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 Paradigms of
Clinical Social Work
Volume 3

Emphasis on Diversity
 Paradigms of
Clinical Social Work
Volume 3

Emphasis on Diversity

Rachelle A. Dorfman • Phil Meyer • Melinda L. Morgan

NEW YORK AND HOVE

Published in 2004 by
Brunner-Routledge
29 West 35th Street
New York, NY 10001
www.brunner-routledge.com

Published in Great Britain by

Brunner-Routledge
27 Church Road
Hove, East Sussex
BN3 2FA
www.brunner-routledge.co.uk

Copyright © 2004 by Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.

Brunner-Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group.

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any
electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the pub-
lishers.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Paradigms of Clinical Social Work, Volume 3

Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Social case work. 2. Social case work - United States.
I. Dorfman, Rachelle A. II. Title: Clinical social work.

HV43.P35 1988 361.3'2 88-2879

ISBN 0-415-94406-6 (hbk)
To Shawn Kaplan, who has an extraordinary ability to illuminate,
amuse, and surprise with his writing
R.A.D.

To my family, Kenneth Robins, Lily, and Ruben;

no man has been more blessed.
P.M.

To Samuel, for all your love and support.

M.L.M.
 CONTENTS

Foreword by Nancy Boyd Webb, DSW ix

Acknowledgments xi
About the Editors xiii
About the Contributors xv
Introduction xxi

Part I The Case

1. The Case 3
Rachelle Dorfman, PhD

Part II Paradigms of Clinical Social Work: Emphasis on Diversity

2. Diversity Perspectives for Social Work Practice 19

Joseph Anderson, PhD and Robin Wiggins-Carter, DPA
3. Jungian Thinking and Practice: Emphasis on an Adolescent’s 35
Search for Her Guatemalan Cultural Roots
Marga Speicher, PhD
4. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy With Children and Families: 59
Emphasis on a Russian Immigrant Family’s Entry Into
a New Society
Tammie Ronen, PhD
5. Behavioral Child Therapy: Emphasis on an African 83
American Family Living in a High-Risk Community
Joseph A. Himle, PhD; Daniel J. Fischer, MSW, and
Jordana R. Muroff, MSW

vii
viii Contents

6. Play Therapy Across the Life Span: 105

Emphasis on a Second-Generation, Middle-Class
Japanese American Family
Daniel S. Sweeney, PhD
7. Crisis Intervention and Diversity: Emphasis on a Mexican 125
Immigrant Family’s Acculturation Conflicts
Elaine P. Congress, DSW
8. Group Work: Emphasis on the Role of Gender 145
Charles Garvin, PhD
9. Constructual Marital Therapy: 167
Emphasis on a Chinese Immigrant Family
Marshall Jung, DSW
10. Integrative Family Therapy: 187
Emphasis on a Middle-Class African American
Family in Suburbia
Marlene F. Watson, PhD
11. Narrative Therapy and the Practice of Advocacy: 205
Emphasis on Affirming Difference When Working
With Diverse Clients
Kevin J. Fitzsimmons, MSW and Larry M. Zucker, MSW
12. Clinical Social Work and Psychopharmacology: 225
Emphasis on Indigenous Medicine in a Latino Community
Melinda L. Morgan, PhD and Ian A. Cook, M.D.
13. Spiritually Centered Therapy: 247
Emphasis on an African American Family
in a Changing Multicultural Community
Carolyn Jacobs, PhD

Part III: Epilogues

1 Year Later 263
10 Years Later 265
15 Years Later 275

Author Index 281

Subject Index 285
 FOREWORD

Nancy Boyd Webb, DSW

T
his book offers a fascinating and informative presentation of 11 differ-
ent models of clinical social work practice. The philosophy, rationale,
and special emphasis of each model come alive in the manner in which
each approach undertakes clinical work with the same family case. In this book,
we see different viewpoints about assessment and about the focus and the
process of treatment. Because there are multiple ways to understand and work
with any case, practitioners trained in one specific model may guide the case
according to their training and concepts about the appropriate nature of thera-
peutic work.
The use of the Shore family case as a major recurring theme in each chap-
ter demonstrates to the reader that there are many different ways to Rome.
Some approaches emphasize work with the marital dyad, others with the par-
ent–child relationship, and still others with the family as a unit, with all taking
their rationale from the principles of their models. One wonders which ap-
proach the family would have preferred, and to what extent these seemingly
substantive differences matter. All the models emphasize respect for the cli-
ents and an understanding of the reciprocal influence of persons and their
environments. After all, a systems perspective maintains that a change in any
one person will affect others in the family group, and the literature has con-
firmed that the practitioner’s own belief in the efficacy of his or her approach
is the essential factor that contributes to therapeutic change in clients.
Appropriate as a text in advanced clinical practice courses, this book com-
bines a three-pronged focus: (a) the 11 models of practice, (b) the in-depth case
discussions, and (c) an emphasis on diversity. The contributors follow a similar
chapter outline that includes a section about issues on diversity, as these are

