valve closed suddenly with rigid pipe.
jk

When valve closed suddenly with plastic pipe

If the time required to close the valve

 Valve closure is said to be gradual.

The valve closure is said to be sudden.

Where,

L = Length of pipe

e
D = Diameter of pipe

v = Velocity of flow om
C = Velocity of pressure wave produced due to water hammer

K = Bulk modulus of water

E = Modulus of elasticity for pipe material.

hr
t = Time required to choose the valve.

Boundary-Layer Theory

Boundary Layer Theory

c

When a real fluid flows over a solid body, the velocity of fluid at the boundary
will be zero. If boundary is stationary. As we move away from boundary in
jk

perpendicular direction velocity increases to the free stream velocity. It means

velocity gradient will exist.

Note:
 Velocity gradient does not exist outside the boundary layer as outside the
boundary layer velocity is constant and equal to free stream velocity.

Development of Boundary Layer: Development of boundary layer can be

divided in three regions: laminar, transition, turbulent.

Reynolds number

e
For laminar boundary layer

om
(Re)x < 5 × 105 (For flat plate) and if (Re)x > 5 × 105

where Re = Reynolds's number

Then, flow is turbulent.

c hr
jk
 Here, x is distance from leading edge in horizontal direction.

Boundary Layer Thickness (δ): It is the distance from the boundary to the
point where velocity of fluid is approximately equal to 99% of free stream
velocity. It is represented by δ.

e
om
Displacement Thickness (δ*): It is observed that inside the boundary layer
velocity of fluid is less than free stream velocity hence, discharge is less in
this region. To compensate for reduction in discharge the boundary is
displaced outward in perpendicular direction by some distance. This distance
is called displacement thickness (δ*).
c hr
jk

Momentum Thickness (θ): As due to boundary layer reduction in velocity

occurs so, momentum also decreases. Momentum thickness is defined as the
 distance measured normal to boundary of solid body by which the boundary
should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in momentum of flowing
fluid.

Energy Thickness (δ**): It is defined as distance measured perpendicular to

the boundary of solid body by which the boundary should be displaced to
compensate for reduction in kinetic energy of flowing fluid (KE decreases due
to formation of boundary layer)

e
om
Boundary Conditions for the Velocity Profile: Boundary conditions are as
hr
Laminar Flow: A flow in which fluid flows in layer and no intermixing with each
other is known as laminar flow. For circular pipe, flow will be laminar.
c

Where, ρ = Density of fluid, v = Velocity of fluid,

jk

D = Diameter of pipe, μ = Viscosity of fluid.

For flat plate flow will be laminar.

Where L is length of plate.

 Turbulent Flow:

In this flow, adjacent layer of fluid cross each other (particles of fluid move
randomly instead of moving in stream line path), for flow inside pipe. If Re >
4000, the flow is considered turbulent, for flat plate, Re > 5 × 105.

Von Karman Momentum Integral Equation

e
where, θ = momentum thickness

Shear stress:

om
Where, U = Free stream velocity; ρ = Density of fluid.

Local Coefficient of Drag (CD*):

It is defined as the ratio of the shear stress τ0 to the quantity

hr
It is denoted by
c

Average Coefficient of Drag (CD):

jk

It is defined as the ratio of the total drag force to

Where, A = Area of surface,

U = Free stream velocity, ρ = Mass density of fluid.

 Blassius Experiment Results

For laminar flow,

Coefficient of drag

e
Average coefficient of drag

For turbulent flow,

om
hr
where x = Distance from leading edge, Rex = Reynolds's number for length x.

ReL = Reynolds's number at end of plate

Coefficient of drag
c
jk

Average coefficient of drag

For laminar flow

 f = Boundary layer thickness,

τ0 = Shear stress at solid surface

x = Distance from where solid surface starts.

e
Velocity profile for turbulent boundary layer is

om
Conditions for Boundary Layer Separation: Let us take curve surface ABCSD

where fluid flow separation print S is determined from the condition .

c hr
jk

If
 the flow is separated

If

the flow is on the average of separation

e
If

attained om
the flow will not separate or flow will remain

Methods of Preventing Separation of Boundary Layer: Suction of slow-

moving fluid by a suction slot.

• Supplying additional energy from a blower.

hr
• Providing a bypass in the slotted
• Rotating boundary in the direction of flow.
• Providing small divergence in a diffuser.
• Providing guide blades in a bend.
• Providing a trip wire ring in the laminar region for the flow over a sphere.
c
jk

Pumps and Turbines

Velocity Diagrams

Velocity diagrams for different values of Rd appear as shown below:

(i) V1>V2, Vr1>Vr2; Rd<0 (Rd is negative)

 (ii) Vr1=Vr2; Rd=0

e
om
(iii) V1=Vr2; Vr1=V2; Rd=0.5
hr
(iv) V1=V2 ; Rd=100%
c
jk

(v) V2>V1; Vr2>Vr1 ; Rd>100%

 We know that for utilization factor ε to be maximum, the exit velocity V2

e
should be minimum.

