Unit-1

Measurement Systems and Performance

1.1 Measurement Systems and Performance

1.1.1 Configuration of a Measuring System

Introduction to Measurement and Instrumentation

Measurement

In field of engineering there are several type quantities which need to measured and
expressed in day-to-day work. For example, physical, chemical, mechanical
quantities, etc. Measurement is process of obtaining quantitative comparison between
predefined standard and unknown quantity (measurand) (figure 1). Measurand is
physical parameter being observed and quantified i.e. input quantity for measuring
process. Mechanical measurement means determination measurand related to
mechanical measurement. The act of measurement produces result.

Figure 1: Fundamental measuring process

Following quantities are typically within the scope of mechanical measurement.

Fundamental quantities: mass, length, time.

Derived quantities: Pressure, displacement, stress and strain, temperature,

acoustics, fluid flow, etc.
In order to observed and compare magnitude of quantities some magnitude of each
kind must be taken as basis or unit. Well defined units are needed to measure any
quantity. Dimension means characteristic of measurand. Dimensional unit is the basis
for qualification of measurand. For example, length is dimension and centimetre is its
unit, time is dimension and second is its unit. So, unit is standard measurement of any
fundamental quantity. Number of measures is same quantity as number of times unit
occurs. For example, 100 metres, we know that the metre is the unit of length and that
the number of units of length is one hundred. Therefore, physical quantity length is
defined by the unit metre.

Fundamental and derived unit

The units which are independent and not related with each other are known as
fundamental units. This unit does not vary with time, temperature and pressure etc.
There are seven fundamental units: mass, length, time, electric current, temperature,
luminous intensity and quantity of matter. Derived unit are expressed in terms of
fundamental units. Derived units originate from some physical law defining that unit.
For example: the area of rectangle is proportional to its length (l) and breadth (b) or A
= l × b. If the metre is considered as the unit of length, then the unit of area is . The
derived unit for area (A) is then the square metre ( ).

International system of units (SI units)

International system if units is modern form of metric system and is generally a

system of units of measurement devised around seven base units and the convenience
of the number ten. It is most commonly use of metric system of measurement in both
commerce and engineering. Following table shows fundamental units with standard
definitions.

Physical Standard Definition Symbol

quantity Unit
Length meter The length of path travelled by light m
in an interval of 1/299 792 458

Seconds
Mass kilogram The mass of a platinum–iridium Kg
cylinder kept in the International

Bureau of Weights and

Measures, Sevres, Paris
Time Second 9.192631770 × 109 cycles of s
 radiation from vaporized caesium-
133

(an accuracy of 1 in 1012 or 1 second

in 36000 years)
Temperature kelvin The temperature difference between K
absolute zero and the triple point

of water is defined as 273.16 kelvin

Current ampere One ampere is the current flowing A
through two infinitely long

parallel conductors of
negligible cross-section placed 1
metre apart

in a vacuum and producing a force of

2 × 10–7 Newtons per metre

length of conductor
Luminous candela One candela is the luminous intensity cd
intensity in a given direction from

a source emitting monochromatic

radiation at a frequency of 540

terahertz (× Hz) and with a

radiant density in that direction of

1.4641 mW/steradian. (1 steradian is

the solid angle which, having

its vertex at the centre of a sphere,

cuts off an area of the sphere

surface equal to that of a square with

sides of length equal to the

sphere radius)
Matter Mole The number of atoms in a 0.012 kg mol
mass of carbon-12
There are two supplementary unit added to SI units.

1. Radian for the plane angles: The plane angles subtended by an arc of a
circle equal in length to the radius of the circle. It is denoted as rad.
2. The solid angle subtended at the centre of a sphere by the surface whose
area is equal to the square of the radius of the sphere. It is denoted as sr.

Following table show some derived unit

Quantity Standard unit Symbol

Area square metre
Volume cubic Metre
Velocity metre per second m/s
Acceleration metre per second m/
squared
Angular velocity radian per second rad/s

Density kilogram per cubic

metre
Force Newton N
Pressure Newton per square N/
metre
Torque Newton metre Nm
Work, Energy, heat joule J
power watt W
Thermal conductivity Watt per metre Kelvin W/mK
Electric charge coulomb C
Voltage, e.m.f., potential volt V
difference

Dimensions

Dimension is unique quality of every quantity which distinguishes it from all other
quantities. In mechanics there are three fundamental units: length, mass and
time. Their dimensional symbolic representation is given as: Length = [L], Mass =
[M], Time = [T] There are some more units which are, charge, temperature and
current. Charge = [Q], Temperature = [K], Current = [I]

Standards

Physical representation of unit of measurement is known as standard of measurement.

A unit is realized by reference to an arbitrary material standard or to natural
phenomena including physical and atomic constants. For example, the fundamental
unit of mass in the international system (SI) is the kilogram, defined as the mass of a
cubic decimetre of water as its temperature of maximum density of 400°C. It is
important to have relationship between standards and read out scale of any measuring
system and this relationship can be established through a process known as
calibration.

Classification of standards

Standards are classified according to their function and application as follows

1. International standards
2. Primary standards
3. Secondary standards
4. Working standards

International standards

International standards are defined by international agreement. They represent units of

measurement to closet possible accuracy that measurement technology allows. These
standards checked by absolute measurement in terms of fundamental units
periodically. These standards are maintained at international bureau of weights and
measure.

Primary standards

Primary standards are maintained by national standard laboratories in different part of

world. Function of primary standard is calibration and verification of secondary
standards. These standards are not available outside the laboratories.

Secondary standards

These standards are basic reference standards used in industrial laboratories. These
standards are checked locally against other reference standards in area. Secondary
standards are sent to international standards periodically for calibration and comparing
against primary standards. Then they sent back to industrial laboratories with
certification of their measured value against primary standards.

Working standards

These standards are used to check laboratory instruments for accuracy and
performance. For example, manufacturers of components such as capacitors uses
working standard for checking the component values being manufactured, e.g. a
standard capacitor for checking of capacitance value manufactured.

Significance of measurements

Measurements provide quantitative information of physical variables and processes.

Measurement is basis of all research, design and development.

All mechanical design involves three elements: Experience element which depends
on engineers’ experience and common sense. Rational element based on quantitative
engineering principles, laws of physics and so on. And experimental element is based
on measurements i.e. measurement of performance or operations of device that being
design and developed.

Measurement provides comparison between what is desired and what is achieved.

Measurement is fundamental element of any control process. Control process requires

measurand between actual and desired performance. Controlling system of control
process must know the magnitude and direction of measurand in order to control the
process as per desired performance.

Many daily operations require measurement to maintain proper performance. An

example is in the central power station. Temperatures, flows, pressures, and
vibrational amplitudes must be constantly monitored by measurement to ensure proper
performance of the system.

Methods of measurements

1. Direct method
2. Indirect method

Direct method

In this method measurand is directly compare with primary standard or secondary

standard. For example: Measuring a length of bar. We measure length of bar with the
help of measuring tape or scale which is acts as secondary standard i.e., we compare
measured quantity with secondary standard directly. Scale is expressed in terms of
numerical value and unit.

Indirect method

In this method measurand is converted into some other measurable quantity then we
measure this measurable quantity. In indirect method makes a use of some
transducing device coupled to chain of connecting apparatus which we call measuring
system. This chain of devices converts the basic form input into equivalent analogous
form which then processes and present at out as known function of original input. For
example: we cannot measure strain in bar due to applied load directly and for human
it is hard to sense strain in bar. So assistance is required to sense, convert and finally
represent an analogous output in the form of displacement on scale or chart or digital
readout.

Generalized measuring system

Generally, most of the measuring system consisting of three stages (Figure 3)

1. Sensor-transducer stage
2. Signal conditioning stage
3. Readout-recording stage

Stage 1: Sensor-transducer stage

Primary function of first stage is to sense the measurand and provide

analogues output. At a same time, it should be insensitive to every other possible
input. For example, if it pressure measuring device then it should be insensitive to
other inputs like change in temperature or acceleration. If it is linear accelerometer
then it should insensitive to angular acceleration and so on. Practically it is impossible
to have such selective sensors. Unwanted sensitivity is measuring error known as
noise when it varies rapidly and known as drift when it varies slowly.

Stage 2: Signal conditioning stage

The purpose of this stage is to modify the output signal from stage one so it can be
suitable for next readout-recording stage. Sometimes output from stage 1 has low
magnitude so signal conditioning can also amplify the signal to the level required to
drive final terminating device. In addition, this stage can also perform filtrations to
remove unwanted signal which cause an error in readout-recording stage.
Stage 3: Readout-recording stage

This stage provides indication or recording in form that can be evaluated by human
senses or controller. Output can be indicated in two forms

1. As a relative displacement: such as movement of indicating hand or

displacement of oscilloscope trace.
2. In digital form: as presented by counter such as automobile odometer.

Figure 2: Block diagram of generalized measuring system

To illustrate the measuring systems, consider a tire gauge which used to measure
pressure of tire shown in figure 4.

Figure 2: A gage for measuring pressure in automobile tyre

It consists of cylinder and piston, spring resisting the piston movement and stem with
scale divisions. As the air pressure bears against the piston, the resulting force
compresses the spring until the spring and air forces balance. The calibrated stem,
which remains in place after the spring returns the piston, indicates the applied
pressure.
 The piston-cylinder combination constitutes a force-summing apparatus, sensing and
transducing pressure to force. As a secondary transducer, the spring converts the force
to a displacement. Finally, the transduced input is transferred without signal
conditioning to the scale and index for readout. Block diagram for a gage for
measuring pressure in automobile tyre is shown in figure 5.

Figure 4: Block diagram for a gage for measuring pressure in automobile tyre.

Instruments

An instrument is serves as an extension of human faculties and enables the man to

determine the value of unknown quantity which is impossible to measure with human
senses only. Measuring instruments provides the information about measurand.

Classification of instruments

Instruments are classified according to following types,

1. Electrical and electronics instruments:

Electrical measuring instruments are measuring instrument which uses

mechanical movement of electromagnetic meter to measure voltage, current,
power, etc. These measuring instruments uses d’Arsonval meter. While any
measuring instruments use d’Arsonval meter along with amplifiers to increase
sensitivity of measurements are called as electronics instruments.

2. Analogue and digital instruments:

Measuring instruments that uses analogue signal to display the magnitude of

measurand is called as analogue instrument. Digital instruments use digital
signal to display magnitude of measurand.

3. Absolute and secondary instruments:

 Absolute instrument gives the magnitude of measurand in terms of physical
constant of instrument and deflection of one part of instrument. In this type of
instrument, no calibration is needed. While secondary instruments, the quantity
of the measured values is obtained by observing the output indicated by these
instruments.

1.2 Methods for correction for interfering and modifying inputs

Characteristics of measuring
instruments Characteristics of measuring
are classified into two categories:

1. Static characteristics
2. Dynamics characteristics

Static characteristics

Static characteristics of instrument are characteristic of system when parameter of

interest i.e., input is constant or varying slowly with time. Static characteristic of
instrument includes range and span, linearity, loading effect, accuracy, precision,
resolution, repeatability, reproducibility, static error, sensitivity and drift.

Range and span

Range is the region between upper and lower limit within which instrument is design
to operate for measuring, indicating, recording a physical quantity. For example, a
thermometer has a scale from −40°C to 100°C. Thus, the range varies from −40°C to
100°C.

Span is algebraic difference of upper and lower limit. For example, a thermometer, its
scale goes from −40°C to 100°C. Thus, its span is 140°C.

Linearity

Normally it is necessary output reading of instrument is linearly proportional to

quantity being measured. An instrument is said to be linear if relationship between
input and output can be fitted into a line. If it is not linear it should not conclude that
instrument is inaccurate.

Loading effect
Change of circuit parameter, characteristic, or behaviour due to instrument operation
is known as loading effect.

Accuracy

Accuracy is closeness with which instrument reading approaches true value of

variable under measurement. If the difference between reading and true value is very
less then instrument it is said to be having high accuracy i.e. accuracy refers to how
closely the measured value is close to its corresponding true value. The manufacturer
of the instrument specifies accuracy as the maximum amount of error which will not
be exceeded. Therefore, it can be termed as conformity to truth. For example, if
accuracy of ±2% is specified for a 100 V voltmeter, the true value of the voltage lies
between 98 V and 102 V with maximum error for any observed value or reading not
exceeding ± 2V. The accuracy of an instrument can be specified in either of the
following ways.

Point accuracy: Point accuracy means accuracy of instrument is only at some

particular point on scale. Point accuracy does not give any information regarding
general accuracy of an instrument.

Percentage of scale range accuracy: The accuracy of a uniform scale instrument is

expressed in terms of scale range. For example, consider a thermometer having a
range and accuracy of 500°C and ± 0.5% of scale range, respectively. This implies
that for a reading of 500°C, the accuracy is ±0.5%, while for a reading of 40°C, the
same accuracy yields a greater error.

Percentage of true value accuracy: The accuracy is defined in terms of true value of
quantity being measured. Thus, errors are proportional to the reading i.e., smaller
reading lesser error. This method is best way to specify accuracy of instrument.

Precision

Precision means having two or more reading for same input quantity close to each
other under same condition. Precise reading is not need to be accurate reading.
Consider a voltmeter having very high degree of precision with sharp pointer and
having mirror-backed distinct scales which remove parallax error but while measuring
zero adjustment is not properly done thus readings are highly precise but not accurate
because zero adjustment is not accurate. Conformity and number of significant figures
are two characteristics of precision. Conformity is necessary but not a sufficient
condition for precision and vice versa. For example, consider that the true value of a
resistance is given as 2,496,692 W, which is shown as 2.5 MW measured using an
ohmmeter. The ohmmeter will show this reading and eventually due to scale
limitation, the instrument causes a precision error. It is evident from the above
example that due to lack of significant figures, the result or measurement is not
precise, though its closeness to true value implies its accuracy.

Resolution

Resolution is defined smallest change in measurand to which instrument will respond.

It is also known as discrimination. For example, consider a 500 V voltmeter in which
the needle shows a deflection or reading change from zero only when the minimum
input is 1 V. This instrument cannot used to measure 50mV because its resolution is
1V. i.e. there will be no effect in instrument for any input less than 1V.

Repeatability

Repeatability provides the closeness with which we can measure a given input value
repeatedly. Repeatability is also called as inherent precision of the measurement
equipment. If an input of a constant magnitude is applied intermittently, the output
reading must be the same, otherwise the instrument is said to have poor repeatability.
Figure 2.1 shows the relation between input and output with ± repeatability.

Figure 5: Graph showing repeatability.

Reproducibility
Reproducibility is similar to repeatability which measures the closeness with which
we can measure given input repeatedly when input is applied constantly under the
same condition. The only difference is reproducibility is measured over a period of
time. Instrument should have good reproducibility, i.e. when the output reading of the
instrument remains the same when an input with a constant magnitude is applied
continuously over a period of time. Otherwise, the instrument is said to have poor
reproducibility.