ix
x Foreword

reflected in their helping perspective and with respect to specific aspects of the
case. Although the case involves a Caucasian family, the Shores, many authors
chose to hypothetically alter the ethnicity of the family in order to discuss the
situation had the family been Russian, African American, Japanese American,
Mexican American, or Chinese. This device allows, for example, a discussion
of the pressures of immigrant families that must simultaneously deal with ad-
aptation to a new sociocultural environment at the same time they are strug-
gling with personal and family problems. One author chose to discuss diversity
in terms of gender and role expectations in this Caucasian family.
Regardless of the model of practice, it is imperative that the therapist
thoughtfully examine his or her own cultural biases and beliefs about gender
role expectations, child rearing, and appropriate help-seeking behavior. These
culturally grounded beliefs inevitably pervade the therapeutic process and ap-
ply to the therapist, as well as to the client. It is ironic that many people from
non-European cultures consider it shameful to require assistance from a men-
tal health professional, and the practitioner who does not recognize or share
these beliefs may misread the client’s hesitation as “resistance.”
The social work profession is committed to helping people from increas-
ingly diverse backgrounds, and the growing literature provides guidance about
culturally competent practice (Fong, in press; Lum, 1999; Webb, 2001). This
book makes an important contribution to our understanding of applying con-
cepts about diversity in clinical work with families.

REFERENCES

Fong, R. (Ed.). (in press). Culturally competent practice with immigrant and refugee children and
families. New York: Guilford Press.
Lum, D. (1999). Culturally competent practice. A framework for growth and action. Pacific Grove,
CA: Sage.
Webb, N. B. (Ed.). (2001). Culturally diverse parent–child and family relationships. A guide for
social workers and other practitioners. New York: Columbia University Press.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am deeply grateful to my co-editors, who performed their editing tasks ex-

quisitely. In the process of editing this book, the three of us learned about each
other’s shortcomings and strengths—and are better friends and colleagues for
it. Thanks also to the many contributors who survived our constant deadlines
and changes. Emily Epstein-Loeb, an editor at Brunner-Routledge, deserves
special recognition. Her support for the “emphasis on diversity” was immedi-
ate and enthusiastic. The Shore family has been the centerpiece in all three
volumes of Paradigms of Clinical Social Work. I remain indebted to the family
members for allowing us a window into their lives. Finally, my heartfelt appre-
ciation goes to my husband, Jay. What can you say about a partner whose greatest
joy is seeing you happy?
R. A. D.

Many thanks to our students who, when we are humble enough to ask them,
tell us exactly what they need to succeed in the work we all do. Thanks to
Rocky for, once again, nudging me into the unknown and making sure I have
provisions for the journey—and to Melinda for holding hands along the way. I
am especially grateful to members of my family who put up with the smell of
midnight oil and the oft-times haggard sight of a sleep-deprived parent.
P. M.

My heartfelt thanks go to the authors who graciously contributed to the book,

without whom there would be no book. I would also like to thank the students
and the clients who have educated me and enriched my life. I thank my col-
leagues, who have lent me their guidance. Finally, I would like to express my
deepest appreciation for my children, who keep me centered and sane!
M.L.M.

xi
 ABOUT THE EDITORS

Rachelle A. Dorfman, PhD, is a Professor Emeritus of Social Welfare at the

UCLA Department of Social Welfare and a licensed clinical social worker. She
was a visiting professor at the University of Hong Kong and a 1998 recipient of
a Fulbright Scholar award to teach gerontology at the National Kaohsiung Nor-
mal University in Taiwan. She is the editor of Paradigms of Clinical Social Work
(Volumes 1 and 2), and author of Aging Into the 21st Century: The Exploration of
Aspirations and Values, and Clinical Social Work: Definition, Practice and Vision
and is widely published in professional journals. She received her MSW from
Bryn Mawr School of Social Work and her PhD from Temple University.

Phil Meyer, MSW, is a lecturer in the Department of Social Welfare at the

University of California, Los Angeles. He serves as a consultant and a supervi-
sor for SPECTRUM Community Services and Research at Charles R. Drew
University and the Maternal, Child, and Adolescent Clinic at the University of
Southern California, both programs that specialize in treating people living
with HIV/AIDS. He is the consumer liaison for the HIV/AIDS Treatment
Adherence, Health Outcomes, and Cost Study and has several articles in press
about the importance of consumer representation in multi-site HIV, mental
health, and substance abuse research. A parent, a poet, and a sometime opera
singer, he also maintains an active private practice in Los Angeles.

Melinda L. Morgan, PhD, is an assistant professor of psychiatry and biobehavior

sciences at the UCLA Neuropsychiatric Institute and Hospital at the David
Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA. She is also a licensed clinical social worker
and teaches in the Department of Social Welfare at the UCLA School of Public
Policy and Social Research. Dr. Morgan is the principle investigator for a re-
search project on estrogen augmentation in perimenopausal depression and a
co-investigator on the research team investigating placebo effects at UCLA.
She has been honored as an NCDEU New Investigator and received the
NARSAD Young Investigator Award to support her research on estrogen,

xiii
xiv About the Editors

women, and depression. She is a certified cognitive behavioral therapist with

the NIMH multi-site project on treatment-resistant depression. She has spo-
ken nationally and has published research on premenstrual dysphoric disor-
der, affective disorder in women over the life span, and brain function in
depression.
 ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

Joseph Anderson, PhD, is a professor and a past director of the Division of

Social Work, California State University, Sacramento. He was the MSW pro-
gram director at Norfolk State University, a visiting professor at National Uni-
versity of Singapore, and the chair of the Department of Social Work,
Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania. He is a past member of the CWSE
Commission on Accreditation and a past chair of the CSWE Commission on
Educational Policy. He was in private practice in Pennsylvania and Virginia
and was the clinical director of the Youth Development Center in Loysville,
Pennsylvania. His publications include Diversity Perspectives for Social Work
Practice, Social Work With Groups, Social Work Methods and Processes, and nu-
merous journal articles and book chapters.