For a given rotor speed U, the minimum value of V2 is obtained only if V22 is

om
axial and the velocity triangles would look as shown:
hr
Velocity triangle for maximum utilization factor condition:
c
jk

Form the expression, it is clear that εmaximum will have the highest value if α1 =
0.
 But α1 = 0, results in V2 = 0 which is not a practically feasible condition. The
zero angle turbines which would have α1 = 0 appears as shown:

e
om
Though the zero angle turbines are not practically feasible it represents the
ideal condition to be aimed at. In a Pelton wheel, we arrive at a condition
wherein the jet is deflected through an angle of 165 to 170 degrees. Though
an angle of 180 degrees would be the ideal condition as in case of a zero
angle turbine. Impulse turbine designed for maximum utilization.
c hr
jk

The ratio is referred to as a blade speed ratio φ which will have limiting
value of 0.5 for a zero angle turbine. But in practical situation, α1 is in between
20 to 25 degrees. But φ varies from 0.45 to 0.47. The blade speed ratio is very
 useful performance parameter and it may be noted that the closer its value is
to 0.5, the better it is.

Expression for power output:

e
Reaction turbine:

We know that,
om
For a fixed value of α1, as Rd increases εmaximum.
hr
But for Rd=1 (100% reaction turbine), this equation doesn’t holds good.

Let us examine how εmaximum is affected by Rd.

Case (1): Rd=1,

c
jk

Vw1=Vw2
 Hence by Euler’s turbine equation

e
om
For maximum utilization V2 needs to be axial. If V2 is to be axial, then V1 also
hr
should be axial which means that the denominator of the expression becomes
equal to infinity which reduces to to zero. This only means that α1 should be
as low as possible to get meaning full values of. This represents contradicting
condition and hence Rd = 1 is not preferred.
c

Case (2): Rd>1

jk
 V2>V1, Vr2>Vr1

As Rd> ε tends to zero.

In this case, V2>V1 and hence V2 can never be axial and hence the condition
for εmaximum [An axial orientation for V2 can never be met]

The utilization factor ε is given by

e
As Rd increases, ε decreases.

om
This means that the stator has to function to not only diffuse V2 to as low a
value as possible but also turn the fluid through a very large angle. This
results in the poor flow efficiency and hence Rd greater than 100% is not
practically preferred.

Case (3): Rd<0 [negative Rd]

c hr

Vr1>Vr2
jk

For this condition, it is noticed that rd is negative denominator increases, ε

decreases.
 Vr2<Vr1, also means that the pressure is increasing as fluid passes through the
rotor.

i.e. the rotor is acting like a diffuser. This is not preferred since pressure
always has to decrease along the flow path for good flow efficiency. Hence,
Rd < 0 is not practically preferred.

Case (4): Rd = 0.5,

We know that for a 50% reaction turbine, velocity triangles are similar and for
maximum utilization condition the triangle would appear as shown.

e
We notice,

om
hr
The angles are identical but reversed for the rotor and the stator. From the
practical view point, the manufacturing of blades becomes simple. Since the
c

same blade can be used for either the stator or the rotor by merely reversing
the direction. It can also be shown that in a multistage turbines 50% reaction
jk

gives maximum stage efficiency. Since Vr2>Vr1, pressure reduces along the
flow path in the rotor resulting in high flow efficiency. In general, n Rd value
between 0 and 1 is preferred due to practical considerations.

From the velocity triangle it can be noted that Vw1=U

Vw2 = 0 (for maximum utilization factor condition)

 ∴ P = U2

Comparing the energy transfer achieved by 50% reaction turbine with an

impulse turbine when both are designed for εmaximum condition and operating
with the same rotor velocities. We notice that an impulse turbine transfers
twice as much energy as 50% reaction turbine gives the better flow
efficiencies.

If multi staging is attempted, then for a given value of energy transfer, a 50%
reaction turbine would need twice the number of stages as that of impulse
turbines. In actual practice, when multistage is attempted, the initial stages

e
are designed for an impulse turbine when maximum fluid velocity is available.
The subsequent stages are 50% reaction stages.

om
Impulse and Reaction Principles

Turbo machines are classified as impulse and reaction machines depending

on the relative proportions of the static and dynamic heads involved in the
energy transfer. To aid this, we define a term referred to as degree of reaction
Rd.