Static error

Error is defined as difference between measured value and true value. Sometimes it’s
impossible to measure exact true value so best measured value is considered. When
this error difference is constant is known as static error.

Sensitivity

The ratio of change in output to the change in input of the instrument is known as
sensitivity of instrument. For example, consider a voltmeter in which the input
voltage changes by 2 V, then the output reading should also change by 2 V.

Therefore, the sensitivity is expressed as thus it represents how instrument

respond to change in input. The graphical representation of input-output relationship
of measurand helps to determine sensitivity of instrument as a slop of calibration
curve.

Figure 6: Graphical representation of sensitivity

Where,
Then

Sensitivity If calibration curve is straight line then

sensitivity is constant over the entire range of instrument as shown in figure 7.

In other case calibration curve is not straight line so sensitivity is not constant
and varies as input varies as shown figure 7.

Drift

Over a period of time indication of instrument is gradually shift is known as drift

during which true value of quantity does not change. Drift is categorized in three type,

 Zero drift
 Span drift
 Zonal drift

Zero drift

Same of shifting throughout the whole calibration is known as zero drift.

Zero drift also known as calibration drift as shown in figure 7a. Slippage, undue
warming up of electronic tube circuits, or if an initial zero adjustment in an instrument
is not made are most common reason for zero drift.

Span drift
Drift which increase gradually with the deflection of pointer is known as span
drift. Also known as sensitivity drift and is not constant as shown in figure
7b. Combination of zero drift and span drift is shown in figure 7c.

Figure 7: Types of drift

Zonal drift

Drift occurs in particular zone of instrument is known as zonal drift. Change in

temperature, thermal emfs, mechanical vibrations, wear and tear, stray electric and
magnetic fields, and high mechanical stresses developed in some parts of the
instruments and systems are some of the reasons causing zonal drift.

Dynamic characteristic

The characteristics which indicate the response of instruments that measure time-
varying quantities in which the input varies with time and so does the output are
known as dynamic characteristics. The dynamic characteristics of an instrument
include measuring lag, fidelity, speed of response, and dynamic error.

1.3 Classification of Errors

Various factor causes error in measurement some of which due to instrument

themselves or some of which due to inappropriate handling of instrument. Errors can
be categorized into different type such as gross errors, systematic errors, absolute and
relative errors, random errors.

Gross errors

Gross errors are mainly occurring due to human

mistakes like errors reading of measurements or improper handling of instruments or
mistake in recording and calculating of measurements. Gross errors
cannot be completely minimized but they can be control to some extent by
implementing following measures,

 Carefully reading and recording of measurement.

 Using proper analogue instruments zeroed electrically and mechanically.
 A large number of readings should be taken at different reading points in
order to avoid re-reading with same error and then plotting these readings
in graphical form or substituting them in a proper equation assures
reduced errors.

Systematic errors

These errors occur due shortcoming in measuring instrument such as defective or

worn out part or environmental effect on instrument. These errors are also known as
bias. A constant uniform deviation of operation of instrument is known as systematic
error. Systematic errors are classified as instrumental error, environmental and
observational error.

Instrumental error

Instrumental errors are inherent in measuring instruments, because of their mechanical

structure. For example, in the D’Arsonval movement, friction in the bearings of
various moving components, irregular spring tensions, stretching of the spring or
reduction in tension due to improper handling or overloading of the instrument.

These errors can be avoided by

 Selecting proper instrument for particular measurement applications.

 Regular calibration of instruments against standard.
 Applying correction factors to instrumental error.

Environmental error
These errors occur due to effect of surrounding environment on instrument such as
change in temperature, change in humidity, change pressure, vibrations, and
electrostatic or magnetic fields. For example, as surrounding temperature changes
elasticity of a moving coil (spring) of an instrument also changes thus, reading
results also changes. These errors can be minimized by

 Air conditioning
 Using magnetic shield
 Electrostatic or magnetic shield can be used to protect the instrument from
electrostatic or magnetic fields.
 Hermetically sealing the instrument to eliminate the effects of dust and
humidity.

Observational error

These errors occur due to misleading observations made by observer. The most
common observational error is the parallax error occurs while reading a meter scale,
and the error of estimation when obtaining a reading from a meter scale. These errors
are caused by the habits of individual observers. For example, an observer can
cause error by holding his head too far to the left while reading a needle and scale
reading as shown in figure 8.

Figure 7: Parallax error occurs due line of vision is not inline pointer.

When two individual observers read measurement, they may not be the same due to
their different sensing capabilities and therefore, affect the accuracy of the
measurement. For example, observers note down the reading at a different time (one
is noted too early and other ones noted at particular time) causing an error. These
errors can be minimized by using digital instrument instead of using deflection type
instrument. The parallax errors can be minimized by using instrument having highly
accurate meters provided with mirrored scales with sharp pointer so pointer’s image
can hide by pointer itself and readings are noted directly in line with the pointer.

Absolute and relative errors

Absolute error is defined as amount of physical error in any measurement. It is

denoted as . The unit of physical error is same as unit of quantity being
measured. For example, a 400 Ω is said to be have possible error of ± 30 Ω. Here ±
30 Ω represent absolute error in terms of same unit ohm (Ω). Mathematically absolute
error can be expressed as

------------------ (1)

Where,

= measured value

= true or expected value

Relative error is defined as ratio of absolute error to true value of quantity being
measured. It is denoted as . Relative error is also known as fractional error. It is
usually expressed in percentage, ratio, parts per thousand, or parts per
million relative to the total quantity. Mathematically relative error can be expressed as

Percentage relative error (% )= -------------(3)

From equation (1) and (3)

Random error

The errors which are occurs due to unknown factors are known as random
errors. These types of errors occur even after gross error or systematic errors are
corrected or at least accounted for. For example, suppose a voltage is
being observed by a voltmeter and observations are taken after every 20 minutes of
intervals. And instrument is being operated under ideal environmental conditions and
is accurately calibrated before measurement, it still gives readings that vary slightly
over the period of observation. This variation cannot be corrected by any method of
calibration or any other known method of control.

Sources of errors

The sources of error, other than the inability of a piece of hardware to provide a true
measurement, are as follows:

 Insufficient knowledge of process parameters and design conditions

 Poor design
 Change in process parameters, irregularities, upsets, etc.
 Poor maintenance
 Errors caused by person operating the instrument or equipment
 Certain design limitations

1.4 Statistical analysis of experimental data

The statistical analysis of data allows an analytical determination of the uncertainty of

the final test result. In order to make statistical analysis more meaningful a large
number of measurements should be taken. Statistical analysis helps to determine
deviation of measurement from its true value when reason for specific error is
unpredictable. However statistical analysis cannot remove fixed bias which is present
in all reading hence while performing statistical analysis systematic errors should be
as small as compare to random errors.

Arithmetic mean
 Arithmetic mean is used to find most probable value of measured variable from large
number of reading of same quantity which are not exactly equal to each other. The
arithmetic mean for n readings is given as:

Where

= arithmetic mean

= nth reading taken.

n=total number of readings

Deviation from the mean

This is the departure of a given reading from the arithmetic mean of the group of
readings. If the deviation of the first reading, , is called and that of the second
reading is called , and so on, the deviations from the mean can be expressed as

The deviation may be positive or negative. The algebraic sum of all the deviations
must be zero.

Average deviations

The average deviation is an indication of the precision of the instrument used

in measurement. Average deviation is defined as the sum of the absolute values of the
deviation divided by the number of readings. The absolute value of the deviation is
the value without respect to the sign. Highly precise instruments yield a low average
deviation between readings. Average deviation may be expressed as

Where =average deviation

 =absolute values of deviations

N= total number of readings

Standard deviation

The standard deviation of an infinite number of data is the Square root of the sum of
all the individual deviations squared, divided by the number of readings. It may be
expressed as

Where

=standard deviation

The standard deviation is also known as root mean square deviation, and is the most
important factor in the statistical analysis of measurement data. Reduction in this
quantity effectively means improvement in measurement. For small readings (n < 30),
the denominator is frequently expressed as (n – 1) to obtain a more accurate value for
the standard deviation.

Limiting Errors

Most manufacturers of measuring instruments specify accuracy within a certain % of

a full-scale reading. For example, the manufacturer of a certain voltmeter may specify
the instrument to be accurate within ± 2% with full scale deflection. This specification
is called the limiting error. This means that a full-scale deflection reading is
guaranteed to be within the limits of 2% of a perfectly accurate reading; however,
with a reading less than full scale, the limiting error increases.

References:

1. Instrumentation and control systems by W. Bolton, 2nd edition, Newnes, 2000

2. Thomas G. Beckwith, Roy D. Marangoni, John H. Lienhard V, Mechanical
Measurements (6th Edition) 6th Edition, Pearson Education India, 2007

3. Gregory K. McMillan, Process/Industrial Instruments and Controls Handbook,

Fifth Edition, McGraw-Hill: New York, 1999.
 Unit-2

Instrumentation system element

2.1 Instrumentation system elements

The element which produces a signal relating to quantity being measured is termed as
sensor. For example, for measuring change in temperature sensors transform input of
temperature into change in resistance. Sensors are first and foremost requirement of
any measuring system and control system. Transducers are elements which subjected
to a physical change experience related change. Thus, the term transducer is often
used in place of sensor. In measurement system transducer are used along with
sensors to convert signals from one form to another form. If sensor/transducer gives
an output which is analogue and so changes in a continuous way and typically has an
output whose size is proportional to the size of the variable being measured then
sensor/transducer is said to be analogue.

Performance terminology

Following terms are used to define performance of transducer and often measurement
system as whole. Sensor specifications inform the user about deviations from the
ideal behaviour of the sensors. Following are the various specifications of a
sensor/transducer system.

Range

Range is the region between upper and lower limit within which instrument is design
to operate for measuring, indicating, recording a physical quantity. For example, a
thermometer has a scale from −40°C to 100°C. Thus, the range varies from −40°C to
100°C.

Span

Span is algebraic difference of upper and lower limit. For example, a thermometer, its
scale goes from −40°C to 100°C. Thus, its span is 140°C.

Error

Error is defined as the difference between the result of the measurement and the true
value of the quantity being measured. For example, displacement sensor shows
displacement of 29.8 mm, but the actual displacement is 30 mm, therefore the error is
- 0.2 mm.

Accuracy

Accuracy is closeness with which instrument reading approaches true value of

variable under measurement. If the difference between reading and true value is very
less then instrument it is said to be having high accuracy i.e. accuracy refers to how
closely the measured value is close to its corresponding true value. It is often
expressed as a percentage of the full range output or full–scale deflection. A
piezoelectric transducer used to measure dynamic pressure is capable to detect
pressures between 0.1 and 10,000 psig (0.7 KPa to 70 MPa). If it is specified with the
accuracy of about±1% full scale, then the reading given can be expected to be within
± 0.7 MPa.

Sensitivity
The ratio of change in output to the change in input of the instrument is known
as sensitivity of instrument. For example, consider a voltmeter in which the input
voltage changes by 2 V, then the output reading should also change by 2 V.

Therefore, the sensitivity is expressed as thus it represent how instrument

respond to change in input.

Nonlinearity

Figure 1: Non-linearity error

Maximum deviation of the actual measured curve of a sensor from the ideal curve is
known as non-linearity error. Figure 1show graph between measured value and ideal
values. Linearity is often specified in terms of percentage of nonlinearity, which is
defined as:
Nonlinearity (%) = Maximum deviation in input Ú Maximum full-scale input

The static nonlinearity depend on environmental factors, including temperature,

vibration, acoustic noise level, and humidity. Therefore, it is important to know under
what conditions the specification is valid.

Hysteresis

Figure 2: Hysteresis error curve

The hysteresis is an error of a sensor, which is defined as the maximum difference in

output at any measurement value within the sensor's specified range when
approaching the point first with increasing and then with decreasing the input
parameter. Figure 2.1.2 shows the hysteresis error might have occurred during
measurement of temperature using a thermocouple. The hysteresis error value is
normally specified as a positive or negative percentage of the specified input range.

Resolution

Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental change of input parameter that can
be detected in the output signal. Resolution can be expressed either as a proportion of
the full-scale reading or in absolute terms. For example, if a LVDT sensor measures a
displacement up to 20 mm or it provides an output as a number between 1 and 100
then the resolution of the sensor device is 0.2 mm.

Stability
Stability is the ability of a sensor device to give same output when used to measure a
constant input over a period of time. The term ‘drift’ is used to indicate the change in
output that occurs over a period of time. It is expressed as the percentage of full range
output.

Dead band/time

The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of input values for which
there is no output. The dead time of a sensor device is the time duration from the
application of an input until the output begins to respond or change.

Repeatability

It specifies the ability of a sensor to give same output for repeated applications of
same input value. It is usually expressed as a percentage of the full range output:

Repeatability = (maximum – minimum values given) X 100/full range

Response time

Response time describes the speed of change in the output on a step-wise change of
the measurand. It is always specified with an indication of input step and the output
range for which the response time is defined.

2.2 Transducers based on variable resistance

Classification of transducer

Classification based on energy generation

 Active transducers: Also known as self-generating type transducers. The

energy required for production of an output signal is obtained from
physical variable being measured. Example: Thermocouple and
thermopiles, photovoltaic cell, piezoelectric pickup etc.
 Passive transducers: Also known as externally powered transducers. This
transducer derives the power form external power source for energy
conversion. Example: Resistance thermometer and thermistor,
potentiometric devices etc.

Classification based on type of output

  Analogue transducers: This type of transducers converts input physical
variable into analogous output which continuous function of time.
Example: Thermocouple, strain gauge etc.
 Digital transducers: This type of transducers converts input physical
variable into an electrical signal output.

Classification based on electrical principle involved

 Variable-resistance type
 Variable-inductance type
 Variable-capacitance type
 Voltage-generating type
 Voltage-divider type

Displacement, position and proximity

The function of displacement sensors is to measurement of the amount by which

object is moved. Position sensors are used to detect the position of object with some
reference point. Proximity sensors are position sensors used to determine when an
object has moved to within some particular critical distance of the
sensor. Displacement sensors and position sensors are classified into two groups

 Contacting type: Object being measured is comes into mechanical contact

with sensor.
 Non-contacting type: There is no contact between object being measured
and sensor.

In contact type linear displacement sensor usually there is a sensing shaft which
in contact with objects being measured. Displacement of this shaft is monitored by
sensor. This displacement of shaft cause changes in electrical voltage, resistance,
capacitance or mutual inductance. In contact type angular displacement shaft is drive
through gear mechanism, the rotation of transducer element. Change in air pressure in
sensor or perhaps change in inductance or capacitance in object being measured is the
principle behind non-contact displacement sensor. Following are examples of
commonly used displacement sensors.