Nancy Boyd Webb, DSW, is a distinguished professor of social work and the
James R. Dumpson Chair in Child Welfare Studies at Fordham University Gradu-
ate School of Social Service, where she has been a faculty member since 1979.
Her works include Play Therapy With Children in Crisis: Individual, Family and
Group Treatment; Helping Bereaved Children: A Handbook for Practitioners; Social
Work Practice With Children; and Culturally Diverse Parent–Child and Family Re-
lationships. In addition, she has published widely in professional journals and
produced a video, Techniques of Play Therapy. She is the editor of a book series
for Guilford Press on the topic of social work practice with children. In 1985
she founded the post-master’s certificate program in child and adolescent
therapy at Fordham to meet the need for specialized training with children
and families. She consults with agencies and schools around issues of trauma
and bereavement and is a frequent keynote speaker at professional confer-
ences and meetings in the United States and abroad. Dr. Webb is a board-
certified diplomat in clinical social work and a registered play therapy supervisor
with the International Association for Play Therapy.

xv
xvi About the Contrubutors

Elaine P. Congress, DSW, is an associate dean and a professor at Fordham

University Graduate School of Social Service in New York City, where she also
has served as the director of the doctoral program. Dr. Congress has written
extensively in the areas of cultural diversity, social work ethics, social work
education, and crisis intervention, including 3 books and over 30 professional
journal articles and book chapters. Her book Multicultural Perspectives in Work-
ing With Families examines assessment, life cycle, and practice issues from a
cultural perspective. She developed the culturagram, a family assessment tool
for assessing and working with culturally diverse families, which was first fea-
tured in the November 1994 issue of Families in Society and revised in 2000 for
Advances in Social Work. Another book, Social Work Values and Ethics: Identify-
ing and Resolving Professional Dilemmas, presents the ETHIC model of decision
making for addressing ethical dilemmas in social work practice.

Ian A. Cook, MD, is associate professor of psychiatry and biobehavioral sci-

ences at the Neuropsychiatric Institute and Hospital at the David Geffen School
of Medicine, UCLA. He is a co-investigator of the research team at UCLA in-
vestigating the effects of placebo. Dr. Cook is the founding director of the UCLA
NPI Academic Information Technology Core. He was honored as an NCDEU
New Investigator and received two NARSAD Young Investigator Awards to
support his research in depression and neurophysiology. He currently is the
recipient of a Career Development Award from the NIMH to study etiologic
factors leading to the side effects of psychoactive medications. He has spoken
internationally and has published peer-reviewed research on depression and
brain function. Dr. Cook is a board-certified psychiatrist, and he is also an
examiner for the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology.

Daniel J. Fischer, MSW, is a clinical assistant professor and an associate direc-

tor of the Pediatric OCD Program at the University of Michigan, Department
of Psychiatry, Child/Adolescent Division. He is also a social work manager and
a director of graduate education at the University of Michigan Health Systems
Department of Social Work and an adjunct lecturer at the University of Michi-
gan School of Social Work. He completed his MSW at the University of Michi-
gan in 1984. Mr. Fischer is an active clinician, teacher, and researcher in the
area of anxiety disorders and cognitive-behavioral therapies.

Kevin J. Fitzsimmons, MSW, is an adjunct professor in the Psychology De-

partment at Antioch University, Los Angeles, and a lecturer in the Graduate
Department of Social Work at the University of California, Los Angeles. He is
a member of the family therapy faculty at the Southern California Counseling
Center. He is currently training clinicians with the Los Angeles County De-
partment of Mental Health in the practices of postmodern psychotherapies.
After 20 years of community mental health agency service, he is now in private
practice in Los Angeles.
About the Contrubutors xvii

Charles Garvin, PhD, is Professor Emeritus of Social Work at the University of

Michigan School of Social Work. He is the author of Contemporary Group Work
and a coauthor of Interpersonal Practice in Social Work, Social Work in Contempo-
rary Society, and Generalist Practice in Social Work: A Task Centered Approach. He
is co-editor of The Handbook of Direct Practice in Social Work. He has written
many articles and book chapters on group work, clinical practice, treatment of
persons with serious mental illness, treatment of persons in correctional pro-
grams, and research in social work. He is a past chair of the Group for the
Advancement of Doctoral Education in Social Work (GADE) and the Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Social Work with Groups (AASWG).

Joseph A. Himle, PhD, is a clinical assistant professor and the director of edu-
cation, Ambulatory Psychiatry, at the University of Michigan, Department of
Psychiatry. He is also the associate director of the University of Michigan Anxi-
ety Disorders Program and an adjunct assistant professor at the University of
Michigan School of Social Work. He completed his doctorate in social work
and psychology at the University of Michigan in August of 1995. Dr. Himle is
an active clinician, a teacher, and a researcher in the area of anxiety disorders
and cognitive-behavioral therapies.