Degree of reaction Rd can be defined as the ratio of static head to the total
head in the energy transfer.
c hr
Degree of reaction can be zero, positive or negative.

Rd=0, characterizes a close turbo machine for which a static head is equal to
jk

zero.

In the most general case, this will happen if U1 = U2 and Vr1 = Vr2.

These classes of turbo machines are referred to as impulse machines. In

most practical situations Vr2 may be less than Vr1 even though r1 = r2.

This is generally due to frictional losses. Even then a machine is referred to as

an axial flow turbines and pumps would have r1 = r2 and if Vr1 = Vr2, then they
become examples of pure impulse machines.
 Pelton Wheel, tangential flow hydraulic machines is also example of impulse
machine.

Velocity Triangles for impulse machine: Velocity triangle for axial flow
impulse machine is shown in the following figure.

e
om
hr
The velocity of whirl at exit is to be calculated by general expression,
c

If the value obtained is negative, then it suggests that

jk

If Vw2 is positive, then OVT would appear as follows:

 If V2=0, then the OVT would look like

e
om
Radial flow Pump and Compressors:

General analysis:
c hr
jk
 e
om
Most of the turbo machines belong to this class. In general, they have a
restricted flow area for a given rotor diameter and have low to medium
specific speed.
hr
Significant aspects:

1. Flow is outwards from the smaller to larger radius the Euler’s turbine
equation. i.e.,
c

requires that for pumps and

compressors which are power absorbing machines. For this sake radial
flow compressors and pumps generally have fluid entering at a smaller
jk

radius and leaving at a larger radius.

2. The absolute velocity at inlet is oriented parallel to the axes of the shaft
i.e., Va1 = V1 and hence there is no whirl component at inlet i.e.,Vw1 = 0.
3. Since Vw1 = 0, the energy transferred is purely a function of exit

condition i.e.
 Head-capacity relationship:

e
om
c hr
jk

From the velocity triangles for the 3 types of vanes it may be noticed that the
whirl component at exit is least for backward curved vane (β<90° and most for
a forward curved vane. When operating under similar condition of speed and
 cross section area. But from a practical view point a high value of exit velocity
V2 is not desirable. This is because it becomes necessary to construct a
diffuser of unreasonably large dimensions even for moderate sized rotors.
Hence backward curved vane with β2 in the range of 20-25 degrees is
preferred for radial flow pumps and compressors. Forward curved vanes are
not preferred while radial vanes (β=90°) are used in select applications
requiring very high pressure.

Expression for Degree of reaction in terms of rotor velocity and rotor blade
angles:

e
We know that, Degree of reaction is given by,

om
hr
For a pump it is generally acceptable to write degree of reaction as
c
jk

We know that, Euler’s turbine equation for a pump may be written as

 Degree of reaction is the ratio of suction head to the total head. Which may be
written as

e
om
hr
General analysis of Turbines:
c

They are power generating turbo machines, which run on both incompressible
fluids such as water as well as compressible fluids such as gases.
jk

The efficiency of turbines may be defined as the ratio of actual work output to
the fluid energy input.

This involves 2 types of efficiencies:

1. Hydraulic efficiency /isentropic efficiency.

2. Mechanical efficiency.
 The mechanical efficiency takes care of all losses due to energy transfer
between mechanical elements. In the turbines, mechanical efficiency is very
high and of the order of 98 to 99%.

The hydraulic efficiency takes care of losses during flow.

We realize that, turbines must have a residual exit velocity so that flow is
maintained.

However, this residual velocity so that flow is it represents a lot far as the
rotor is concerned. Hence, even if we have idealized friction free flow it is not

e
possible to transfer all the energy in the fluids due to the need to have the
final residual exit velocity.

ηH = ε*ηV
om
Hence, hydraulic efficiency is a product of 2 terms and is given by

ηV - where is referred to as vane efficiency and takes care of frictional loss.

Utilization factor:

Utilization factor is defined as the ratio of the actual work transferred from the
hr
fluid to the rotor in an ideal condition to the maximum possible work that
could be transferred in an ideal condition.
c
jk
 Relationship between ε and Rd:

OR

Derive an expression for ε in terms of Rd:

e
om
hr
Utilization factor may be written as
c
jk

Which gives,

This expression holds good for Rd values between 0 and 1. This cannot be
used for Rd=1 (100% reaction). Since, the expression becomes equal to 1
suggesting 100% utilization factor which could obviously lead to residual exit
velocity V2 becoming zero.
 General analysis of Axial flow turbines:

Most turbines involving compressible flow are axial turbines. Generally, steam
and gas turbines are axial flow machines.

We know that in all axial turbine machines, U1 = U2 = U.