Potentiometer sensor

Potentiometer sensor consists of resistance element, sliding contact which

moves over a length of element. Displacement is converted into potential difference.
For rotary potentiometer rotatable sliding contact rotate over circular wire wound
track or conductive plastic film as shown in figure 3. Input voltage is supplied
between terminal 1 and 3. Output voltage is measured between terminal 2 and
3. . Output is proportional to angle through which slider is rotated
when wire wound track have constant resistance per unit length i.e., per unit angle.
When slider moving from one turn to other causing voltage change in steps. Each step
is being a movement of one turn. Resolution as percentage is 100/N for N turn of
potentiometer. Thus resolution of wire track depends upon diameter of wire.
For coarsely wound track diameter is about 0.15mm and 0.5mm for finely wound
track. Load is connected across output and potential difference across load is
directly proportional to if load resistance is infinite. For finite load, effect of load is
to transform linear relationship between output voltage and angle into a non-linear
relationship. is parallel with fraction x of the potentiometer resistance therefor
combine resistance is

Voltage across load is fraction that resistance across the load is of total resistance
across which the applied voltage is connected.

Figure 3: Rotary potentiometer

If the load is of infinite resistance then

Potentiometers are used as sensors in machine-tool controls, elevators, liquid-level
assemblies, forklift trucks, automobile throttle controls. In manufacturing,
potentiometers are used for control of injection moulding machines, woodworking
machinery, printing, spraying, robotics, etc. These are also used in computer-
controlled monitoring of sports equipment.

Strain gauge

Electrical resistive type strain gauges are consists of metal wire or metal foil strip or
semiconductor material strip which so thin like wafer and can be stuck onto
surfaces as shown in figure 4. These strips are made of Constantan alloy (copper-
nickel 55-45% alloy) and are bonded to a backing material plastic (ployimide), epoxy
or glass fiber reinforced epoxy. The strain gauges are stuck to the work piece by using
epoxy or Cyanoacrylate cement Eastman 910 SL. The strain in an element is a ratio of
change in length in the direction of applied load to the original length of an
element. Principle behind strain gauge is fractional change is resistance is proportional
to strain.

where G, the constant of proportionality and called the gauge factor.

Due to external loading; work piece undergoes change in its shape the resistance of
strain gauge element changes. This change in resistance is detected by Wheatstone’s
resistance bridge as shown in figure 5. Wheatstone’s resistance bridge balance
equation is given by

where Rx is resistance of strain gauge element, R2 is balancing/adjustable

resistor, R1 and R3 are known constant value resistors. The measured deformation by
the stain gauge is calibrated against change in resistance of adjustable
resistor R2 which makes the voltage across nodes A and B equal to zero.
 Figure 4: Strain gauges: (a) metal wire, (b) metal foil, (c) semiconductor.

The gauge factor G is generally taken about 2.0-4.0 and resistances are
generally taken about 100 Ω.

Figure 5: Wheatstone's bridge

Strain gauges are widely used in experimental stress analysis and diagnosis on
machines and failure analysis. They are basically used for multi-axial stress fatigue
testing, proof testing, residual stress and vibration measurement, torque measurement,
bending and deflection measurement, compression and tension measurement and
strain measurement.

Strain gauges are primarily used as sensors for machine tools and safety in
automotives. In particular. Strain gauges are also employed for force measurement in
machine tools, hydraulic or pneumatic press and as impact sensors in aerospace
vehicles.

Capacitive element based sensors

Capacitive sensors are non-contact based sensors used for measuring very short linear
displacement from few millimeters to 100 millimeters. It consists of three plates as
shown in figure 6A. Upper pair plates form one capacitor and lower pair plates for
another capacitors. Linear displacement of plate is of three types (Figure 6)

 one of the plates is moved by the displacement so that the plate separation
changes
 area of overlap changes due to the displacement
 displacement causes the dielectric between plates to change.

Figure 6A: Three plate capacitive sensing element Figure 6B: Forms of
capacitive sensing element

capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by

Where,

= relative permittivity of the dielectric between the plates

= permittivity of free space

A = area of overlap between two plates

d = plate separation
If central plate moves downwards this increases the plate separation of the upper
capacitor and decrease the separation of the lower capacitor. We thus have

When C1 and C2 are connected to a Wheatstone’s bridge, then the resulting out-of-
balance voltage would be in proportional to displacement x.

Capacitive elements can also be used as proximity sensor. The approach of the object
towards the sensor plate is used for induction of change in plate separation. This
changes the capacitance which is used to detect the object (Figure 7).

Applications of capacitive element sensors

 Feed hopper level monitoring

 Small vessel pump control
 Grease level monitoring
 Level control of liquids
 Metrology applications

 To measure shape errors in the part being produced

 To analyse and optimize the rotation of spindles in various
machine tools such as surface grinders, lathes, milling machines,
and air bearing spindles by measuring errors in the machine tools
themselves

 Assembly line testing

 To test assembled parts for uniformity, thickness or other design features

 To detect the presence or absence of a certain component, such as glue
etc.

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)

LVDT is primary transducer used for measuring liner displacement ranging from ± 2
to ± 400 mm consists of three coils symmetrically placed along insulated tube. The
central coil is primary coil and other two coils are secondary coil. Secondary coils
are connected in series so they can oppose their outputs. A magnetic core is attached
to element of which displacement is to be measured and is placed inside the
insulated tube as shown in figure 8.

Figure 7: LVDT

Alternating electro-magnetic forces (emfs) are generated in secondary coil because of

alternating voltage input to primary coil. If core is displaced towards secondary coil 1
than in secondary coil 2, then more emf is generated in secondary one coil and there is
a resultant voltage from the coils. As magnetic core is moves further value of resultant
voltage increases in proportion with the displacement. With the help low pass filters
and demodulators, precise displacement can be measured by using LVDT sensors.
LVDT have good repeatability and reproducibility and high reliable.

A rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT) can be used for the measurement of
rotation (Figure 9). It operates on same principle as LVDT. Magnetic core is cardioid-
shaped. Rotation causes more of it to pass into one secondary coil than the other. The
range of operation is typically 40° with a linearity error of about 0.5% of the
range
 Figure 8: RVDT

Applications of LVDT

 Measurement of spool position in a wide range of servo valve application.

 To provide displacement feedback for hydraulic cylinders
 To control weight and thickness of medicinal products viz. tablets or pills
 For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products being packed for
dispatch
 To measure distance between the approaching metals during Friction
welding process
 To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak detection system
 To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by an ATM

Eddy current proximity sensor

This sensors are used to detect non-magnetic but conductive materials. When an
alternating current is passed thru this coil, an alternative magnetic field is generated. If
a metal object comes in the close proximity of the coil, then eddy currents are induced
in the object due to the magnetic field. These eddy currents create their own magnetic
field which distorts the magnetic field responsible for their generation. As a result,
impedance of the coil changes and so the amplitude of alternating current. This can be
used to trigger a switch at some pre-determined level of change in current. Eddy
current sensors are relatively inexpensive, available in small in size, highly reliable
and have high sensitivity for small displacements. Figure 10 shows basic form of eddy
current proximity sensors.
 Figure 9: Eddy current proximity sensor

Applications of eddy current proximity sensors

 Automation requiring precise location

 Machine tool monitoring
 Final assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives
 Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving target, such as a
vibrating element,
 Drive shaft monitoring Vibration measurements

Inductive proximity switch

Figure 10: Schematic of proximity sensor

This sensors are used to detect metals espeacilly ferrous metals. Figure 11 shows
schematic of proximity sensor.
It consists of four components coil, oscillator, detection circuit and output circuit. An
alternating current is supplied to the coil which generates a magnetic field. When,a
metal object comes closer to the end of the coil, inductance of the coil changes. This is
continuously monitored by a circuit which triggers a switch when a preset value of
inductance change is occurred.

Applications of inductive proximity switches

 Industrial automation: counting of products during production or transfer

 Security: detection of metal objects, arms, land mines

Optical sensors

Optical encoders provide digital output of linear or angular displacement. These are
widely used in servomotors to measure rotation of shaft. It consists of disc with three
concentric tracks of equally spaced holes. Three light sensors are used to detect the
light passing thrugh the holes. These light sensors produce electric pulses which give
the angular displacement of the mechanical element on which the Optical encoder is
mounted. The inner track have only one hole which is used to locate the ‘home'
position of the disc. The holes on the middle track offset from the holes of the outer
track by one-half of the width of the hole. This arrangement provides the direction of
rotation to be determined. When the disc rotates in clockwise direction, the pulses in
the outer track lead those in the inner; in counter clockwise direction they lag behind.
The resolution can be determined by the number of holes on disc. With 100 holes in
one revolution, the resolution would be,

360°/100=3.6°.

Pneumatic Sensors

Pnematic sensors are used to measure displacement as well as proximity of object

close to it. Principle behind pneumatic sensor is proximity of object or displacement is
trasformed into change in air pressure. Figure 12 shows schematic of pneumatic
sensor. As low pressure air is allowed to escape through port in front of sensor.As air
escapes through port it reduces air pressure around the sensor output port. If object is
present near low pressure, air cannot escape causing pressure increase in output port
of sensor. This increase in presure is calibrated to measure displacement of object or
to trigger the switch.
 Figure 11: Pneumatic proximity sensor.

Hall effect sensors

Figure 12: Hall effect sensor

Figure 13 shows principle working of hall effect sensor. When beam of

charged particles passes through a magnetic field, forces acts on these charged
particles and beams gets deflected from its straight line path. Thus side of plate on
which beam is deflected becomes negative charged and other becomes positive as
electron directed away from this side. This charge separation produecs a potential
difference which is the measure of distance of magnetic field from the disc carrying
current.

Measurement of fluid level container is typical application of hall effect sensor. A

magnet is attached on top of float of container and electric circuit with current
carrying disc is mounted in casing. As fluid level rises magenet n float comes closer to
disc and potential difference generates. This generated voltage triggers a switch to
stop fluid source to fill up the container.
This sensor also used for mesauring displacement, detection of position of object.

Velocity and motion sensors

Tachogenerator

Figure 13: Variable reluctance tachogenerator.

Techogenerator is use to measure angular velocity. It works on the principle of

variable reluctance. It consists of toothed wheel and magnetic circuit as shown in
figure 14. This toothed wheel is mounted on shatf or element whose angular velocity
is to be measured. And magnetic circuit is consists of a coil wound on ferromagnetic
material core. When wheel rotates the air gap between wheel tooth and magnetic core
changes causing cyclic change in flux linked with the coil. The alternating emf
generated is the measure of angular motion. A pulse shaping signal conditioner is used
to transform the output into a number of pulses which is counted by a counter.

Pyroelectric sensors

This sensors works on principle of pyroelectricity. Which state that “Crystalline

material such as lithium tantalate generates charge in response to heat flow.”
Shown in figure 15.
 Figure 14: Principle of pyroelectricity

When such crystalline material materials heats up just below the currie temperature in
presense of electric field and material is cooled while remaining in field, its electric
dipoles line up as shown in figure 15. This effect is known as polarization. When the
electric field is removed, the material retains its polarisation. And when this polarized
material is exposed to infrared radiation, its temperature rises and this reduces the
amount of polarisation in the material, the dipoles being shaken up more and losing
their alignment.

Applications of Pyroelectric sensors

 Intrusion detector
 Optothermal detector
 Pollution detector
 Position sensor
 Solar cell studies
 Engine analysis

Strain Gauge as force Sensor

Working of strain gauges are based on principle of change in electrical resistance.

When element is subjected to load casuses tension or compression depending on load
direction this causes change in resistance of material. Figure 16 shows strain gauge
load cell. It consists of cylindrical tube to which strain gauges are attached. A load
applied on the top collar of the cylinder compress the strain gauge element which
changes its electrical resistance. Generally strain gauges are used to measure forces up
to 10 MN.
 Figure 15: Strain gauge load cell

Fluid Pressure

It necessary to measure pressure of system regularly for pertoleum, chemical, power

industries. There are various types instruments such as diaphragms, capsules, and
bellows are used to monitor the fluid pressure. Figure shows 17 specially designed
strain gauges doped in diaphragms which is speacilly used in automobile to measure
inlet manifold pressure.

Figure 16: Diaphragm pressure gauge

Pressurized fluid displaces the diaphragm and this displacement is measured by strain
gauge which placed above diaphragm.

Capsules are formed by combining two corrugated diaphragm ( figure 18 ) which

increase the sensitivity as compare to diaphragm. A stack of capsules is called as
Bellows. Bellows with a LVDT sensor measures the fluid pressure in terms of change
in resultant voltage

Figure 17: Schematic of Capsule (a) and Bellow (b)

Figure 18: LVDT with bellows

Figure 19 show schematic arrangement of LVDT with bellows which is used to

measure Fluid pressure. The principle behind this sensor is change in pressure is
measured interms of change in resultant voltage across secondary coil.

Tactile sensors

This sensors are used to sense the contact of fingertips of robot with object. They are
also used in manufacturing CNC’s touch display screens of visual display units
(VDUs). Figure 20 shows schematic of piezo-electric polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)
tactile sensor. It consists of two PVDF layer separated by soft film which tansfer
vibrations. An alternating current is supplied to lower PVDF Layer which generates
vibration due to reverse piezoelectric effect. And this vibrations are transmitted to
upper PVDF layer via soft film. This transferred vibrations generated alternating
voltage in upper layer of PVDF. When pressure is applied on upper PVDF layer then
these transferred vibrations gets affected and change the output voltage. This triggers
a switch or an action in robots or touch displays.

Figure 19: PVDF tectile sensor

2.3 Piezo-electric effects

Piezoelectric sensor

These sensors are used measure pressure, acceleration, oscillations, impact or high
speed compression or tension. This sensors are consists of piezoelectric ionic crystal
material as shown in figure 21. When force or pressure is applied this metaerials get
stretched or compressed. Due to this the charge over the material changes and
redistributes and one face of the material becomes positively charged and the
other face becomes negatively charged. The net charge q on the surface is
proportional to the amount x by which the charges have been displaced. The
displacement is proportion to force. Mathematically,

q = kx = SF

Where k is constant and S is a constant termed the charge sensitivity.