Carolyn Jacobs, PhD, is the dean and an Elizabeth Marting Treuhaft Professor
at Smith College School for Social Work. She has taught primarily within the
research and practice sequences of the Smith College School for Social Work.
Her areas of professional interest include religion and spirituality in social work
practice, social work research, and statistics. She has written and presented
extensively on the topic of spirituality in social work. She is the co-editor of
Ethnicity and Race: Critical Concepts in Social Work. She is a spiritual director
trained at the Shalem Institute for Spiritual Formation. Dr. Jacobs was also
elected as a distinguished practitioner in the National Academies of Practice in
Social Work in 2001.

Marshall Jung, DSW, is a Professor Emeritus of Social Work, California State

University, San Bernardino and a nationally recognized expert in marital and
family therapy. He has provided workshops for child welfare and mental health
organizations, social and family services agencies, residential treatment facili-
ties, and medical hospitals throughout the United States and in Canada and
Hong Kong. He has also presented at many state and national conferences,
including the NASW National Conference, the American Association of Mari-
tal and Family Therapists, and the National Association of Group Work An-
nual Conference. Dr. Jung has published in major professional journals,
including Social Work, Families in Contemporary Society, and Family Process. Dr.
Jung has coauthored one self-help book and authored two professional ones,
the last of which is titled Chinese American Family Therapy. He is the father of
two children and the grandfather of three. Dr. Jung currently lives with his
wife, Rosie, at his retreat and training center in Lake Arrowhead, California.
xviii About the Contrubutors

Jordana R. Muroff, MSW, is a doctoral candidate in the joint doctoral program

in social work and psychology at the University of Michigan. She completed
her MSW in 1999. She is also a clinical and research fellow at the University of
Michigan Department of Psychiatry, Child/Adolescent Outpatient Division,
and the Adult Anxiety Disorders Program.

Tammie Ronen, PhD, is a professor at the Bob Shapell School of Social Work,
Tel-Aviv University, Israel. She serves as the director of the Child Clinical Pro-
gram in Graduate Studies and the director of the Research Clinic for Aggres-
sive Children. Dr. Ronen is the author of many papers and books in the area of
child therapy and self-control training.

Marga Speicher, PhD, is a Jungian psychotherapist and psychoanalyst in pri-

vate practice in San Antonio, Texas. She serves as a senior training analyst in
the psychoanalytic training program of Inter-Regional Society of Jungian Ana-
lysts. She is a clinical associate professor in the Department of Psychiatry, Uni-
versity of Texas Health Sciences Center, San Antonio. Dr. Speicher’s professional
interests include multitheoretical and multidisciplinary discussion and teach-
ing in psychotherapy, presentation of lectures and workshops on psychological
understanding to the general public, and psychological exploration of images
in the arts, especially literature and folklore. Her writing has appeared in the
Clinical Social Work Journal and other publications; her explorations of images
in folklore have appeared on audiotape.

Daniel S. Sweeney, PhD, is an associate professor and a clinical director in the

Graduate Department of Counseling at George Fox University in Portland,
Oregon. He is also the director of the Northwest Center for Play Therapy Stud-
ies at GFU and a registered play therapist-supervisor. He has presented at nu-
merous national and international conferences on the topics of play therapy,
filial therapy, and sandtray therapy. He has published articles and book chap-
ters on child counseling, play therapy issues, families and parenting, and is an
author or a coauthor of several books, including Play Therapy Interventions With
Children’s Problems, Counseling Children Through the World of Play, Sandtray
Therapy: A Practical Manual, and Handbook of Group Play Therapy. His books
have been translated into Russian, French, and Mandarin.

Marlene F. Watson, PhD, is an associate professor and the director of Gradu-

ate Programs in Couple and Family Therapy at Drexel University in Philadel-
phia. She is also a licensed marriage and family therapist. Dr. Watson is a chair
elect on the Commission on Accreditation for Marriage and Family Therapy
Education (COAMFTE) and on the editorial review board for the Journal of
Marital and Family Therapy. She lectures nationally on issues of race, ethnicity,
gender, and class. She devotes much of her professional energy to establishing
new and innovative therapies. For example, she partnered with the city of
About the Contrubutors xix

Philadelphia’s Coordinating Office for Drug and Alcohol Abuse Programs to

provide family therapy services to substance-dependent clients, both behind
prison walls and in the community. This work was recognized in the Utne Reader,
which named her as one of the 10 most innovative therapists in the nation.

Robin Wiggins-Carter, DPA, is the director of the Division of Social Work at

California State University, Sacramento, where she has been a faculty member
for 12 years. She teaches social work practice and diversity courses. She has
published in the area of social work with the African American family and has
particular interests in the Afrocentric paradigm, health-care social work, clini-
cal supervision, and gerontological social work. She recently co-edited (with
Joseph Anderson) Diversity Perspectives in Social Work Practice. She has also
contributed several chapters to other edited books. She received her DPA and
MPA from the University of Southern California.