And hence the alternative form of turbine equation reduces to

e
Degree of reaction,

om
Change of fluid pressure in the rotor happens only due to change in the
relative velocity component Vr, since, U remains constant.

Axial flow turbines are of 2 types:

1. Impulse type for which Rd=0.since Vr1=Vr2 and hence power

hr
output
2. Reaction type: Generally any turbine which is not purely an impulse
turbine is referred to as a reaction turbine. It is not a 100% reaction
turbine. But, it is still referred to as a reaction turbine. Most reaction
turbines are designed for 50% reaction which is found to be very
advantageous from practical consideration. In the case of
c

steam turbines it is implicit that a reaction turbine is 50% reaction

turbine called as parson’s reaction turbine.
jk

Turbomachinery

Turbomachine is defined as a device in which energy transfer takes place

between a flowing fluid and a rotating element resulting in a change of
pressure and momentum of the fluid. Energy is transferred into or out of the
turbomachine mechanically by means of input/output shafts.

Principal Parts of a Turbo Machine

 1. Rotating element consisting of a rotor on which are mounted blades.
2. A stationary element in the form of guide blades, nozzles, etc.
3. Input/output shafts.
4. Housing

e
om
Schematic cross sectional view of a steam turbine showing the principal parts
of a turbo machine.

Functions:
hr
1. The rotor functions to absorb/deliver energy to the flowing fluid.
2. The stator is a stationary element which may be of many types:-
o Guide blades which function to direct the flowing fluid in such a
way that energy transfer is maximized.
o Nozzles which function to convert pressure energy of the fluid to
c

kinetic energy
o Diffusers which function to convert kinetic energy to pressure
energy of the fluid.
jk

3. The input /output shafts function to deliver/receive mechanical energy

to or from the machine.
4. The housing is a protective enclosure which also functions to provide a
path of flowing fluid. While a rotor & input /output shaft are essential
parts of all turbo machines, the stator & the housing are optional.

Classification of Turbo Machines:

1. According to the nature of energy transfer:

 o Power generating turbo machines: In this, energy is transferred
from the flowing fluid to the rotor. Hence, enthalpy of the flowing
fluid decreases as it flows across. There is a need for an output
shaft.
o Ex: Hydraulic turbines such as Francis turbine, Pelton wheel
turbine, Kaplan turbine, steam turbine such as De-Laval turbine,
Parsons Turbine etc, Gas turbines etc,
o Power absorbing Turbo machines: In this, energy is transferred
from the rotor to the flowing fluid. The enthalpy of the fluid
increases as it flows there is a need for an input shaft.
Ex: Centrifugal pump, Compressor, blower, fan etc,

e
o
o Power transmitting turbo machines: In this energy is transferred
from one rotor to another by means of a flowing fluid. There is a
need for an input / output shafts. The transfer of energy occurs

o
om
due to fluid action.
Ex: Hydraulic coupling, torque converter etc,

Schematic representation of different types of turbo machine based on fluid

flow:

• Axial flow fan.

• Radial outward flow fan.
hr
• Mixed flow hydraulic turbine.

1. Based on the type of fluid flow:

o Tangential flow in which fluid flows tangential to the rotor Ex:
Pelton wheel etc,
o Axial flow in which the fluid flows more or less parallel to the axes
c

of the shafts /rotors. Ex: Kaplan turbine, Axial flow compressor.

o Radial flow in which fluid flows along the radius of the rotor this is
again classified as:
jk

▪ Radially inward flow. Ex: Old fancies turbine.

▪ Radially outward flow. Ex: Centrifugal Pump
o Mixed flow which involves radius entry & axial exit or vise-
versa. Ex: Modern francises turbine & Centrifugal Pump
2. Based on the type of Head:
o High head &low discharge. Ex: Pelton wheel.
o Medium head &medium discharge. Ex: Francis turbine.
o Low head & high discharge. Ex: Kaplan turbine.
 Application of 1st & 2nd law of thermodynamics of turbo machines:

In a turbo machine, the fluctuations in the properties when observed over a

period of time are found to be negligible. Hence, a turbo machine may be
treated as a steady flow machine with reasonable accuracy & hence, we may
apply the steady flow energy equation for the analysis of turbo machine.

Hence we may write

e
Where, subscript ‘1’ is at the point of entry & subscript ‘2’ is at point of exit.

om
It is also true that, thermal losses are minimal compared to the amount of
work transferred & hence may be neglected. Hence we may write,
hr
Where, h02 & h01 are stagnation exit & entry respectively.

w = ∆h0.

In a power generating turbo machine, ∆h0 is negative (since h02 < h01) & hence
w is positive.
c

On the same line, for a power absorbing turbo machine, ∆h0 is positive (since
h02 > h01) & hence w is negative.
jk

From the 2nd law of Thermodynamics:

 In the above relation, we note that vdp would be a negative quantity for a
power generating turbo machine & positive for power absorbing turbo
machine.