 Figure 20: Piezoelectric sensor

Liquid flow

Liquid flow measuremment is generally based on Bernoulli’s principle of fluid flow

through constriction (figure 22). Quantity of fluid flow is measured by using pressure
drop when fluid flows through constriction. For horizontal tube Bernoulli’s equation
given as

where

v1=fluid velocity

p1= pressure

A1=cross-sectional area of the tube prior to the constriction

v2= the velocity

p2= pressure

A2=cross-sectional area at constriction,

 Figure 21: Fluid flow through constriction

mass of liquid passing per second through the tube prior to the constriction must equal
that passing through the tube at the constriction,

we have

Where

Q = quantity liquid passing through the tube per second

Orifice plate

Orifice plate is simply as disc with hole at its center which is placed in the tube
through which the fluid is flowing (Figure 23). The pressure difference is measured
between a point equal to the diameter of the tube upstream and a point equal to the
half the diameter downstream. Orifice plate is inexpensive and simple in construction
with no moving parts. It exhibits nonlinear behavior and does not work with slurries.
It has accuracy of ± 1.5%.
 Figure 22: Orifice plate

Turbine meter

Turbine meter consists of multiblade rotor supported at center of pipeline through

which flow is to be measured (Figure 24). As fluid flows through pipe so causing
rotation of rotor. Angular velocity of is approximatly proportional to flow rate. A
magnetic pick up coil is placed near the pipe which can determine rate of revolution
of rotor. Turbine meter is expensive with accuracy of .

Figure 23: Turbine flowmeter

Fluid level
Floats

Monitoring the movement of floats as fluid level rises or falls is direct method to
measure fluid level. Figure 25 shows schematic arrangement of simple
float system. As float displace causes a lever arm to rotate and therefore slider moves
across a potentiometer. The result is an output of a voltage related to the height of
liquid. Other forms of this involve the lever causing the core in an LVDT to become
displaced, or stretch or compress a strain-gauged element.

Figure 24: Float system

Differential pressure

Figure 25 shows the differential pressure cell which helps to determine pressure
difference between liquid at base of vessel and atomspheric pressure, the vessel is
open to atomspheric pressure.
 Figure 25: Using a differential pressure sensor

Temperature

Bimetallic strips

It consists of two metal strips bonded together (Figure 26). These metals have
different coefficients of expansion and when the temperature changes the composite
strip bends into a curved strip, the higher coefficient metal is on the outside of the
curve. This sensor can be used as controlling switch to control temperature rising
above pre-set value. When the strips bend, the soft iron comes closer to magnet and
further touches. Then the electric circuit completes and generates an alarm.

Figure 26: Bimetallic strips

Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)

Electric resistance of a metal changes due to change in its temperature; this is the
principle behind working RTDs. On heating up metals up to certain their resistance
increases and follows a linear relationship as given below
Where

Rt = Resistance at temperature T (°C) and

R0 = Temperature at 0°C

α = Temperature coefficient of resistance.

Figure 27 shows Variation of resistance with temperature for metals.

Figure 27: Variation of resistance with temperature for metals

RTDs are simple resistive elements in the form of coils of wire of metals such as
platinum, nickel or nickel–copper alloys; platinum is the most widely used due to its
linear variation of resistance as temperature change thin-film platinum elements are
often made by depositing the metal on a suitable substrate, wire-wound elements
involving a platinum wire held by a high-temperature glass adhesive inside a ceramic
tube (Figure 28). Such detectors are highly stable and give reproducible responses
over long periods of time. They tend to have response times of the order of 0.5 to 5 s
or more.
 Figure 28: Construction of RTD

Applications of RTD

 Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing

 Food Processing
 Stoves and grills
 Textile production
 Plastics processing
 Petrochemical processing
 Microelectronics Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement in pipes
and tanks
 Exhaust gas temperature measurement

Thermistors

Thermistors are made from mixture of metal oxide such as those of chromium, cobalt,
iron, manganese and nickel. These oxides are semiconductor. Materials are formed
into various forms such as beads, discs and rods as shown in figure 29.

Figure 29: Common forms of Thermistors.

As temperature increases resistance of conventional metal-oxide thermistors decreases

in non-linear manner (Figure 30). This is the principle behind working of Thermistors.
And these Thermistors are known as negative temperature coefficient (NTCs). The
resistance–temperature relationship can be describe mathematically as follows
Where

= resistance at temperature t

K and = constants

Applications of Thermistors

 To monitor the coolant temperature and/or oil temperature inside the

engine
 To monitor the temperature of an incubator
 Thermistors are used in modern digital thermostats
 To monitor the temperature of battery packs while charging
 To monitor temperature of hot ends of 3D printers
 To maintain correct temperature in the food Handling and processing
industry equipment.
 To control the operations of consumer appliances such as toasters, coffee
makers, refrigerators, freezers, hair dryers, etc.
 Figure 30: Typical variation of resistance with temperature

Thermocouples

Thermocouple works on the fact that when a junction of dissimilar metals heated, it
produces an electric potential related to temperature. As per Thomas Seebeck (1821),
when two wires composed of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one of the
ends is heated, then there is a continuous current which flows in the thermoelectric
circuit. Figure 31. shows the schematic of thermocouple circuit. The net open circuit
voltage (the Seebeck voltage) is a function of junction temperature and composition of
two metals. It is given by,

ΔVAB = αΔT

Where α, the Seebeck coefficient, is the constant of proportionality.

 Figure 31: Thermocouple circuit

Applications of Thermocouples

 To monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel making

process
 Testing temperatures associated with process plants e.g. chemical
production and petroleum refineries
 Testing of heating appliance safety
 Temperature profiling in ovens, furnaces and kilns
 Temperature measurement of gas turbine and engine exhausts
 Monitoring of temperatures throughout the production and smelting
process in the steel, iron and aluminium industry

Light sensors

Photoresistor

Photoresistor are also known as light dependant resistor (LDR). When incident
light intensity is increases resistance of resistor in photoresistor decreases. This is
working principle of photoresistor. It is made of a high resistance semiconductor
material, cadmium sulfide (CdS). The resistance of a CdS photoresistor varies
inversely to the amount of light incident upon it. Photoresistor follows the
principle of photoconductivity which results from the generation of mobile carriers
when photons are absorbed by the semiconductor material. Figure 32 shows basic
construction of photoresistor.
 Figure 32: Construction of a photo resistor

The CdS resistor coil is mounted on a ceramic substrate. This assembly is

encapsulated by a resin material. The sensitive coil electrodes are connected to the
control system though lead wires. On incidence of high intensity light on the
electrodes, the resistance of resistor coil decreases which will be used further to
generate the appropriate signal by the microprocessor via lead wires.

Applications of photo resistor

 Computers, wireless phones, and televisions, use ambient light sensors

to automatically control the brightness of a screen
 Barcode scanners used in retailer locations work using light sensor
technology
 In space and robotics: for controlled and guided motions of vehicles
and robots. The light sensor enables a robot to detect light. Robots can
be programmed to have a specific reaction if a certain amount of light
is detected.
 Auto Flash for camera
 Industrial process control

Photodiodes
Photodiode is a solid-state device which converts incident light into an electric
current. Photodiodes are semiconductor junction diodes connected into a circuit in
reverse bias, so they give very high resistance. When there is no incident light, the
reverse current is negligible and is termed the dark current. When light falls on the
junction, extra hole–electron pairs are produced and there is an increase in the reverse
current and the diode resistance drops. The reverse current is very nearly proportional
to the intensity of the light. A photodiode can thus be used as a variable resistance
device controlled by the light incident on it. Photodiodes have a very fast response to
light.

Figure 33: Construction photo diode detector

It is constructed from single crystal silicon wafers. It is a p-n junction device. The
upper layer is p layer. It is very thin and formed by thermal diffusion or ion
implantation of doping material such as boron. Depletion region is narrow and is
sandwiched between p layer and bulk n type layer of silicon. Light irradiates at front
surface, anode, while the back surface is cathode. The incidence of light on anode
generates a flow of electron across the p-n junction which is the measure of light
intensity.

Applications of photo diodes

Camera: Light Meters, Automatic Shutter Control, Auto-focus, Photographic Flash

Control
Medical: CAT Scanners - X ray Detection, Pulse Oximeters, Blood Particle Analysers

Industry

 Bar Code Scanners

 Light Pens
 Brightness Controls
 Encoders
 Position Sensors
 Surveying Instruments
 Copiers - Density of Toner

Safety Equipment

 Smoke Detectors
 Flame Monitors
 Security Inspection Equipment - Airport X ray
 Intruder Alert - Security System

Automotive

 Headlight Dimmer
 Twilight Detectors
 Climate Control - Sunlight Detector

Communications

 Fiber Optic Links

 Optical Communications
 Optical Remote Control

References:

1. Instrumentation and control systems by W. Bolton, 2nd edition, Newnes, 2000

2. Thomas G. Beckwith, Roy D. Marangoni, John H. Lienhard V, Mechanical

Measurements (6th Edition) 6th Edition, Pearson Education India, 2007

3. Gregory K. McMillan, Process/Industrial Instruments and Controls Handbook,

Fifth Edition, McGraw-Hill: New York, 1999.
 Unit-3

Signal processing and conditioning

3.1 Signal processing and conditioning

The output signals from sensor of measurement system are generally need to be
processed so it can be suitable for next stage. For example, if signal is to small it
needs to be amplify, if it contains some disturbances (noise) which has to be removed,
non-linear signal required to be linear be analogue have to be made digital or vice
versa, be a resistance change and have to be made into a current change, be a voltage
change and have to be made into a suitable size current change, etc. All these changes
are referred to as signal conditioning.

Signal conditioning processes

Signal conditioning system enhances the quality of signal coming from a sensor in
terms of:

1. Protection: To protect the damage to the next element of mechatronics

system such microprocessors from the high current or voltage
signals. Thus, there can be series current limiting resistors, fuses to break
if the current is too high, polarity protection and voltage limitation
circuits
2. Right type of signal: To convert the output signal from a transducer into
the desired form i.e. voltage / current.
3. Right level of the signal: To amplify or attenuate the signals to a right
/acceptable level for the next element.
4. Noise: To eliminate noise from a signal.
5. Manipulation: To manipulate the signal from its nonlinear form to the
linear form.

Following are some of the elements that might be used in signal conditioning

Operational amplifier

Amplifier is considering being essential system which have input and output as shown
in figure 1. The ratio of output voltage to input voltage when each measured relative
to earth is known as voltage gain. Input voltage is divided by input current is known
as input impedance and when output voltage divided by output current is known as
output impedance. Operational amplifier is basis of many signal conditioning
modules. The operational amplifier is high gain d.c. amplifier. Operational amplifiers
have gain of order of 100000 or more, that is supplied on integrated circuit in silicon
chip. Operational amplifiers have two inputs one is inverting (-) and other is non-
inverting (+). The output is depends connection to this input terminals. Operational
amplifiers have other inputs too name negative voltage supply, positive voltage
supple, and two offset null (figure 2) An ideal operational amplifier is as an amplifier
with an infinite gain, infinite input impedance and zero output impedance, i.e., the
output voltage is independent of the load.

Figure 1: Amplifier

Figure 2: Pin connections for a 741 operational amplifier

The followings are some types of circuits that might be used with operational
amplifiers when used for signal conditioners.

Inverting amplifier
 Figure 3: Inverting amplifier

Figure 3 shows connections made to amplifier when used as inverting amplifier. Input
is supplied to inverting input terminal through resistance R1 and non-inverting
terminal is ground. A feedback path is connected to inverting input via the resistor R2
from output. The operational amplifier has a voltage gain of about 100 000 and the
change in output voltage is typically limited to about 10 V. The input voltage must
then be between -0.0001 and +0.0001 V. This is virtually zero and so point X is at
virtually earth potential. For this reason, it is called a virtual earth. The potential
difference across R1 is Hence, for an ideal operational amplifier with an
infinite gain, and hence , the input potential can be considered to be across
R1. Thus

The operational amplifier has very high impedance between its input terminals; for a
741 about 2 MΩ. Thus, there is no virtually current flow through point X into it.
This is the condition for an ideal amplifier i.e. have infinite impedance and no current
flows through X. so current through R2 is current flows through R1 which is I1.
Potential difference across R2 is since =0

Therefore, Potential difference across R2 is thus

The negative sign indicates that the output is inverted, i.e., 180° out of phase,
with respect to the input.

Non-inverting amplifier

Figure 4 shows operational amplifier as non-inverting amplifier. The output can be

considered to be taken from across a potential divider circuit consisting of R1 in series
with R2. The voltage VX is then the fraction R1/(R1 +R2) of the output voltage, i.e.

Since there is virtually no current through the operational amplifier between the two
inputs there can be virtually no potential difference between them. Thus, with the
ideal operational amplifier, we must have

A particular form of this amplifier is when the feedback loop is a short

circuit, i.e. R2=0. Then the voltage gain is 1.

Summing amplifier

Figure 4 shows summing amplifier. Point X is a virtual earth.

The potential difference across R2 is since

The potential difference across R2 is

If

Figure 4: Summing amplifier

Protection

In many situations there is possibilities of damage in circuit where connection of

sensor to next unit due high current or high voltage. Circuit can be protected against a
high current by connecting a series of resistance to input to limit the current up to
acceptable level and a fuse to break if current exceed a safe. Zener diodes can be used
to protect against high voltage and wrong polarity (figure 5). Up to some breakdown
voltage Zener diode behaves like ordinary diode and after breakdown they become
conducting. If maximum allowable voltage is 5 V so Zener diode stop voltages above
5.1 V getting through, so Zener diode with a voltage rating of 5.1 V chosen. Zener
diode breakdown and its resistance drop to a very low value when the voltage rises to
5.1 V. The result is that the voltage across the diode, and hence that outputted to the
next circuit, drops. Because the Zener diode is a diode with a low resistance for
current in one direction through it and a high resistance for the opposite direction, it
also provides protection against wrong polarity. It is connected with the correct
polarity to give a high resistance across the output and so a high voltage drop. When
the supply polarity is reversed, the diode has low resistance and so little voltage drop
occurs across the output. Optoisolator are used to complete breakdown isolate circuits
completely and remove all electrical connections between them. An optoisolator is an
electronic component that transfers electrical signals between two isolated circuits by
using light. Figure 6 shows a number of forms of optoisolator.

Figure 5: Zener diode protection circuit.

Figure 6: Optoisolators: (a) transistor, (b) Darlington, (c) triac, (d) triac with zero-
crossing unit.
Optoisolator outputs can be used directly to switch low-power load circuits. Thus, a
Darlington optoisolator might be used as the interface between a microprocessor and
lamps or relays. To switch a high-power circuit, an optocoupler might be used to
operate a relay and so use the relay to switch the high-power device. A protection
circuit for a microprocessor input is thus likely to be like that shown in Figure 7; to
prevent the LED having the wrong polarity or too high applied voltage; it is also
likely to be protected by the Zener diode circuit shown in Figure 6 and if there is
alternating signal in the input a diode would be put in the input line to rectify it.

Figure 7: Protection circuit

Filtering

Process of removing a certain band of frequencies from a signal and permitting others
to be transmitted is known as filtering. There are some basic terms used in filtering:

Pass band: The range of frequencies passed by a filter is known as the pass band.

Stop band: The range frequencies not passed by filter is known as the stop band.

Cut-off frequency: Boundary of frequencies between stopping and passing known as

the cut-off frequency.