Larry M. Zucker, MSW, is an adjunct professor in the Psychology Department

at Antioch University, Los Angeles. He is a member of the family therapy fac-
ulty at the Southern California Counseling Center. He is a consultant and a
supervisor for Clean Slate, Inc., a community-based gang-recovery and tattoo-
removal program in Los Angeles. He is also in private practice.
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Europe and America unite in holding the Augustinian theory of the
origin of evil, and also that theologians themselves find it
indefensible, the next aim will be to present a portion of the
evidence to show that this system is at war with the moral feelings
and common sense of mankind.

There are remains of the writings of those who were the opposers of
this theory in the time of Augustine, which show the strong
emotions called forth at that remote period by the introduction of
this doctrine.

The following is from one of the theologians of that day, addressed

to the author of the theory:
Julian to Augustine.

“The children, you say, do not bear the blame of their own, but
of another's sins. What sort of sin can that be? What an
unfeeling wretch, cruel, forgetful of God and of righteousness,
an inhuman barbarian, is he who would make such innocent
creatures as little children bear the consequences of
transgressions which they never committed, and never could
commit? God, you answer. What god? For there are gods many
and lords many; but we worship but one God and one Lord
Jesus Christ. What God dost thou make the malefactor? Here,
most holy [pg 035]priest and most learned orator, thou
fabricatest something more mournful and frightful than the
brimstone in the valley of Amsanctus. God himself, say you,
who commendeth his love towards us, who even spared not
his own Son, but hath given him up for us all, he so
determines—he is himself the persecutor of those that are
born. He himself consigns to eternal fire for an evil will, the
children who, as he knows, can have neither a good nor an evil
will.”

The following is from the celebrated Dr. Watts, whose sacred lyrics
endear his name to the Christian world:
Dr. Watts.

“This natural propagation of sinful inclinations from a common

parent, by a law of creation, seems difficult to be reconciled
with the goodness and justice of God. It seems exceeding hard
to suppose that such a righteous and holy God, the Creator,
who is also a being of such infinite goodness, should, by a
powerful law and order of creation, which is now called nature,
appoint young, intelligent creatures to come into being in such
unhappy and degenerate circumstances, liable to such intense
pains and miseries, and under such powerful tendencies and
propensities to evil, by the mere law of propagation, as should
almost unavoidably expose them to ten thousand actual sins,
and all this before they have any personal sin or guilt to
deserve it.

“If it could be well made out that the whole race of mankind
are partakers of sinful inclinations, and evil passions, and
biases to vice, and also are exposed to many sharp actual
sufferings and to death, merely and only by the original divine
law of propagation from their parents who had sinned; and, if
the justice and goodness of God could be vindicated in making
and maintaining such a dreadful law or order of propagation
through six thousand years, we have no need of further
inquiries, but might here be at rest. But, if the scheme be so
injurious to the goodness and equity of God as it seems to be,
then we are constrained to seek a little further for a
satisfactory account of this universal degeneracy and misery of
mankind.”
[pg 036]
The following was written by an American divine at the time of the
commencement of the conflict in this country between the Old and
New School Calvinists. At that time this theory of a depraved nature
was accompanied, even in pulpit teachings, by the assumption of
man's total inability to do any thing to gain salvation, and that Christ
died, not for all men, but only for “the elect.”
Dr. Whelpley.

“The idea that all the numerous millions of Adam's posterity

deserve the ineffable and endless torments of hell for a single
act of his, before any one of them existed, is repugnant to that
reason that God has given us, and is subversive of all possible
conceptions of justice. I hesitate not to say, that no scheme of
religion ever propagated amongst men contains a more
monstrous, a more horrible tenet. The atrocity of this doctrine
is beyond comparison. The visions of the Koran, the fictions of
Sadder, the fables of the Zendavesta, all give place to this;
Rabbinical legends, Brahminical vagaries, all vanish before it.”

“The whole of their doctrine, then, amounts to this: that a man

is in the first place condemned, incapacitated, and eternally
reprobated for the sin of Adam; in the next place, that he is
condemned over again for not doing what he is totally and in
all respects unable to do; and in the third place that he is
condemned, doubly and trebly condemned, for not believing in
a Saviour who never died for him, and with whom he has no
more to do than a fallen angel.”

The elder President Adams at first designed to enter the clerical

profession, but was deterred by doctrinal difficulties, of which he
thus writes:
John Adams.

“If one man, or being, out of pure generosity, and without any
expectation of return, is about to confer any favor or
emolument [pg 037]upon another, he has a right and is at
liberty to choose in what manner and by what means to confer
it. He may confer the favor by his own hand or by the hand of
a servant; and the obligation to gratitude is equally strong
upon the benefited being. The mode of bestowing does not
diminish the kindness, provided the commodity or good is
brought to us equally perfect and without our expense. But, on
the other hand, if one being is the original cause of pain,
sorrow, or suffering to another, voluntarily and without
provocation, it is injurious to that other, whatever means he
might employ, and whatever circumstances the conveyance of
the injury might be attended with. Thus we are equally obliged
to the Supreme Being for the information he has given us of
our duty, whether by the constitution of our minds or bodies,
or by a supernatural revelation. For an instance of the latter, let
us take original sin. Some say that Adam's sin was enough to
damn the whole human race, without any actual crimes
committed by any of them. Now this guilt is brought upon
them, not by their own rashness and indiscretion, not by their
own wickedness and vice, but by the Supreme Being. This guilt
brought upon us is a real injury and misfortune, because it
renders us worse than not to be; and therefore making us
guilty on account of Adam's delegation, or representing all of
us, is not in the least diminishing the injury and injustice, but
only changing the mode of conveyance.”
The celebrated Dr. Channing was educated a Calvinist. The following
exhibits his views on this subject, after embracing Unitarianism:
Dr. Channing.