Hence Tds which is always a positive quantity would reduce the amount of
work generated in the former case & increase the work absorbed in
the later case.

Efficiency of a turbo machine:

Generally, we define 2 types of turbo machine .in case of turbo machine to

e
account for various losses 2 type of efficiency is considered:

• Hydraulic efficiency/isentropic efficiency

•

om
Mechanical efficiency.

1. Hydraulic efficiency/isentropic efficiency:

To account for the energy loss between the fluid & the rotor
hr
2. Mechanical efficiency:
c

To account for the energy loss between the rotor & the shaft.
jk

Schematic representation of Compression & Expansion process:

(a) Power absorbing machine. (b) Power generating machine.

 e
om
c hr
jk

Analysis of Energy Transfer in turbo machines: Analysis of energy transfer in

turbo machines requires a consideration of the kinematics and dynamic
 factors involved. The factors include changes in the fluid velocity, rotor
velocity and the forces caused due to change in the velocity.

We apply Newton’s second law of motion as applicable to rotary movement.

i.e., Torque is proportional to the rate of change of angular momentum.

Another important consideration is the treatment of a turbo machine as a

steady flow machine.

e
1. This involves following assumptions:
2. Mass-flow rate is constant.
3.
4.
5.
6.
om
State of fluid at any given point does not change.
Heat and Work transfer are constant.
Leakage losses are negligible.
Same steady mass of fluid flows through all section.

Velocity Components:
c hr
jk

Fig. velocity components through a rotor

 The fluid enters the rotor with an absolute velocity say V1 and leaves with an

e
absolute velocity say V2.

The absolute velocity of the fluid will have components in the axial, radial and
tangential direction which may be referred to as Va,Vw and Vf respectively.

om
The axial components do not participate in the energy transfer but cause a
thrust which is borne by the thrust bearings. The radial components also do
not participate in the energy transfer but cause a thrust which are borne by the
journal bearings. The only components which participate in the energy
transfer is the tangential component Vw.

Va1 and Va2 : Axial components of V1 and V2 respectively.

hr
Vf1 and Vf2 : Radial components of V1 and V2 respectively.

Vw1 and Vw2 : Tangential components of V1 and V2 respectively referred to as

whirl velocity, flow velocity. Let the rotor move with an angular velocity ω.
c

Dimensional Analysis
jk

Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique which makes use of the

study of dimensions as an aid to the solution of several engineering problems.
It deals with the dimensions of the physical quantities is measured by
comparison, which is made with respect to an arbitrarily fixed value.

Length L, mass M and Time T are three fixed dimensions which are of
importance in fluid mechanics. If in any problem of fluid mechanics, heat is
involved then the temperature is also taken as fixed dimension. These fixed
dimensions are called fundamental dimensions or fundamental quantity.
 Secondary or Derived quantities are those quantities which possess more
than one fundamental dimension. For example, velocity is defined by distance
per unit time (L/T), density by mass per unit volume (M/L3) and acceleration
by distance per second square (L/T2). Then the velocity, density and
acceleration become as secondary or derived quantities. The expressions
(L/T), (M/L3) and (L/T2) are called the dimensions of velocity, density and
acceleration respectively.

Dimensional Analysis

e
om
c hr
jk
 e
om
hr
Dimensional homogeneity

• Dimensional homogeneity means the dimensions of each term in an

equation on both sides are equal. Thus if the dimensions of each term
on both sides of an equation are the same the equation is known as
c

the dimensionally homogeneous equation.

• The powers of fundamental dimensions i.e., L, M, T on both sides of the

jk

equation will be identical for a dimensionally homogeneous equation.

Such equations are independent of the system of units.
• Let us consider the equation V = u + at

Dimensions of L.H.S = V= L/T = LT-1

Dimensions of R.H.S = LT-1 + (LT-2) (T)
= LT-1 + LT-1
= LT-1
Dimensions of L.H.S = Dimensions of R.H.S = LT-1
 Therefore, equation V = u + at is dimensionally homogeneous

Uses of Dimensional Analysis

• It is used to test the dimensional homogeneity of any derived equation.

• It is used to derive the equation.
• Dimensional analysis helps in planning model tests.

Methods of Dimensional Analysis

• If the number of variables involved in a physical phenomenon is known,

e
then the relationship among the variables can be determined by the
following two methods.