Filter are classified according to their stopping and passing frequency range

 Low-pass filter: A low-pass filter has a band which allows all frequencies
from range of zero to some frequency to be transmitted (Figure 8a)
  High-pass filter: A high-pass filter has a pass band which allows all
frequencies from some value up to infinity to be transmitted (Figure 8b
 Band-pass filter: A Band-pass filter allows all the frequencies within
a specified band to be transmitted. (Figure 8c
 Band-stop filter: A band-stop filter stops all frequencies with a
particular band from being transmitted. (Figure 8d)

In all cases the cut-off frequency is defined as being that at which the output voltage is

70.7% of that in the pass band. The ratio of input and output powers is known
as attenuation this being written as the ratio of the logarithm of the ratio and so gives
the attenuation in units of bels. Since this is a rather large unit, decibels (dB) are used
and then attenuation in dB = 10 lg (input power/output power). Since the power
through an impedance is proportional to the square of the voltage, the attenuation in
dB = 20 lg(input voltage/ output voltage). The output voltage of 70.7% of that in the
pass band is thus an attenuation of 3 dB.

Figure 8: Characteristics of ideal filters: (a) low-pass, (b) high-pass, (c) band-
pass, (d) band-stop.

When filters are made up using resistors, capacitors and inductors are known as
passive filters. When filters involve operational amplifier are known as active filters.
Passive filters have the disadvantage that the current that is drawn by the item that
follows can change the frequency characteristic of the filter. This problem does not
occur with an active filter. Low-pass filters are very commonly used as part of signal
conditioning. This is because most of the useful information being transmitted is
low frequency. Since noise tends to occur at higher frequencies, a low-pass filter can
be used to block it off. Thus, a low-pass filter might be selected with a cut-
off frequency of 40 Hz, thus blocking off any interference signals from the a.c. mains
supply and noise in general. Figure 9 shows the basic form that can be used for a low-
pass filter.

Figure 9: Low-pass filter: (a) passive, (b) active using an operational amplifier.

3.2 Correction Elements – Actuators: Pneumatic, Hydraulic, Electric

Actuators

Actuation system is element of control system which is responsible for transforming

output from control system into a controlling action on machine. For
example, electrical output from the controller which has to be transformed into a
linear motion to move a load.

Pneumatic and hydraulic actuation system

Pneumatics is the term used when compressed air is used and hydraulics when a
liquid, typically oil.

Pneumatic signals are used to actuate large valves and other high-power control
devices and so move significant loads. The main drawback with pneumatic systems is
compressibility of air. Hydraulic systems are used for higher power control devices.
Main drawback for hydraulic are they are more expensive than pneumatic systems and
oil leaks which do not occur with air leaks. The atmospheric pressure varies with both
location and time but in pneumatics is generally taken to be Pa, such a pressure
being termed 1 bar.

Hydraulic system

In hydraulic system pressurised oil is supplied through pump driven by electric motor.
The pump pumps the oil from sump through non-return valve and accumulator to
system from which it returns back to sump. Systematic arrangement is shown in figure
10. Pressure relief valve us also used to release the pressure if it exceeds the safety
level. Non-return valve prevent oil returning pump and accumulator is used to
minimise fluctuations in output oil pressure.

Most widely use hydraulic pumps are gear pump, vane pump and piston pump. The
gear pump consists of two close-meshing gear wheels which rotate in opposite
directions (Figure 11(a)). Fluid is forced through the pump as it trapped between the
rotating gear teeth and the housing of pump and is transferred from the inlet port to
outlet port. Gear pumps are widely used because they are low in cost and robust. They
generally operate at pressures below about 15 MPa and at 2400 RPM. The maximum

flow capacity is about 0.5 . Main drawback of these pumps is, leakage
occurrences between the teeth and the casing and between the interlocking teeth,
causing effect efficiency of pump. The vane pump consists of spring-loaded
sliding vanes slotted in a driven rotor (Figure 11(b)). As the rotor rotates, the
vanes adjust to the contours of the casing. Water is trapped between vanes and casing
and then guided from inlet port to outlet port. The leakage for vane pump is less as
compared to gear pump. There are many forms are available for piston pumps used in
hydraulics. Radial piston pump (Figure 11(c)), a cylinder block rotates round the
stationary
 Figure 10: Hydraulic power supply

cam and causing hollow pistons, with spring return mechanism, to move in and out
thus fluid is drawn in from the inlet port and transported round for ejected from the
outlet port. The axial piston pump (Figure 11(d)) has pistons which move axially. The
pistons are arranged axially in a rotating cylinder block and moved by contact with
the swash plate. Swash plat is at an angle to the drive shaft and thus as the
shaft rotates, they move the pistons so that air is sucked in when a piston is
opposite the inlet port and expelled when it is opposite the discharge port.
Piston pumps have a high efficiency and can be used at higher hydraulic
pressures than gear or vane pumps.
Figure 11: (a) Gear pump, (b) vane pump, (c) radial piston pump, (d) axial piston
pump with swash plate.

Pneumatic systems

Pneumatic power supply (Figure 12) consists of an electric motor which drives the air
compressor. The air inlet air compressor is filtered and noise level is reduced via a
silencer. A pressure-relief valve is used for protection against the pressure in the
system rising above a safe level. Cooling system is used to cool down air
temperature and a filter with a water trap is used to remove contamination and water
from the air. An air receiver is used to increases the volume of air in the
system and minimise any short-term pressure fluctuations. Commonly used air
compressors are ones in which successive volumes of air are isolated and then
compressed.

Figure 13 shows the basic form of a single acting, single-stage, vertical, reciprocating
compressor. On the air intake stroke, piston moves downward causes air to be sucked
into the chamber through the spring-loaded inlet valve and when the piston move
upward, the trapped air forces to close inlet valve and so becomes compressed. When
the air pressure has risen sufficiently, the spring-loaded outlet valve opens and the
trapped air flows into the compressed-air system. After the piston has reached the top
dead centre it then begins to descend and the cycle repeats itself. Such a compressor is
termed single-acting because one pulse of air is produced per piston stroke; double-
acting compressors are designed to produce pulses of air on both the up and down
strokes of the piston. For the production of compressed air at more than a few bars,
two or more stages are generally used. Normally two stages are used for pressures up
to about 10 to 15 bar and more stages for higher pressures. Reciprocating piston
compressors can be used as a single-stage compressor to produce air pressures up to
about 12 bar and as a multistage compressor up to about 140 bar.
 Figure 12: Pneumatic power supply

Typically, air flow deliveries tend to range from about 0.02 free air delivery

to about 600 free air delivery; free air is the term used for air at normal
atmospheric pressure.
Figure 13: Single-acting, single stage, vertical, reciprocating compressor

Valves

Valves are used with hydraulic and pneumatic systems to direct and regulate the
fluid flows. There are two forms of valve

 finite position valves: The finite position valves are used for to allow or
block fluid flow and so can be used to switch actuators on or off. These
valves are also used for directional control i.e., to switch the flow from
one path to another

 infinite position valves: The infinite position valves are able to control
flow anywhere between fully on and fully off and so are used to control
varying actuator forces or the rate of fluid flow for a process control
situation.

Electrical actuation system

For position or speed control system electric motors are frequently used. A force is
exerted on conductor in magnetic field when a current pass thought it. This is basic
principle of motors working. F=BIL
Where

F=force, B= flux density, I= current in magnetic field, L= length of conductor.

D.C. Motors

In the d.c. motor, coils of wire are mounted in slots on a cylinder of magnetic material
called the armature. The armature is mounted on bearings and is free to rotate. It is
mounted in the magnetic field produced by field poles. This magnetic field might be
produced by permanent magnets or an electromagnet with its magnetism produced by
a current passing through the, so-termed, field coils. Whether permanent magnet or
electromagnet, these generally form the outer casing of the motor and are termed the
stator. Figure 14 shows the basic elements of d.c. motor with the magnetic field of the
stator being produced by a current through coils of wire. In practice there will be more
than one armature coil and more than one set of stator poles. The ends of the armature
coil are connected to adjacent segments of a segmented ring called the commutator
which rotates with the armature. Brushes in fixed positions make contact with the
rotating commutator contacts. They carry direct current to the armature coil. As the
armature rotates, the commutator reverses the current in each coil as it moves
between the field poles. This is necessary if the forces acting on the coil are to remain
acting in the same direction and so continue the rotation.
 Figure 14: Basic elements of a d.c. motor

For a d.c. motor with the field provided by a permanent magnet, the speed of rotation
can be changed by changing the size of the current to the armature coil, reversing the
current in the armature coil can change the direction of rotation of the motor. Figure
15 shows how, for a permanent magnet motor, the torque developed varies with the
rotational speed for different applied voltages. The starting torque is proportional to
the applied voltage and the developed torque decreases with increasing speed.

D.C. motors classified as series, shunt, compound and separately excited according to
how

the field windings and armature windings are connected.

1. Series-wound motor: The armature and field coils are in series (Figure 16 A).
Motor exerts the highest starting torque and greatest no-load speed. But with light
loads there is a possibility series-wound motor will run at too high a speed. No effect
on the direction of rotation of the motor if the polarity of the supply to the coils is
reversed, since both the current in the armature and the field coils are reversed.

2. Shunt-wound motor: With the shunt-wound motor (Figure 16 B) the armature and
field coils are in parallel. Shunt-wound motor have the lowest starting torque, lower
no-load speed but has good speed regulation. Shunt-wound motor have constant
speed without consideration of load and thus shunt-wound motors are very widely
used. To reverse the direction of rotation, either the armature or field current can be
reversed.

3. Compound motor: The compound motor (Figure 16 C) have two field windings,
one in series with the armature and one in parallel. Compound-wound
motors have high starting torque and good speed regulation.

4. Separately excited motor: The separately excited motor (Figure 16D) have
separate control of the armature and field currents. The direction of rotation of the
motor can be obtained by reversing either the armature or the field current.

Figure 15: Permanent magnet motor characteristic

 Figure 16: (A) Series, (B) shunt, (C) compound, and (D) separately wound

Stepper Motor

For each digital pulse supplied to its input the stepper or stepping motor rotates
through equal angles. For example, if 1 input pulse produces a rotation of 1.8 then 20
input pulses will produce a rotation through 36 , 200 input pulses a rotation through
one complete revolution of 360 . Stepper motor can be used for accurate angular
positioning. To drive a continuous belt, the angular rotation can be transformed into
linear motion of the belt and so accurate linear positioning can be achieved. Such a
motor is used with computer printers, x-y plotters, robots, machine tools and a wide
variety of instruments for accurate positioning.

There are two types of stepper motor,

 Permanent magnet type with a permanent magnet rotor and the

 Variable reluctance type with a soft steel rotor.

Figure 17 shows the basic elements of the permanent magnet type with two pairs of
stator poles. Poles of the permanent magnet motor can be activated by
a current passing through the field winding, the coils being such that opposite poles
are produced on opposite coils. The current is supplied from a d.c. source to the
windings through switches.
Figure 17: The basic principles of the permanent magnet stepper motor (2-phase) with
90 steps.

References:

1. Instrumentation and control systems by W. Bolton, 2nd edition, Newnes, 2000

2. Thomas G. Beckwith, Roy D. Marangoni, John H. Lienhard V, Mechanical

Measurements (6th Edition) 6th Edition, Pearson Education India, 2007

3. Gregory K. McMillan, Process/Industrial Instruments and Controls Handbook,

Fifth Edition, McGraw-Hill: New York, 1999.
 Unit-4

Control Systems

4.1 Control Systems

4.1.1 Basic elements

Control system is system can be used for

 Control some variable to some particular value. For example: Air-

conditioned room where temperature is control to some particular value.
 Control of sequence of events. For example: Washing machine where
water, wash, rinse, air dry is control sequentially as per program.
 Control whether an event occur or not. For example: Washing machine
will not start to take water unless its lid is closed.

Feedback

We all know our body tries to maintain temperature constant whether its summer or
winter. To maintain body temperature at constant our body have some control system
(Figure 1). If temperature is hot our body start to sweat and if it’s cold out there, we
shiver. Both these mechanisms are used to maintain our body temperature at some
constant level. Now consider a room temperature control system which maintaining
the room temperature at some constant temperature (figure 2). The control system has
an input which senses the room temperature and compares this temperature with
required room temperature and provides appropriate response in order to obtain the
required temperature. This is an example of feedback control. In feedback control
system signals from output are fed back to comparator in order to control the required
output.
 Figure 1: Feedback control system of human body

Figure 2: Room temperature control system

4.1.2 Open/Closed Loop

Open and closed loop systems

In open loop control system, no information on current situation is fed back

to element to adjust and maintain the required condition. Consider an example of
room heater which have selection switch which allows a 1 kW or a 2 kW heating
element to be selected. If a person in room select 1kW switch to heat up the room. If
room’s door or window open up then it is impossible to maintain room temperature at
required condition. This is an example of open loop control system (Figure 3A) where
no information fed back to the element to adjust it and maintain a constant
temperature. Now consider a room heater with thermometer to check room
temperature regularly and switches the 1kW to 2kW elements on or off, according to
difference between actual and required room temperature to maintain it at required
level. This is the example of closed loop control system (Figure 3B) in which
information is fed back to input system being adjusted according to whether its output
is at required level.
 Figure 3: Room heater system

A: Open-loop system

B: Closed-loop system

Open-loop system Closed-loop system

The accuracy of an open-loop 1. As the error between the

system depends on the calibration of reference input and the output is
the input. Any departure from pre- continuously measured through
determined calibration affects the feedback, the closed-loop system
output. works more accurately.

The open –loop system is simple to The closed-loop system is

construct complicated to

And cheap. Construct and costly.

The open-loop systems are generally The closed –loop system can
stable. become

unstable under certain conditions.

 The operation of open-loop system In terms of the performance the
is affected due to the presence of closed-loop system adjusts to the
non-linearity in its elements. effect of non-linearity present in
elements.

Basic elements of open-loop system

Open loop systems have three basic elements (figure 4) discussed as below.

Control element: This element determines what action to be taken as a result of the
input of the required value signal to the system.

Correction element: This element has input from the control element and gives an
output of some action designed to change the variable being controlled.

Process: This is the process of which a variable is being controlled.

Figure 4: Basic element of control system

Basic element of closed-loop system

Function of each element of closed-loop system (Figure 5) is discuss below

Comparison element: The function of this element is to compare required value of

variable being controlled with measured value and produces an error signal.

Error = measured value – required value

Thus, if there is a difference between the required value and the measured values of
the variable only then there will be an error signal and so required control action is
taken.

Control unit: This element decides what action are needs to take when receives an
error signal. Control plans are used by element to control process e.g. signal which
switches on or off when there is an error. Control plan is permanently fixed by the
way the elements are connected together known as hard-wired system. Sometimes
control plan is programmable systems where the control plan is stored within a
memory unit and may be altered by reprogramming it.

Correction unit: The correction element takes an action in the process to correct or
change the controlled condition. For example: A switch which switches on a heater
and so increases the temperature of the process The term actuator is used for the
element of a correction unit that provides the power to carry out the control action.