He says of such views:

“They take from us our Father in heaven, and substitute a

stern and unjust Lord. Our filial love and reverence rise up
against them. We say, touch any thing but the perfections of
God. Cast no stain on that spotless purity and loveliness. We
can endure any errors but those which subvert or unsettle the
conviction of God's paternal goodness. Urge not upon us a
system [pg 038]which makes existence a curse, and wraps
the universe in gloom. If I and my beloved friends and my
whole race have come from the hands of our Creator wholly
depraved, irresistibly propense to all evil and averse to all good
—if only a portion are chosen to escape from this miserable
state, and if the rest are to be consigned, by the Being who
gave us our depraved and wretched nature, to endless
torments in inextinguishable flames—then do I think that
nothing remains but to mourn in anguish of heart; then
existence is a curse, and the Creator is——. O, my merciful
Father! I can not speak of thee in the language which this
system would suggest. No! thou hast been too kind to me to
deserve this reproach from my lips. Thou hast created me to
be happy; thou callest me to virtue and piety, because in these
consists my felicity; and thou wilt demand nothing from me but
what thou givest me ability to perform!”

The following is from the pen of a celebrated writer educated in the

Baptist denomination, who finally became a Universalist:
John Foster.

“I acknowledge my inability (I would say it reverently) to admit

this belief together with a belief in the divine goodness—the
belief that ‘God is love,’ that his tender mercies are over all his
works. Goodness, benevolence, charity, as ascribed in supreme
perfection to him, can not mean a quality foreign to all human
conceptions of goodness. It must be something analogous in
principle to what himself has defined and required as goodness
in his moral creatures, that, in adoring the divine goodness, we
may not be worshiping an ‘unknown God.’ But, if so, how
would all our ideas be confounded while contemplating him
bringing, of his own sovereign will, a race of creatures into
existence in such a condition that they certainly will and must
—must by their nature and circumstances—go wrong and be
miserable, unless prevented by especial grace, which is the
privilege of only a small portion of them, and at the same time
affixing on their delinquency a doom of which it is infinitely
beyond the highest archangel's faculty to apprehend a
thousandth part of the horror.

[pg 039]
“It amazes me to imagine how thoughtful and benevolent men,
believing that doctrine, can endure the sight of the present
world and the history of the past. To behold successive,
innumerable crowds carried on in the mighty impulse of a
depraved nature, which they are impotent to reverse, and to
which it is not the will of God, in his sovereignty, to apply the
only adequate power, the withholding of which consigns them
inevitably to their doom; to see them passing through a short
term of moral existence (absurdly sometimes denominated a
 probation) under all the world's pernicious influences, with the
addition of the malign and deadly one of the great tempter and
destroyer, to confirm and augment the inherent depravity, on
their speedy passage to everlasting woe;—I repeat, I am,
without pretending to any extraordinary depth of feeling,
amazed to conceive what they contrive to do with their
sensibility, and in what manner they maintain a firm assurance
of the divine goodness and justice.”

The following is the experience of the author of the Conflict of Ages:

Dr. Edward Beecher.

“If any one would know the full worth of the privilege of living
under, worshiping, loving and adoring a God of honor,
righteousness and love, let him, after years of joyful Christian
experience and soul-satisfying communion with God, at last
come to a point where his lovely character, for a time, vanishes
from his eyes, and nothing can be rationally seen but a God
selfish, dishonorable, unfeeling. No such person can ever
believe that God issuch; but he may be so situated as to be
unable rationally to see him in any other light. All the common
modes of defending the doctrine of native depravity may have
been examined and pronounced insufficient, and the question
may urgently press itself upon the mind, Is not the present
system a malevolent one? and of it no defense may appear.

“Who can describe the gloom of him who looks on such a

prospect? How dark to him appears the history of man! He
looks with pity on the children that pass him in the street. The
more violent manifestations of their depravity seem to be the
unfoldings [pg 040]of a corrupt nature given to them by God
before any knowledge, choice or consent of their own. Mercy
now seems to be no mercy, and he who once delighted to
speak of the love of Christ is obliged to close his lips in silence;
for the original wrong of giving man such a nature seems so
great that no subsequent acts can atone for the deed. In this
state of mind, he who once delighted to pray, kneels and rises
again, because he can not sincerely worship the only God
whom he sees. His distress is not on his own account. He feels
that God has redeemed and regenerated him; but this gives
him no relief. He feels as if he could not be bribed by the offer
 of all the honors of the universe to pretend to worship or
praise a God whose character he can not defend. He feels that
he should infinitely prefer once more to see a God whom he
could honorably adore, and a universe radiant with his glory,
and then to sink into non-existence, rather than to have all the
honors of the universe for ever heaped upon him by a God
whose character he could not sincerely and honestly defend.
Never before has he so deeply felt a longing after a God of a
spotless character. Never has he so deeply felt that the whole
light and joy of the universe are in him, and that when his
character is darkened all worlds are filled with gloom.”