Rayleigh's Method

•
om
Rayleigh‟s method of analysis is adopted when a number of parameters
or variables is less (3 or 4 or 5).
If the number of independent variables becomes more than four, then it
is very difficult to find the expression for the dependent variable

Buckingham's (Π– theorem) Method

hr
• If there are n – variables in a physical phenomenon and those n-
variables contains 'm' dimensions, then the variables can be arranged
into (n-m) dimensionless groups called Π terms.
• If f (X1, X2, X3, ……… Xn) = 0 and variables can be expressed using m
dimensions then. f (Π1, Π2,Π3, ……… Πn - m) = 0 Where, Π1, Π2, Π3, ………
c

are dimensionless groups.

• Each Π term contains (m + 1) variables out of which m are of repeating
type and one is of non-repeating type.
jk

• Each Π term being dimensionless, the dimensional homogeneity can be

used to get each Π term.

Method of Selecting Repeating Variables

• Avoid taking the quantity required as the repeating variable.

• Repeating variables put together should not form a dimensionless
group.
• No two repeating variables should have same dimensions.
 • Repeating variables can be selected from each of the following
properties
o Geometric property - Length, Height, Width, Area
o Flow property - Velocity, Acceleration, Discharge
o Fluid property – Mass Density, Viscosity, Surface Tension

Model Studies

• Before constructing or manufacturing hydraulics structures or

hydraulics machines tests are performed on their models to obtain
desired information about their performance.

e
• Models are a small scale replica of actual structure or machine.
• The actual structure is called prototype.

Similitude

•
om
It is defined as the similarity between the prototype and its model. It is
also known as similarity. There three types of similarities and they are
as follows. •

Geometric similarity

• Geometric similarity is said to exist between the model and

hr
prototype if the ratio of corresponding linear dimensions between
model and prototype are equal. i.e.
c

where Lr is known as scale ratio or linear ratio.

jk

Vm/Vp= √(Lr) .... (Velocity Scale Ratio)

tm/tp= √(Lr) .....(Time Scale Ratio)

Hence, am/ap= 1 .....(Acceleration Scale Ratio)

Kinematic Similarity
 • Kinematic similarity exists between prototype and model if quantities
such at velocity and acceleration at corresponding points on model and
prototype are same.

Where Vr is known as velocity ratio

Dynamic Similarity

e
• Dynamic similarity is said to exist between model and prototype if the
ratio of forces at corresponding points of model and prototype is
constant.

om
Where Fr is known as force ratio.

Dimensionless Numbers
hr
Following dimensionless numbers are used in fluid mechanics.

• Reynolds's number
• Froude's number
• Euler's number
Weber's number
c

•
• Mach number

Reynolds’s number
jk

• It is defined as the ratio of inertia force of the fluid to viscous force.

NRe= Fi/Fv

Froude’s Number (Fr)

• It is defined as the ratio of square root of inertia force to gravity force.

Fr=√Fi/Fg
 Model Laws (Similarity laws)

Reynolds’s Model Law

• For the flows where in addition to inertia force, the similarity of flow in
the model and predominant force, the similarity of flow in model and
prototype can be established if Re is same for both the system.
• This is known as Reynolds's Model Law.
• Re for model = Re for prototype
• (NRe)m = (NRe)p

e
Applications
om
• In the flow of in-compressible fluids in closed pipes.
hr
• The motion of submarine completely under water.
• Motion of airplanes.

Froude’s Model Law

When the force of gravity is predominant in addition to inertia force then

c

•
similarity can be established by Froude's number.
• This is known as Froude's model law.
jk

• (Fr)m = (Fr)p
 Applications:

• Flow over spillways

• Channels, rivers (free surface flows).
• Waves on the surface.
• Flow of different density fluids one above the other

Hydraulic Turbines and Pump

Hydraulic Machines

e
• Devices used for the conversion of hydraulic energy into mechanical
energy or mechanical energy to hydraulic energy are known as

om
Hydraulic Machines.
The hydraulic machines which is used for the conversion of hydraulic
energy into mechanical energy are known as Turbines and that convert
mechanical energy into hydraulic energy is known as Pumps.
c hr

In a Hydroelectric plant as shown above:

jk

• A Dam is constructed across a river or a channel for storing water. The

reservoir is also known as Head race.
• Pipes of large diameter called Penstock which carry water under
pressure from the storage reservoir to the turbines. These pipes are
generally made of steel or reinforced concrete.
• Turbines having different types of vanes or buckets or blades mounted
on a wheel called a runner.
 • Tail-race which is a channel carrying water away from the turbine after
the water has worked on the turbines. The water surface in the tail-race
is also referred to as tail-race.

Important Terms

• Gross Head (Hg ): Vertical difference between headrace and tailrace.