Process element: The process is what is being controlled. It could be a room in a

house with its temperature being controlled or a tank of water with its level being
controlled.

Measurement element: This element produces a signal as per required variable

condition. For example: a switch which is switched on when a particular position is
reached.

Figure 5: Elements of closed loop system.

4.1.3 Design of block diagram

Block diagram: Pictorial representation of function performed by each component of

system and that of flow of signals.

Figure 6: Single block diagram representation

Where,

X(s)=input function of s

Y(s)= output function of s

G(s)= transfer function as the operator in the box that converts the input to the
output.

Overall transfer function of any control system consists of series of connected

elements and system with feedback loops.

Systems in series

Consider a system consisting of two subsystems in series as shown in figure 7.

 Figure 7: Systems in series

From figure 12 X(s) is input to first subsystem and output is

Transfer function of first subsystem is

Second subsystem has as input and Y(s) as output

Transfer function of second subsystem is

Overall transfer function for system is

Thus, we can say that overall transfer function of system is product of transfer
function of individual series elements.

Systems with feedback

System with negative feedback

Consider a system with negative feedback loop as shown in figure 8. Where the
output Y(s)is fed back via a system with a transfer function H(s) to subtract from the
input X(s) to the system having G(s) as transfer function
 Figure 8: System with negative feedback.

Input for feedback system is Y(s) and output is H(s)Y(s).

The error is the difference between the system input signal X(s) and the feedback
signal H(s)Y(s)

Error= X(s)-H(s)Y(s)

This error is input to system G(s) and output is Y(s)

System with positive feedback

 Figure 9: System with positive feedback

Error= X(s)+H(s)Y(s)

This error is input to system G(s) and output is Y(s)

Block manipulation

Complex systems have many elements and sometimes more than one input. Following
are some ways to reorganise the blocks in simplified way and still give the same
overall transfer function for given system.

System Equivalent system

Blocks in
series
Moving a
take-off point
to beyond a
block

Moving a
take-off point
to ahead of a
block

Rearrangemen
t

of summing
points

Interchange

of summing
points.

Moving a

summing
point ahead of
a block.

Moving a

summing
point beyond a
block
Removing a
block from a
feedback path

Removing a
block from a
forward path.

4.2 Control Method

Automatic controllers

Automatic controller is to compare actual value of output to desired value of output,

determines the deviation and produces a signal which will reduce the deviation to zero
or to very small value.

Automatic control produces a control signal is known as control action. Control action
may operate through mechanical, pneumatics, hydraulic or electric means.

Controller is device which maintains a process variable value at set point (it is value
should be at or near some reference value).
Classification of control action

i) Discontinuous type “ON-OFF”

ii) Continuous type

(1) Proportional

(2) Derivative

(3) Composite

(a) Proportional + integral

(b) Proportional + derivative

(c) Proportional + derivative + integral

Basic function controller

 Receive the actual measured value of variable being controlled

 Compare that value with reference or desired value
 Determine the magnitude and direction of any error or deviation
 Provide an output signal as some function of deviation, which will reduce
deviation to zero.

ON-OFF controller

ON-OFF controller is simplest type of controller. Also known as two

position controllers. This type of control system is commonly used in domestic
system. For example: Heating system, refrigerator etc.

ON-OFF controller keeps measured value within maximum or minimum value

depending upon the controlled variable, whether it is greater or less than the set point.
 Figure 10: ON-OFF control

Consider a room heating application whose ON-OFF control is shown in figure 11.

Figure 11: Fluctuation of temperature about set value

A precise ON-OFF controller will ON when measured value is below set point and
controller will be OFF if measured value is above set point. But in actual practice ON-
OFF will not work exactly at set point. This is due to transfer or process lag or dead
time of instrument. The difference between maximum and minimum level of variable
where controller output does not change even ON-OFF is essential is known as dead
zone also known as differential gap.

ON-OFF control is suitable for following conditions

  When quick correction actions are need to be take
 When small and low load change are required
 When small or no dead zone.

Advantage of ON-OFF controller

 Simple
 Economical

Disadvantage of ON-OFF controller

 Not suitable for complex control system

Applications of ON-OFF controller

 Room heater
 Air-conditioners
 Refrigerators
 Water level control
 Mixer of food processor.

4.2.1 Proportional controller (P)

Proportional control is continuous action operation where output of controller is

linear function of error signal i.e. output changes with proportional change of input.

Mathematically

Where

Controller output

Error signal

Gain of controller
 Output of controller when error is zero

Constant is called proportional sensitivity or gain defined as change

manipulated variable cause by unit change in deviation. Mathematically,

Controlling the level of water in a cistern using float method is an example of the
use of a proportional controller, lever is used to determine the control mode
(Figure 12)
 Figure 12: The float-lever proportional controller

On controller there is setting for instead of there is setting for proportional band
(PB). Mathematically PB = (1/ )*100%

If PB is high then is low i.e. controller is less sensitive or gain decreases causing
good control action. On the other hand, if PB is low then sensitivity is increases
causing output change in large steps.

The proportional action is comparatively very fast and control variable settles down
close to set point with time. The main drawback of P control method is offset i.e.
difference between set point and measured value after measured variable is settles
down. And this drawback is permanent feature of proportional control and cannot
remove d as it.
 Figure 13: Proportional action

Advantages of proportional controller

 Output is constant when error is zero.

Disadvantages of proportional controller

 When load changes it produces offset in output

Applications of proportional controller

 Manual reset of operating point is possible

 Load changes are small
 No dead time exists

Integral controller

It is used as reset mode. In integral controller output changes as a rate or speed

proportional to magnitude of deviations. Hence larger the deviation faster the
correction is applied. If deviation is small then slower the correction is applied.

Mathematically
Where

Controller output

Error signal

Gain of controller

Integral time

If error is not output will begin to increase or decrease till controlled variable reaches
exactly to set value. And if error is zero the output stays at value where error is zero.

Advantages integral controller

 It eliminates offset completely

Disadvantages of integral controller

 It keeps oscillating till offset is completely removed.

Derivative controller

In derivative controller output is depend on rate of change of error. Mathematically

Where

Controller output

Error signal
 Gain of controller

Derivative time

When error is zero or constant output is zero that’s why this controller cannot use
alone. For rate of change or error there is a unique value of controller output.

Composite control action

4.2.2 Proportional + integral control action (PI)

Proportional control action produces offset in system when load changes and this
offset is eliminated by adding integral action to proportional action.
Mathematically control output is given as

Where

Controller output

Error signal

Gain of controller

Output of controller when error is zero

Integral time

Figure 14 shows how a system with PI control reacts when there is an abrupt change
to a constant error.
 Figure 14: PI control

Let there is step in change in error signal

e(t) = 1

then

Thus, controller output is suddenly change by an amount of and then suddenly

changes linearly
with respect to time at rate of as shown in figure 14.

PI controller provides with two knob one adjusting gain and other one is
for adjusting integral time .

The main advantage or P+I control Is that It can remove or nullify the offset produced
during p action. The integral control is also known as 'reset action' with the adjustable
parameter Integral time T which is expressed in seconds or minutes.

Advantages of P+1 Controller Action:

 The addition of integral contrail& eliminates the offset of P controller.

 The effect of Integral action is similar to manual adjustment of set point
after each load change.
 It improves the steady state accuracy of the system.
 Due to integral action, response is more oscillatory.
 It is used in system with large load changes.

Proportional + derivative control action (P+D)

It is also known as rate control. The derivative control never used alone, because in
this mode, the output m(t) of controller is proportional to the derivative or error signal.
If by chance the error signal, which may be significant, remains constant for certain
amount of time, then the derivative of constant being zero, the output of controller
will be zero. It means that despite the significant error, the controller is taking no
corrective action just because the error has got stuck up at the constant value, in
derivative control mode; the magnitude of the controller output is proportional to the
rate of change of actuating error signal. The derivative control action is added to
proportional control action, is called as PD control action. The governing equation for
PO control action is.

Where,

Put d/dt=D
Advantages of (P+D) Controller Action

 It improves damping ratio.

 Reduces maximum overshoot.

It Is specifically used for process controlling stow parameters such as temperature

where there is already enough process lac, transfer lag and transmission lags. Without
derivative control, controlling of such parameter would be too slow or delayed. This
mode gives a controller output based on the rate of change of error and thus. it tins
rate W high; the derivative action is Immediately in action.

4.2.3 Proportional + integral + derivative control action (PID)

For powerful and complex control action PIO control action is used. In PID control
action, the output m(t) is a linear combination of Input e(t), the rate of change of input
and the time Integral of Input. The control is thus additive information of proportional
action, derivative action and integral action. The governing equation of P10 control
action is given as,

Substitute d/dt=D and

PID controls are best suited for,

  Situation which demand very close control that are likely to experience
large and sudden fluctuations.
 PID control is compromise between advantages of PI and PD control
offset is eliminated by integral action. Derivative action lowers maximum
deviation and elimination of the oscillation occurs in PI control.
Derivative action in addition increases the speed of response to set point
changes.

Servomotor mechanism

The name servomechanism describes a complete system that provides automatic

control of an object or quantity as desired. Such a system may include many electrical,
mechanical or hydraulic devices. By their use, person can control large power with
greater speed and accuracy than that person alone can provide.

A servomechanism is a dosed loop system that moves or changes the position of the
controlled object so that It will follow up or agree with the position of a control
device, it Includes motor to cause such mechanical movement. For example, it may
open or close valve in a hydraulic or steam or chemical process, turn a rod of Link
with respect to its neighbouring link, move a transformer tap, moves up or down the
control rods of nuclear reactor etc. The short term servo is commonly used to apply to
any type dosed loop system. Servos are used in defence, navigation as well as in
industry. They are used in industry In the automatic follow up control of precision
machine tools, the remote handling of dangerous materials, automatic production lines
etc. D.C. and A.C. Motors are two types of electric actuators, used in low power
ratings and are known as servomotors. Servomotor mechanism is a control system that
converts a small mechanical motion into one requiring much greater power; may
include a negative feedback system. Since the operator cannot do repetitive and
critical functions continuously and correctly due to his limitations then the automatic
closed control loop has to be employed in this system which would be doing exactly
similar functions continuously and endlessly. The closed loop system is also known as
servo mechanism. A servomotor mechanism means simply a system which is used to
control the mechanical output of position or time derivative position, such as velocity
or acceleration of Input signal. Servomotor mechanism has found number of
applications In Industry such as in tool position control, missile guidance system,
radar tracking system etc. Actuators are used to operate the valves, heaters etc.
Actuators are very important elements of servomotor mechanism. The elements of
servomotor mechanism are actuators, error detectors, rollback element, amplifiers,
controllers (hydraulic/pneumatic/electronic) etc. Servomotor mechanism works very
eager in milliseconds. This mechanism is costlier but it is convenient because
of its properly controlled fast actions.

Figure 15: Block diagram of servomotor mechanism

DC servomechanism

Working: Servomechanism is an automatic device for the control of a large power

output by means of a small power input or for maintaining correct operating
conditions in a mechanism. It is a type of feedback control system. The constant speed
control system of a DC motor is a servomechanism that monitors any variations in the
motor’s speed so that it is quickly and automatically returns the speed to its correct
value. Some older servomotor systems use a tachometer and encoder for feedback.
There are two feed backs: (I) Velocity feedback and (ii) Position feedback. Position
Feedback DC Servomechanism: Servomechanism system, which controls the position
of a mechanical load In accordance with the position of the reference shaft, is called
D.C. Servomechanism. Load shaft is driven by motor through gear system. The
driving motor is geared to the load to be moved. The motor develops a torque which
Is transmitted to the output shaft through a gear train of ratio

N= Load shaft speed /Motor shaft speed

Here or denotes the output position whereas denotes the desired or reference
position. The two potentiometers convert the input and output shaft positions into
proportional electrical signals, which are in turn compared by error detector and error
signal equal to the difference of the two appears at the leads coming from
potentiometer wiper arms. The error detector's output voltage is Ve and that is
proportional to the error in angular position .

To understand the operation, Assume Kp=Potentiometer sensitivity in volts/rad = 100

volts/rad, and output shaft position be 0.5 rad, corresponding to this condition the
slider arm B has a voltage of +50 volts. Let the slider arm A also set at +50 volts.
Then error signal will be zero. Hence, motor has zero output torque, so that load stays
stationary at 0.5 rad. Now, assume that the new desired position of load Is 0.6 rail. To
achieve this, arm A is placed at +60 volts position. Attie arm 9 is at the +50-
volt position. This makes an error signal of +l0 volts. Now, this error signal is
amplified and fed to servomotor which generate an output torque that reposition the
load. This system comes to a steady position only when error signal become zero, that
is the arm El reaches the position corresponding to 0.6 red (i.e. +60 volts),

Figure 16: D.C. servomechanism

Applications of D.C. Servomechanism:

1. Automatic machine tools.

2. Constant tension control of sheet rolls in paper mills.

3. Control of sheet metal thickness in not rolling mills.

4. Radar tracking system.

5. Missile guidance system.

6. Satellite-tracking antennas.

4.2.4 Tuning of Controllers

While designing of controller involves selecting control modes to be used and control
mode setting i.e. selecting which control action P mode, PD mode, PI mode or PID
mode choose for particular situation and deciding values of . These
determine how the system reacts to a disturbance or a change in the set value, how
fast it will respond to changes, how long it will take to settle down after a disturbance
or change to the set value, and whether there will be a steady state error.

Figure 17 shows types of response that can occur with the different modes of control
when subject to a step input (input can be different constant set value or a sudden
constant disturbance) P control will give a fast response with oscillations which die
away to leave a steady state error. PI control has no steady state error but show more
oscillations before settled down. PID control has also no steady state error, because of
the integral element, and show fewer oscillations than the PI control. The inclusion of
derivative control reduces the oscillations.

Figure 17: Responses to (A) P, (B) PI, and (C) PID control

Tuning means methods used to select best controller setting to obtain a particular form
of performance, e.g. where an error signal results in the controlled variable oscillating
about the required value with an oscillation which decays quite rapidly so that each
successive amplitude is a quarter of the preceding one. The following is a description
of some of the methods used for tuning.

1) Ultimate Cycle Tuning Method

With this method, with the closed-loop system, the integral and derivative actions are
first reduced to their least effective values. The proportional constant Kp is then set
low and gradually increased until oscillations in the controlled variable start to occur.
The critical value of the proportional constant Kpc at which this occurs is noted and
the periodic time of the oscillation’s Tc measured. The procedure is thus:
1. Set the controller to manual operation and the plant near to its normal operating
conditions

2. Turn off all control modes but proportional

3. Set Kp to a low value, i.e. the proportional band to a wide value

4. Switch the controller to automatic mode and then introduce a small set-point
change, e.g. 5_10%

5. Observe the response

6. Set Kp to a slightly higher value, i.e. make the proportional band narrower

7. Introduce a small set-point change, e.g. 5_10%

8. Observe the response.

9. Keep on repeating 6, 7 and 8, until the response shows sustained oscillations which
neither grow nor

decay. Note the value of Kp giving this condition (Kpu) and the period (Tu) of the
oscillation

10. The Ziegler and Nichols recommended criteria for controller settings for a system
to have quarter

amplitude decay is given by Table 1. For a PID system with some overshoot or with
no overshoots,

the criteria are given by table 2.