The following is from the Rev. Albert Barnes, a leading New School
Calvinistic divine, and the author of a very popular Commentary on
the Bible:

“That the immortal mind should be allowed to jeopard its

infinite welfare, and that trifles should be allowed to draw it
away from God and virtue and heaven; that any should suffer
for ever—lingering on in hopeless despair amidst infinite
torments, without the possibility of alleviation and without end;
that since God can save men and will save a part, he has not
purposed to save all; that on the supposition that the
atonement is ample, and that the blood of Christ can cleanse
from all and every sin, it is not in fact applied to all; that, in a
word, a God who claims to be worthy of the confidence of the
universe, and to be a being of infinite benevolence, should
make such a world as this, full of sinners and sufferers, and
then, when an atonement has been made, he did [pg
041]not save all the race, and put an end to sin and woe for
ever;—these and kindred difficulties meet the mind when we
think on this great subject. And they meet us whenever we
endeavor to urge our fellow-sinners to be reconciled to God.
On this ground they hesitate. These are real and not imaginary
difficulties. They are probably felt by every mind that has ever
 reflected on the subject; and they are unexplained,
unmitigated, unremoved.”

“I have never known a particle of light thrown on these

subjects that has given a moment's ease to my tortured mind;
nor have I an explanation to offer, or a thought to suggest,
that would be of relief to you. I trust other men, as they
profess to do—understand this better than I do, and that they
have not the anguish of spirit which I have; but I confess,
when I look on a world of sinners and of sufferers, upon
death-beds and grave-yards, upon the world of woe filled with
hosts to suffer for ever; when I see my friends, my parents,
my family, my people, my fellow-citizens; when I look upon a
whole race, all involved in this sin and danger, and when I see
the great mass of them wholly unconcerned, and when I feel
that God only can save them and yet that he does not do it—I
am struck dumb. It is all dark, dark, dark to my soul, and I can
not disguise it.”

This is but a brief specimen of the shuddering protest which has

arisen in all ages and from all sects, against this stern and awful
dogma, and which has poured its most powerful records from the
shivering hearts of theologians themselves.3
Chapter IX. The Principles of Common
Sense Defined.

The preceding extracts exhibit a portion of the evidence to prove

that the Augustinian system is contrary [pg 042] to the moral sense
of mankind, and that theologians have failed, by their own
concessions, to render it consistent and satisfactory even to
themselves.

The next attempt will be to show that the people are endowed with
principles of common sense, by the aid of which they can educe
from the works of the Creator, independently of any revealed Word,
a system of religion far superior to the one based on the Augustinian
theory.

Our first aim will be to designate what is intended by “the principles

of common sense.”

It is claimed, then, that there are certain truths, the belief of which
exists in every rational human mind. This belief, in some cases, as all
must allow, results from the constitution of mind given by the
Creator, and not from any instruction or knowledge gained by other
modes. Of this class is the belief of every mind in its own existence,
and also the belief in the existence of other things beside ourselves.

There are other truths universally believed by every rational mind,

where there may be room for question as to whether this belief is
acquired or the result of constitutional organization. But this
question is waived, as of little practical consequence for the present
purpose of this work.
The fact on which the name and classification of these truths rests
is, that the belief in them is common to all rational minds, and is
regarded as so indispensable to true rationality, that whenever any
person shows by words and actions that a belief in any one of these
truths does not exist, he is regarded as deranged, that is to say, his
reason is said to be more or less destroyed.

[pg 043]
This, therefore, is the test by which we are to distinguish these
principles of common sense from all other knowledge. They are
truths which are believed by all rational persons, so that the disbelief
of any one of them, evinced in words and actions, is universally
regarded as proof of a deranged mind. In such cases, a man, in
common parlance, would be said to have “lost his mind,” or to have
“lost his reason;” inasmuch as he is lacking in some of those peculiar
features which constitute man a rational being.

In this work the question is also waived as to the number of truths

which are to be included in this class. In regard to certain of them
there can be no dispute. Of those involving any discussion, there
probably will be no occasion to speak in this work. The writer does
not claim that the common people, or that metaphysicians, when
they speak of “common sense,” always refer to what is here
designated by this term.

All that the writer claims is that there are certain truths, the belief of
which is common to all minds, either as the result of constitutional
organization or of acquired knowledge; and that these can be
classified by this test, viz., that men universally talk and act as if
they believed them, and when they cease to do so, are regarded as
more or less insane.

Moreover, it is claimed that it is proper to call them principles of

common sense, because they are that kind of sense which is
common to the whole race, and also they are often referred to, both
by metaphysicians and by the common people, by this term.
In the following chapters it will be shown that by the application of
these principles, a system of natural religion can be gained from the
works of the Creator [pg 044] by the same methods that men
employ in all the ordinary concerns of life, and that thus we are as
fully qualified to gain religious knowledge and peace as we are to
secure temporal comfort and prosperity.
Chapter X. Common Sense Applied to
Gain the Existence of God.

Having explained what is intended by the principles of common

sense, the next attempt will be to apply certain of these principles to
gain a system of natural religion; meaning by this term that religion
which may be gained from the works of the Creator independently of
any revealed Word.

In all systems of religion the first article relates to the existence and
character of the Deity to be worshiped and obeyed. The first
principle of common sense to guide us in this inquiry is this:
Every change has a producing cause.