• Net Head (Hnet): The actual head available at the inlet of the to work on
the turbine is called the Net Head.
Hnet = Hg - hL
hL being the total head loss during the transit of water from the

e
headrace to tailrace, mainly the head loss due to friction and is given by:

om
'f' is the coefficient of friction of penstock which depends on the type of
material of penstock, 'L' being the total length of penstock, 'V' the mean
flow velocity of water through the penstock, 'D' the diameter of penstock
and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
hr
Thus:

Types of Efficiencies:

Considering different forms of input and output, the efficiencies can be

classified as:
c

• Hydraulic Efficiency(ηh)
o The ratio of the power generated by the runner of a turbine to the
jk

power supplied at the inlet of the turbine is known as Hydraulic

efficiency.
o As the power supplied is in the hydraulic form, and the possible
losses occur between the striking jet and vane, it is rightly called
hydraulic efficiency.
 o If R.P. is the Runner Power and W.P. is the Water Power:

• Mechanical Efficiency(ηm)
o The ratio of the power available at the shaft to the power
generated by the runner of a turbine is called Mechanical
Efficiency.
o Loss of energy in the runner in the annular area between the

e
nozzle and spear is due to slips and other mechanical problems.
o If S.P . is the Shaft Power:

•
om
Overall Efficiency(ηo):
o Ratio of the power available at the shaft to the power supplied to
the inlet of a turbine is termed as overall efficiency.
o Because this covers the overall problems of energy losses, it is
known as overall efficiency.
o It is dependent on both the hydraulic losses and the slips and
hr
other mechanical problems that will create a loss of energy
between the jet power supplied and the power produced at the
shaft available for coupling of the generator.
c
jk

• Volumetric Efficiency

Classification of Turbines
 • The hydraulic turbines can be classified on the basis of type of energy
at the inlet, the direction of flow through the vanes, head available at the
inlet, discharge through the vanes and specific speed.
• They are classified as:

e
• Pelton Turbine:
o
om
Pelton wheel turbine is an impulse turbine. In this type of turbine
nozzle is connected at the exit of penstock which converts the
available energy head into velocity head.
c hr
jk

Where:
u= wheel velocity
V= Jet velocity
Vr= relative velocity
 Vw = whirl velocity
φ = Angle by relative velocity at outlet and β= Guide blade angle at
outlet
u1 = u2 = u = 2πN/60 where N= no. of rotation of wheel

• Tangential flow impulse turbine: Basic components:

(1). Nozzle (2). Runner and buckets (3). Casing (4). Breaking Jet

Hydraulic efficiency is given by:

e
om
Radial Flow Reaction Turbine:
hr
• In this type of turbine the water strikes the runner, it has both kinetic
energy head and pressure energy head. Due to KE head, impulse will
generate, which is similar as in case of impulse turbine.
• Impulse: kinetic head
Reaction: Pressure head
c
jk
 e
• Let B1, B2 = width of runner at inlet and outlet

om
Area of flow at inlet: A1 = πD1B1
Area of flow at inlet: A2 = πD2B2
If vane thickness is taken into consideration:
Net Area of flow = [πD1 – nt] · B1 = kπD1B1
K is factor for net area and n is the number of vanes.
c hr
jk

Francis turbine:
 • Francis turbine is an inward flow reaction turbine.
• To maximize runner power, V2 should be minimum. It can be done by
converting absolute velocity direction into radial direction to the runner
at exit.

e
om
c hr
jk
 Degree of Reaction (R):

e
om ............ (1)
c hr
Thus, degree of reaction for the Pelton turbine is zero.

(ii). For Francis turbine:

jk

Axial flow Reaction turbine:

• Kaplan and propeller turbines are the example of axial flow reaction
turbine.
 e
om
Draft Tube:
hr
• A draft tube is a pipe of a gradually increasing cross sectional area,
linking the runner outlet to the tailrace and is used to discharge water
from the turbine exit to the tail-race.
• An end of the draft tube is linked to the runner outlet and the other end
is submerged under the level of water in the tail-race.
c

Functions:
jk

• It permits a negative head to be established to be established at the

outlet of the runner and thereby increasing the NET HEAD on the
turbine.
• It converts a large proportion of kinetic energy which was being rejected
at the outlet if the turbine into useful pressure energy.
 e
om
Draft tube efficiency is given by:
hr
Specific Speed:

• The value of specific speed for a turbine is the speed of a geometrically

similar turbine which would produce unit power (one kilowatt) under a
unit head (one meter).
c

• This value is provided by the manufacturer (along with other ratings)

and will always refer to the point of maximum efficiency.
jk

• Specific Speed is not a dimensionless number. It dimension [M1/2L-1/4T-

5/2
].