Table 1: Settings for the Ultimate Cycle Method for Quarter Amplitude Decay
Type of Kp Ti Td
controller
P 0.5Kpu
PI 0.45Kpu Tu/1.2
PID 0.6Kpu Tu/2 Tu/8
Table 2: Settings for the Ultimate Cycle Method for PI Control
Type of Kp Ti Td
controller
PID, 1/4 decay 0.6Kpu Tu/2 Tu/8
PID, some 0.33Kpu Tu/2 Tu/3
overshoot
PID, no 0.2Kpu Tu/3 Tu/2
overshoot

2) Quarter Amplitude Decay

A variation on the ultimate cycle method involves not adjusting the control system for
sustained oscillations but for oscillations which have a quarter amplitude decay
(Figure 18). The controller is set to proportional only. Then, with a step input to the
control system, the output is monitored and the amplitude decay determined. If the
amplitude decay is less than a quarter the proportional gain is increased, if less than a
quarter it is decreased. The step input is then repeated and the amplitude decay again
determined. By a method of trial and error, the test input is repeated until a quarter
wave amplitude decay is obtained. We then have the value for the proportional gain
constant. The integral time constant is then set to be T/1.5 and the derivative time
constant to T/6.
 Figure 18: Quarter amplitude decay

3) Lambda Tuning

Lambda tuning has been developed to give a non-oscillatory response to set point
changes and load disturbances. The first part of the test is to switch the controller to
manual mode, wait until the process variable has settled to a steady state value and
then apply an abrupt step up, a so-called bump, in the set point. The process variable
is then monitored in response to this step input until it settles out again (Figure 19).
The response is then specified by extracting from the response graph the dead time D,
the process time constant τ, which is defined as being the lambda value, and the
process gain Kp, where Kp5(the resulting change in the process variable)/(the size of
the step input producing the change). The PID controller is then set to have the values:

Integral time =T

Derivative time= 0
 Figure 19: Response to sudden step input, i.e. a bump

4) Software Tools

Software packages are available for tuning. They gather data from the system,
develop process models and then suggest optimal tuning values. An impulse can
be induced in the system and then the control system’s response used to determine
optimum loop values.

References:

1. Instrumentation and control systems by W. Bolton, 2nd edition, Newnes, 2000

2. Thomas G. Beckwith, Roy D. Marangoni, John H. Lienhard V, Mechanical

Measurements (6th Edition) 6th Edition, Pearson Education India, 2007

3. Gregory K. McMillan, Process/Industrial Instruments and Controls Handbook,

Fifth Edition, McGraw-Hill: New York, 1999.
 Unit-5

System model

5.1 System Models

Consider a temperature control system for a room as shown in figure 1. If temperature

of thermostat is increased from 20 to 25 . As input to control system changes so
output will also change. We need mathematical model in order to determine the how
output of control system will react to different inputs i.e. we need equations
describing how the input and output of control system are related to each
other. Using these equations, we can predict how output will react to input
changes. We are also concern with how output will respond with time as changes to
required value.

Figure 1: Temperature control system for a room.

Static response:

Static response is defined as response of system to input without consideration of time

taken to reach that response. For example consider an amplifier system as show in
figure 2. If we have an input of magnitude 2 V then output will be 20 V. This is a
simple system model where the input is multiplied by a gain of 10 in order to give the
output and we are looking at just the static response.
 Figure 2: Amplifier system with the output 10 times the input.

Dynamic response:

Dynamic response is defined as response of system to input with consideration of time

taken to reach that response. Consider a simple spring balance system where load is
input and output of system will deflection of spring as shown in figure 3A. Applied
load to system is acts as step input because input variation with time looks like step as
shown in figure 3B. As we know spring balance system will not instantaneously give
the weight but the pointer on the spring balance will oscillate for a little time before
spring balance the applied the load value. Weight value is static response to which
spring balance eventually settles down to. But, for a complete behaviour of the spring
balance system with time, we cannot consider for an input of some constant load, that
the output is just the input multiplied by some constant number but need some way of
describing mathematical model by which an output varies with time.

Figure 3: Spring balance system

A: The spring system with constant load B: the step showing how the C: The output
showing is applied at some instant of time input varies with time how
it varies with time for the step input.

Gain

Consider a system where output is direct proportional to input mathematically

Where G is constant known as gain.

Gain of system in series

Consider two system e.g., amplifier are arranged in series with having
gain .

For first system is input and is output is given by

Also for second system is input and is output is given by

We can say that for overall system is input and output of and

Thus we can say

Where

For series-connected systems, the overall gain is the product of the gains of the
constituent systems.

Feedback loops

Consider a system model with negative feedback loop. Output of system is fed back
via measurement system with gain H to subtract from input X to system with gain G.

Input to feedback system is y hence output is yH. And error is X-Hy

Input to system G is X-Hy and output is y

Y=G(X-Hy)

Y+Hy=GX

Overall gain of system =Y/X=G/(1+GH)

Path from the error signal to the output is known as forward path and so, in this case,
the forward path gain is G. Path from the output back to the comparison element is
known as feedback path and so, in this case, the feedback path gain is H. Thus, for a
system with a negative feedback, the overall gain is the forward path gain divided by
one plus the product of the forward path and feedback path gains.

Similarly, for positive feedback path

Overall gain of system=G/(1-GH)

Dynamic system

We need mathematical model to describe relationship between input and output of

system as well as how output will varies with respect to time. To describe relationship
between input and output we can consider a whole system constitute of simple basic
elements. For example consider an automobile suspension system how it extend or
compress it, i.e. its stiffness, the forces damping out any motion of the suspension and
the mass of the system and so its resistance of the system to acceleration, i.e. its
inertia. So we think of the model as having the separate elements of stiffness, damping
and inertia which we can represent by a spring, a dashpot and a mass as shown in
figure 4 and then write down equations for the behaviour of each element using the
fundamental physical laws governing the behaviour of each element. This way of
modelling a system is known as lumped-parameter modelling.

Figure 4: An automobile suspension system

Mechanical system

Mechanical systems have stiffness, damping and inertia and can be considered to be
composed of basic elements which can be represented by springs, dashpots and
masses as shown in figure 5.
Spring

Stiffness of spring can be represented by ideal spring as shown in figure 5A. For
linear spring extension (y) is directly proportional to applied force (F).
Mathematically

F=k*y

Where k = stiffness of spring

Dashpot

Damping of mechanical system can be represented as dashpot as shown in figure 5B.

This is piston moving in viscous medium. When piston moves inwards
the trapped fluid flows out past edges of the piston and when piston moves outwards
fluids flow past the piston and into the enclosed space. For such a system, the resistive
force F has to be overcome is proportional to the velocity of the piston and hence the
rate of change of displacement y with time, i.e., dy/dt. Mathematically

Where c = damping constant

Mass

Inertia of system is means resistance of system when it is accelerated can be

represented as mass. As shown in figure 5C by Newton’s second law F = ma. But
acceleration is change in velocity v with time and velocity is change in displacement y
with time. Mathematically
 A: Spring B: Dashpot C: Mass

Figure 5: Basic mechanical element

Consider a mechanical system consists of spring, dashpot and mass as shown in

figure 6. Input to system is force (F) and output is displacement (y).

Figure 6: Mechanical system with mass, damping and stiffness

From free body diagram (from figure 6)

Net force = F - ky -

By newton’s second law

net force =

= F- ky -
 F= + + ky

Rotational system

In control systems we are often concerned with rotational systems e.g. model for the
behaviour of a motor drive shaft. How the driven load rotation will be related to the
rotational twisting input to the drive shaft. Basic building blocks for rotational system
are a torsion spring, a rotary damper and the moment of inertia as shown in figure 7

Figure 7: Basic rotational elements

Torsional spring

For a torsional spring, the angle θ rotated is proportional to the torque T,

mathematically

T= k

Where

k=stiffness of spring

Rotational dashpot

For a rotational dashpot, the resistive torque T is proportional to the angular

velocity ω and thus

T = cω = c
Where c = damping constant.

Inertia

The inertia of a rotational system is represented by the moment of inertia of a mass. A

torque T applied to a mass with a moment of inertia I results in an angular
acceleration .

T= I =I

Consider a rotational system as shown in figure 8 rotation disk as a result of twisting a

shaft.

Figure 8: Rotational system with FBD

The torques acting on the disk are the applied torque T, the spring torque kθ and the
damping
torque cω.

T–k -c =I

T= k + c + I

Electrical system
The basic elements of electrical systems are the pure components of resistor, inductor
and capacitor i.e. resistor only possesses the property of resistance, the inductor
possesses the property of inductance and the capacitor possesses the property
of capacitance as shown in figure 9.

Figure 9: Basic electrical element

Resistor

For a resistor, resistance R is the potential difference v across it when there is a

current i through it. Mathematically

v=iR

Inductor

For an inductor, inductance L, the potential difference v across it at any instant

depends on the rate of change of current i. mathematically

V=L

Capacitance

For a capacitor, the potential difference v across it depends on the charge q on the
capacitor plates with v=q/C, where C is the capacitance. Mathematically

v=
But i =

5.2 Transfer function

The relationship between the output and input is given by a differential equation when
input and output are function of time. For complex system it is difficult to obtain
input-output relationship in differential equation form. So we need to transform these
differential forms into more convenient and easy form using Laplace transform so we
can easily manipulate by basic rule of algebra.

For transformation we follow following rules:

 A variable which is a function of time is often written as v(t). When

we make the transformation, we make the variable a function of s
and is written as V(s). i.e., v(t) transformed becomes V(s). Note that
upper case letters are used for the variables when written as
functions of s
 If sum of two functions of time and then the Laplace
transform of the sum is the sum of the Laplace transforms of each
function.

i.e.

 If we multiply a function of time by a constant k then the Laplace

transform of that function is multiplied by the same constant k.

i.e. when transfomed becomes

 If the initial value of the variable v is zero at time t=0, the first
derivative of a function of time dv/dt becomes sV(s)
and kdv/dt becomes ksV(s).
 If there is an initial value at t=0 then the first derivative of a
function of time dv/dt becomes [sV(s)- ] i.e. we subtract any
initial value, and kdv/dt becomes k[sV(s)- ].
 If the initial value of the variable v and dv/dt is zero at time t50, the
 second derivative of a function of time becomes
and becomes .

 If there is an initial value and the second derivative of

function of time becomes and

becomes

 With an integral of a function of time, when transformed we have

Become s and becomes

Note that, when derivatives are involved, we need to know the initial conditions
of a system output prior to the input being applied before we can transform a
time function into an s function.

5.3 Transfer function

We know gain G= output/input.

When input and output are the function of s

Transfer function G(s)=Y(s)/X(s) when all initial conditions are zero before we apply
input.

Transfer function can be represented as block diagram as shown in figure below

Figure 10: Transfer function as the factor that multiplies the input to give the output

Where,

X(s )=input function of s

Y(s)= output function of s

G(s)= transfer function as the operator in the box that converts the input to the output.

Transfer function of common system elements

Transfer function for system can obtain by considering relationship between input to
system and their output. We can describe any control system as series of
interconnected blocks and each block have its input-output characteristics defined by
a transfer function. Following table is for transfer functions which are commonly
encounter system elements.

Control system
Gear train For the relationship between the input speed and output
speed with a gear train having a gear ratio N:

Transfer function = N
Amplifier For the relationship between the output voltage and the
input voltage with G as the constant gain

Transfer function = G
Potentiometer For the potentiometer acting as a simple potential divider
circuit the relationship between the output voltage

and the input voltage is the ratio of the resistance across

which the output is tapped to the total resistance across

which the supply voltage is applied and so is a constant

and hence the transfer function is a constant K:

Transfer function=K
Armature- For the relationship between the drive shaft speed and the
controlled input voltage to the armature is

DC motor
Transfer function
 where L =inductance of the armature circuit and R
=resistance
Valve controlled The output displacement of the hydraulic cylinder is
hydraulic actuator related to the input displacement of the valve shaft by

a transfer function of the form

Transfer function =

where K1, K2 and K3 are constants

Heating system The relationship between the resulting temperature and the
input to a heating element is typically of the

form:

Transfer function=

where C = thermal capacity of the system and

R = thermal resistance
Tachogenerator The relationship between the output voltage and the input
rotational speed is likely to be a constant K and

so represented by

Transfer function = K
Displacement For a system where the input is the rotation of a shaft and
the output, as perhaps the result of the rotation
and rotation
of a screw, a displacement, since speed is the rate
of displacement we have v= dy/dt and so V(s)=sY(s) and

the transfer function = 1/s

Height of liquid The height of liquid in a container depends on the rate at

level in a container which liquid enters the container and the rate
 at which it is leaving. The relationship between the input of
the rate of liquid entering and the height of

liquid in the container is of the form

Transfer function =

Where A = cross-sectional area of the container, ρ =

density of the liquid, g = acceleration due to gravity and R
= hydraulic resistance offered by the pipe through which
the liquid leaves the container.

Transfer function and systems

Consider speed control system consisting of differential amplifier, drive motor, gear
system, driving shaft and tachogenerator.

 Differential amplifier is assumed to give an output directly proportional to

error signal (input). So transfer function for differential amplifier can be
represented as constant gain K i.e. gain K does not change with time.
 Output from amplifier is input to drive motor’s armature circuit. Motor’s
output toque is directly proportional to armature
current. Armature circuit is assumed to be a circuit having inductance (L)
and resistance (R) so the transfer function motor can be given as
 As motor’s output torque is transformed to drive shaft via gear system.
We assume that the rotational speed is proportional to the input
torque (input of drive shaft) and so represent the transfer function of the
gear system by a constant transfer function N, i.e. the gear ratio.
 And feedback is provided to comparator via tachogenerator. Output
from tachogenerator is directly proportional to its input so transfer
function for tachogenerator is given as constant transfer function H.
 Block diagram for this system can be represented as follows
 Figure 11: Block diagram for the control system for speed of a shaft

Note: Terms in the boxes are the transfer functions for the elements concerned.

System transfer functions

Overall transfer function of any control system consists of series of connected

elements and system with feedback loops.

Systems in series

Consider a system consisting of two subsystems in series as shown in figure 12.

Figure 12: Systems in series

From figure 12 X(s) is input to first subsystem and output is

Transfer function of first subsystem is

Second subsystem has as input and Y(s) as output

Transfer function of second subsystem is

Overall transfer function for system is

Thus, we can say that overall transfer function of system is product of transfer
function of individual series elements.