In the widest sense of the word, cause signifies something as an

antecedent, without which a given change will not occur, and with
which it will occur. This is the leading idea in every use of this word.

Then there are two classes of causes; the first are necessary or
producing causes, and the second occasional causes.

A producing cause is an antecedent which produces a given change.

Occasional causes are those circumstances which are indispensable

to the action of producing causes.

[pg 045]
Thus, fire applied to powder is the producing cause of an explosion,
while the placing of the two together is the occasional cause of it.

The idea of a producing cause is one which probably is gained when

we first discover that our own will moves our own limbs and other
things around us. When we will to move a thing, and find the
intended change follows our volition to move it, then we can not
help believing that our own mind produced this change. At the same
time we gain the idea of power to produce this change, and the
belief also that the thing changed had no power to refrain from the
change.

Our only mode of defining the idea of a producing cause, of power

and of want of power, is to refer to occasions when, by willing, we
cause changes, and thus become conscious of the existence and
nature of these ideas by experience.
So also we have no mode of defining our sensations but by stating
the occasions in which we are conscious of them. For instance,
whiteness is the sensation we have when we look at snow, and
blackness is the sensation we have when we look at charcoal.

The same idea of causation and power in ourselves which we have

when we make changes by our will, we always connect with any
thing which by experiment and testimony we find, in given
circumstances, to be an invariable antecedent of a given change.
Our minds are so made, that whenever we find an invariable
antecedent of a given change, we can not help believing that this
antecedent produced the change, just as we believe our own will
produces changes in our bodies and in things around us. And if any
person [pg 046] were to talk and act as if lie did not believe this, be
would be regarded as having “lost his reason.”

Moreover, whenever men, by frequent experiments, find that a given

change is invariably preceded by a certain antecedent, they can not
help believing that the antecedent has power to produce this
change, and that the thing changed has no power to do otherwise.
This idea of power and want of power always exists whenever men
find an invariable antecedent to some change. It is by finding what
are thus invariably connected as antecedents and consequents that
men learn what are causes, and what are effects, and what are the
powers of things around us.

Here, then, we have these as principles of common sense believed

by all men, viz.:

1. Every change (in matter or mind) has a producing cause as an

antecedent.

2. Every invariable antecedent of an invariable sequent is a

producing cause, and the thing changed has no power to refrain
from that change.
3. A producing cause, in appropriate circumstances, has power to
make a given change.

Now every man, however unlearned, can judge for himself whether
these principles of common sense exist in his own mind, as here set
forth. For example, let any person take a magnet and discover, day
after day, that when it is placed near a piece of iron it draws it to
itself; let him find also, by testimony from others, that this is
invariable and fails in not a single instance, and the inevitable result
is a belief that the magnet is the cause of the moving of the iron,
just as the mind is the cause of the movement of our bodies. So also
there is a belief that the magnet, in given circumstances, [pg 047]
has power to move the iron, as our will has power to move our body.
So also there is a belief that the piece of iron, in the given
circumstances, has no power to refrain from being thus attracted.

We see, then, that it is a universal fact, that when there is a change

of any thing, or any new mode of existence, every sane man
believes there is some producing cause of this change. Even the
youngest child exhibits this principle as a part of its mental
organization. And should a person be found who was destitute of a
belief in this truth, so that he should talk and act as if things came
into existence and were changing places and forms without any
causes, he would be called insane, or a man who had “lost his
reason.”

Our minds being endowed with this principle, we find the world
around us to be a succession of changes which we trace back to
preceding causes, until we come to the grand question, “Who, or
what first started this vast system of successive changes?” Only two
replies are conceivable. The first is that of the Atheist, who,
contradicting his own common sense, maintains that, in some past
period, all this vast system of organization and changes began to
exist without any cause. The other reply is, that there is a great,
eternal, self-existent First Cause, who himself never began to be,
and who is the author of all finite existences. This being, the Creator
of the heavens and the earth, we call God.

The next principle of common sense is that by which we gain a

knowledge of the natural attributes of the Creator. It is this:

Design or contrivance to secure a given end, is proof [pg 048] of an

intelligent designer, and the nature of a design proves the intention
and character of its author.

The mind, as has been shown, is so formed that it can not believe
that any existence can commence without some antecedent cause.
The existence of unorganized matter, however, would be no proof
that the cause was an intelligent mind.

But when any existence is discovered where there is an adjustment

of parts, all conducing to accomplish some determinate end, no
person can examine and understand its nature and adaptations
without the accompanying belief that the cause of that contrivance
was a mind endowed with the capacity of adjusting means to
accomplish an end, and thus an intelligent mind.

Nor is it possible, when the object which any design is fitted to

accomplish is clearly discovered, to doubt the intention of the
designer. We can not help believing that it was the intention of the
contriver to accomplish the end for which his contrivance is fitted.

As an example to illustrate the existence of these principles, even in

the simplest minds, if a savage should find in the desert a gold
watch, nothing could lead him to believe that it sprang into existence
there without any cause. If he should open it and perceive the nice
adjustment of the wheels and all its beautiful indications of
contrivance, he could not believe that the mind of an animal, or that
any but an intelligent mind constructed its machinery. If he should
have all its movements explained to him, and learn how exactly all
were fitted to mark the passage of time, it would be equally
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