Model Laws:
 e
Centrifugal Pumps

• A hydraulic machine which converts mechanical energy into hydraulic

•
om
energy or pressure energy is known as a pump.
A centrifugal pump (also called Rotodynamic pump or dynamic
pressure pump) works on the principle of centrifugal force.
In Centrifugal pumps, the liquid is subjected to a whirling motion by the
rotating impeller which is made of a number of backwards curved
vanes.

Classification of Centrifugal Pumps:

hr
S.No. Classification Criteria Types of Pumps
1 Casing design • Volute pump
• Diffuser or turbine pump

2 Number of impellers • Single stage pump

c

• Multistage or Multi impeller pump

3 Number of entrances • Single suction pump

jk

to the Impeller • Double suction pump

4 Disposition of shaft • Vertical shaft pump

• Horizontal shaft pump

5 Liquid handled • Semi open impeller

• Open impeller pump
 6 Specific speed • Low specific speed or radial flow
impeller pump with Shrouded
impeller
• Medium specific speed or mixed
flow impeller pump
• High specific speed / axial flow
type / propeller pump

7 Head (H) • Low head: H< 40 m

• Medium head: 15<H<40 m
• High head: H>40 m

e
Heads on a centrifugal pump:

om
c hr
jk

• Suction head (hs)

o It is the vertical distance between the liquid level in the sump and
the centre line of the pump.
o It is expressed as meters.
• Delivery head (hd)
o It is the vertical distance between the centre line of the pump and
the liquid level in the overhead tank or the supply point.
o It is expressed in meters.
• Static head (Hs)
 o It is the vertical difference between the liquid levels In the
overhead tank and the sump when the pump is not working.
o It is expressed as meters.
Therefore: Hs= (hs+ hd)

• Friction head (hf)

o It is the sum of the head loss due to the friction in the suction and
delivery pipes.
o The friction loss in both the pipes is calculated using the Darcy‟s
equation.

e
• Total head (H)
o

om
It is the sum of the static head Hs, friction head (hf) and the
velocity head in the delivery pipe (V2d /2g). Where, Vd=velocity in
the delivery pipe.
hr
• Manometric head(Hm)
o It is the total head developed by the pump.
o This head is slightly less than the head generated by the impeller
due to some losses in the pump.
c
jk

• Power of pump:
(i). Power requirement of pump = shaft power (SP)
(ii). Impeller power (IP) = SP – (mechanical frictional losses)
(iii). Manometric power or output power (MP)= ρQgHm

• Efficiencies:
(i). Manometric efficiency (ηm):
 (ii). Mechanical Efficiency:

e
(iii). Overall efficiency: It is defined as ratio of power output of the
pump to the power input to the pump. The power output of the pump in
kW:

•
om
(iv). Volumetric Efficiency:

Specific speed of pump:

hr
Non-dimensional form of specific speed ⇒ It is called the Shape number
of pump.
c
jk

• Model Testing of pumps:

 • Priming of centrifugal Pump:
Priming of a centrifugal pump is defined as the operation in which the
suction pipe,
casing of the pump and a portion of the delivery pipe up to the delivery

e
valve is completely filled up from outside source with the liquid to be
raised by the pump before starting the pump. Thus, the air from these
parts of the pump is removed and these parts are filled with the liquid to
be pumped.

om
Minimum starting speed of pump:

Cavitation:
hr
•
(i). Cavitation is defined as the phenomenon of formation of vapour
bubbles of a flowing liquid in a region where the pressure of the liquid
falls below its vapour pressure and the sudden collapsing of these
vapour bubbles in a region of higher pressure.
(ii). Cavitation results in decrease in turbine efficiency, pitting action,
c

noise and vibration.

• Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH):

jk

(i). The net head developed at the suction port of the pump, in excess of
the head due to the vapor pressure of the liquid at the temperature in
the pump.
(ii). NPSH must be positive for preventing the liquid from boiling. Boiling
or cavitation may damage the pump.
 where, Pv is the vapor–pressure of the liquid. If the pump is placed at a
height 'z' above the free surface of a liquid where the atmosphere
pressure is P.
• Multi Staging of Pumps:
(i). Pumps in series: The series connection of the pumps is used to
increase the total head delivered by the pump.
Q = constant
(ii). Pumps in Parallel: The parallel connection of the pumps is used to
increase the total head delivered by the pump.
Hm = constant

e
Reciprocating pumps:
In the reciprocating pumps the mechanical energy is converted to
hydraulic energy (or pressure energy) by sucking the liquid into a

om
cylinder in which a piston is reciprocating (moving backwards and
forward) which exerts the thrust on the fluid and increases the pressure
energy.
c hr
jk

Discharge (Q) is given by:

(i).For Single acting pumps:

(ii). For double acting pumps:

 Slip in Reciprocating pumps:

Power in reciprocating pumps:

e
om
hr
c
jk