Systems with feedback

System with negative feedback.

Consider a system with negative feedback loop as shown in figure 13. Where the
output Y(s)is fed back via a system with a transfer function H(s) to subtract from the
input X(s) to the system having G(s) as transfer function

Figure 13: System with negative feedback.

Input for feedback system is Y(s) and output is H(s)Y(s).

The error is the difference between the system input signal X(s) and the feedback
signal H(s)Y(s)
Error= X(s)-H(s)Y(s)

This error is input to system G(s) and output is Y(s)

System with positive feedback

Figure 14: System with positive feedback

Error= X(s)+H(s)Y(s)

This error is input to system G(s) and output is Y(s)

Block manipulation

Complex systems have many elements and sometimes more than one input. Following
are some ways to reorganise the blocks in simplified way and still give the same
overall transfer function for given system.

System Equivalent system

Blocks in
series

Moving
a take-
off point to
beyond a
block

Moving
a take-
off point to
ahead of a
block

Rearrangemen
t

of summing
points

Interchange

of summing
points.
Moving a

summing
point ahead of
a block.

Moving a

summing
point beyond a
block

Removing a
block from a
feedback path

Removing a
block from a
forward path.

Multiple inputs

When systems have more than one input superposition principle can be used.

Superposition principle: The response to several inputs simultaneously applied is the

sum of the individual responses to each input when applied separately.

Following described procedure is for multiple inputs - single output (MISO) system

1. Set all but one of the inputs to zero

 2. Determine the output signal due to this one non-zero input
3. Repeat the above steps for each input in turn
4. The total output of the system is the algebraic sum of the outputs due to
each of the inputs.

Sensitivity

Sensitivity of control system is defined as how much the output varying with
respective to variation of system parameters. As transfer function may drift with time
and it is necessary to find out how this drift will affect the performance of control
system.

Consider a closed loop system with negative feedback as shown in figure 15.

Figure 15: System with negative feedback.

If is large then

Overall transfer function

From above equation we can say that system is relatively insensitive to forward path
function but sensitive to variations in feedback path transfer function. For example, a
change in the feedback path transfer function of, say, 10%, i.e., from H(s) to 1.1H(s),
will result in a change in the overall transfer function from 1/H(s) to 1/1.1H(s) or
about 0.9/H(s) and so a change of about 10%. The reason for this sensitivity is
because the feedback transfer function is for the measurement system supplying the
signal which is compared with the set value signal to determine the error and so
variations in the feedback transfer function directly affect the computation of the
error.

If forward path function G(s) changes then overall transfer function will
also change. So sensitivity for control system can be defined as ratio of changes in the
transfer function of the forward element as the fractional change in the overall system
transfer function divided by the fractional change in the forward element
transfer function G(s). Mathematically

Differentiate the equation given above for the overall transfer function we obtain

Since then sensitivity is

From above equation we can say that sensitivity is minimum if is

maximum.

Sensitivity to Disturbances

Reduction in disturbance signal is most important effect of having feedback in system.

Disturbance signal is nothing but unwanted signal which affects the output of
system, e.g. continuous opening and closing of door of air conditioned room.

Consider an open loop system as shown in figure 16.

 Figure 16: Disturbance with an open-loop system

Overall system output is given as

Now consider a closed loop system as shown in figure 17

Figure 17: Disturbance with closed-loop system.

Overall system output is given as

If we compare overall output of both systems, we can conclude that the effect of the
disturbance on the output of the system has been reduced by a factor
of this factor is thus a measure of how much the effects of a
disturbance are reduced by feedback.

System response

Inputs
 Step input: Input suddenly being switched to a constant value at some particular
time. Figure 18A

Impulse input: Input existing for just a very brief time before dropping back to
zero. Figure 18B

Ramp input: Input existing for just a very brief time before dropping back to
zero. Figure 18C

Figure 18: Forms of input

Determining outputs

The procedure for determining how the output of a system will change with time
when there is some input to the system is:

1. Determine the output in the form of a Laplace transform

In terms of transfer function G(s)

Output(s)=G(s)*Input(s)

i.e. output of system as a Laplace transform by multiplying its transfer function by

Laplace transform of input.

2. Determine the time function corresponding to the output transform.

To determing output as a function of time find the time function that will give the
particular

output transform that we have obtained i.e. find inverse transform.

Partial fraction
Partial fraction is techniqe used to find inverse transformation. Partial fraction helps to
convert complex fraction into simpler fraction terms. There are basically three types
of partial fractions:

1. The numerator is some function of s and the denominator contains factors

which are only of the form etc.
2. There are repeated factors in the denominator
3. The denominator contains quadratic factors and the quadratic does not
factorise

Expression form Partial fraction

First order system

Differential equation for first order system is given as

Where

T= time constant

K= steady state gain

Generally first order system have capacitive and resistive element for example a
temperature sensor is typically a first-order system.

Laplace transform of above equation is gives as

Transfer function
When a first-order system is subject to a unit impulse input then

Taking laplace inverse

When a first-order system is subject to a unit step input then X(s)=1/s and output
transform Y(s) is

Taking Laplace inverse, we get

y= k(1- )

First-Order System Parameters

 Time constant:

When t=T

T= time constant

Then we have

Thus, the time constant T for a first-order system when subject to a step input is
the time taken for the output to reach 0.63 of the steady-state value

 Delay time:
Time required for the output response to reach 50% of its steady-state value is
known as delay time

Thus,

since k is the final value, the time taken to reach 50% of this value is given by

 Rise time:

Time required for the output to rise from 10% to 90% of its steady-state value is
known as rise time .

Since k is the steady-state value then the time taken to reach 10% of that value is

Similarly The time taken to reach 90% of the steady-state value is given by

Rise in time

Second order systems

 Idling control system used with a car engine is an example of a control system
which behaves as a second-order system. is the. When there is a sudden change
in engine load the engine speed must not drop and cause the engine to stall, thus
any transient drop must not be excessive and the speed should recover to the
required idling speed as fast as possible.

The differential equation for a second-order system is of the form

Where

=natural angular frequency with which system oscillate

=damping ratio

Taking Laplace transform

Transfer function

When a second-order system is subject to a unit step input i.e. X(s)=1/s

There are three different forms of answer to this equation for the way the output
varies with time; these depending on the value of the damping constant and
whether it gives an over-damped, critically damped or under-damped system.

We can determine the condition for these three forms of output by putting the
equation in the form

where and are the roots of the denominator quadratic term, the so termed
characteristic equation
  ζ>1

For this condition roots are real and will factorise

Taking Laplace inverse transform

This describes an output which does not oscillate but dies away with time and
thus the system is overdamped. As the time t tends to infinity then the

exponential terms tend to zero and the output becomes the steady value of
since the steady-state value is k.

 ζ =1

square root terms becomes zero both roots are real and both the
same. The output equation then becomes:

This equation can be expanded by means of partial fractions to give

Hence:
This is the critically damped condition and describes an output which does not
oscillate but dies away with time. As the time t tends to infinity then the
exponential terms tend to zero and the output tends to the steady-state value of k.

 ζ =1

With ζ =1 the square root term does not have a real value

Where cos =ζ

This is an under-damped oscillation. The angular frequency of the damped

oscillation is

Only when the damping is very small does the angular frequency of the
oscillation become nearly the natural angular frequency . As the time t tends to
infinity then the exponential term tends to zero and so the output tends to the
value k.

Second order system parameter

For the under-damped oscillations of a system we have the output y given by

with the damped frequency ω given by

and since φ is a constant

where P and Q are constants. Thus the output can be written as

The performance of an under-damped second-order system to a unit step input (Figure

19) can be specified by:

Figure 19: Step response of an under-damped system

 Rise time

time taken for the response x to rise from 0 to the steady-state value
This is the time for the oscillating response to complete a quarter of a cycle

To reduce the rise time by increasing the damped natural frequency, this value
being determined by the undamped natural angular frequency and the damping
factor.

Sometimes rise time can specified as the time taken for the response to rise from
10% to 90% of the steady-state value.

 Peak time:

Time taken for the response to rise from 0 to the first peak value is known as
peak time. This is the time for the oscillating response to complete one half-cycle

When ζ is 1 then the peak time becomes infinite; this indicates that at
critical damping the steady-state value is never reached but only
approached asymptotically.

 Overshoot

Maximum amount by which the response overshoots the steady-state value is

known as overshoot. and is thus the amplitude of the first peak. The overshoot is
often written as a percentage of the steady-state value. The steady-state value is
when t tends to infinity and thus . Since when then, since

then using:

The overshoot occurs at ωt=π and thus

The overshoot is the difference between the output at that time and the
steady-state value. Hence

We know

Therefore

Expressed as a percentage of
  Subsidence ratio:

An indication of how fast oscillations decay is provided by the subsidence ratio

or decrement. This is the amplitude of the second overshoot divided by the
amplitude of the first overshoot. The first overshoot occurs when we have ωt=π
and so

The second overshoot occurs when ωt=3π

Thus the subsidence ratio is given by

 Settling time:

Time taken for the oscillations to die away is known as settling time
 If the specified percentage is
5%

 Number of oscillations to settling time:

The time taken to complete one cycle, is 1/f, where f is the frequency, and
since ω=2πf then the time to complete one cycle is 2π/f. In a settling time
of ts the number of oscillations that occur is

and thus for a settling time defined for 2% of the steady-state value

Number of oscillations =

We know

Number of oscillations = =

5.4 Frequency response

Sinusoidal signals

If input is sinusoidal signal then steady state output will also be sinusoidal with same
frequency but sometimes magnitude or amplitude and phase can be differ between
in input and output (figure 19). Sinusoidal signals are represented by phasors.
Consider a sinusoidal signal

Where,

Y= amplitude, =angular frequency

Sinusoidal inputs

For step and impulse inputs we are interested in transient and steady state responses
but for sinusoidal inputs we are only interested in steady state response. Frequency
response of system means steady state response of the system to a sinusoidal input
signal. The steady state output is a sinusoidal signal of the same frequency as the input
signal, differing only in amplitude and phase angle.

The frequency response of a system can be found by applying a sinusoidal input

signal to the input of the system and measuring the output so that the gain and the
phase can be determined. Such measurements can be carried out for a number of
frequencies.

Frequency response function

The procedure for determining the frequency response of a system is as follows:

 Replace in the transfer function by to give the frequency-response

function

 The amplitude ratio between the output and the input is then the
magnitude of the complex frequency-response function, i.e.
 The phase angle between the output and the input is given by
or the ratio of the imaginary and real parts of the complex number
representing the frequency-response function.

Frequency response for a first-order system

First order transfer can be written as

Where

The frequency response function can be obtain by replacing

Multiplying denominator and numerator by

We get

Since

This is of the form and so, since is the output phasor divided by the
input phasor, we have the size of the output phasor bigger than that of the input
phasor by a factor which can be written as , with

is magnitude or gain phasor i.e. it tells how much bigger the amplitude of
the output is than the amplitude of the input

The phase difference f between the output phasor and the input phasor is given
by
The negative sign indicates that the output phasor lags behind the input phasor by
this angle.

Frequency response for a second-order system

Consider a second-order system with the transfer function

Where,

= natural angular frequency , = damping ratio

The frequency response function can be obtain by replacing

On simplifying we get

Multiplying denominator and numerator by

We get
This is of the form and so, since is the output phasor divided by the
input phasor, we have the size of the output phasor bigger than that of the input
phasor by a factor which can be written as , with

is magnitude or gain phasor i.e. it tells how much bigger the amplitude of
the output is than the amplitude of the input

The phase difference f between the output phasor and the input phasor is given
by

The negative sign indicates that the output phasor lags behind the input phasor by
this angle.

Bode plot

As frequency response of system is set values of magnitude and phase angle

. This can expressed as two graphs one is magnitude against angular
frequency and other one is phase against angular frequency . Magnitude and
angular frequency are plotted using logarithmic scales. These pair of graph is referred
as bode plot.

Magnitude is expressed is in decibel units (dB)

Bode plot for G(s) = K

Consider a system with Transfer function G(s) = K

Where K= constant.

Frequency response function for system is

Magnitude in decibels

Magnitude plot is thus a line of constant magnitude thus changing K shifts

magnitude line up and down and the phase is zero. Figure 20 shows Bode plot for
G(s)=K

Figure 20: Bode plot for G(s)=K

Bode plot for G(s) = 1/s

Consider a system with Transfer function G(s) = 1/s

Frequency response function for system is

Multiplying denominator and numerator by

Figure 21: Bode plot for G(s)=1/s

In decibels

When In decibels

When In decibels

When In decibels
Phase of system is given as i.e. for all
frequency

Figure 21 shows bode plot for G(s)=1/s

Bode plot for a first-order system

Frequency response for a first-order system

First order transfer can be written as

Where

The frequency response function can be obtain by replacing

Magnitude

In decibels

If then is negligible as compare to 1 so magnitude is 20log 1 = 0

Hence at low frequencies there is a straight line magnitude plot at a constant

value of 0 dB.

If then will be much greater than 1 so one can be neglected

Magnitude is 20log( )= -20log

This is a straight line of slope -20 dB per decade of frequency which intersects
the 0 dB line when ,

The phase for the first-order system is given by

the phase is virtually 0°at low frequency when . At high frequencies,

when when phase is virtually -90°.

Figure 22 shows Bode plot for first order system.

Figure 22: Bode plot for first order system

Bode plot for a second-order system

Consider a second-order system with the transfer function

Where,

= natural angular frequency, = damping ratio

The frequency response function can be obtain by replacing

In decibels magnitude is

For magnitude is approximately -20log1 =0

For magnitude is approximately -20log if is increased by factor 10

magnitude is increased by -40 dB Thus at low frequencies the magnitude plot is a
straight line at 0 dB, while at high frequencies it is a straight line of -40 dB
per decade of frequency. The intersection of these two lines, i.e. the break point,
is at

The magnitude plot is thus approximately given by these two asymptotic lines.
The true value, however, depends on the damping ratio Figure 23 shows Bode
plot for a second-order system.

Phase is given by
For

For

When

Figure 23: Bode plot for a second-order system.

Building up Bode plot

Consider system with number of elements in series with transfer function given
as

Frequency response can be obtain by replacing s by

We can write the transfer function as a complex number

Where = magnitude =phase of frequency response function

Similarly, for

On simplifying

The frequency-response function of the system has a magnitude, which is the

product of the magnitudes of the separate elements, and a phase, which is the
sum of the phases of the separate elements, i.e.

Now, considering the Bode plot where the logarithms of the magnitudes are
plotted,
Thus, we can obtain the Bode plot of a system by adding together the Bode plots of
the magnitudes of the constituent elements. Likewise, the phase plot is obtained by
adding together the phases of the constituent elements.