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 Peter Lucantoni
Cambridge IGCSE®

English as a
Second
Language
Teacher’s Book
Fourth edition
 Peter Lucantoni
Cambridge IGCSE®

English as a
Second
Language
Teacher’s Book
Fourth Edition
University Printing House, Cambridge cb2 8bs, United Kingdom

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: education.cambridge.org

© Cambridge University Press 2014

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2014
Reprinted 2015
Printed in the United Kingdom by Latimer Trend
isbn 978-1-107-48257-9 Paperback
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 Contents

Contents

Introduction iv
Assessment criteria for writing and speaking v
Unit 1 Focus on reading skills 1
Unit 2 Focus on reading skills 7
Unit 3 Focus on writing skills 13
Unit 4 Focus on listening skills 19
Unit 5 Focus on reading skills 27
Unit 6 Focus on reading and writing skills 33
Unit 7 Focus on writing and speaking skills 39
Unit 8 Focus on listening skills 45
iii
Unit 9 Focus on reading skills 53
Unit 10 Focus on reading and writing skills 58
Unit 11 Focus on writing skills 64
Unit 12 Focus on listening skills 69
Unit 13 Focus on reading skills 76
Unit 14 Focus on reading and writing skills 80
Unit 15 Focus on writing skills 84
Unit 16 Focus on speaking skills 90
Acknowledgements 93
 Cambridge IGCSE English as a Second Language

Introduction

This Teacher’s Book supports the Cambridge IGCSE end of each unit could be used in class to give students a
English as a Second Language Coursebook, fourth edition. feel for the examination itself. Note that the word limit
It is assumed that students following this course will be in for writing activities is 100–150 for the Core curriculum
a position to focus on the examination itself. and 150–200 for the Extended curriculum. Throughout
The Teacher’s Book provides the following: this resource, you will find sample answers for most of
the exam-style questions, including examples from both
■ full guidance on how to approach all the tasks in the
the Core and Extended curricula. The author is wholly
Coursebook
responsible for the answers to the exam-style questions.
■ suggestions for differentiated activities to use with
The progressive step-by-step approach of IGCSE English
mixed-ability classes
as a Second Language – including Top Tips that focus on
■ answers to the exercises in the Coursebook
key examination areas and Language Tips that highlight
■ sample answers to exam-style questions
specific vocabulary and grammar items – will help to build
■ marking and grading criteria for Core and Extended
students’ confidence in all the main skill areas, while also
writing and speaking
developing the techniques and additional skills necessary
The Coursebook is divided into 16 units, with each one for success in all the papers of the IGCSE E2L exam.
focusing on particular aspects of the IGCSE English as For each activity, suggestions are made about whether
a Second Language examination. Speaking skills are students should work on their own, in pairs, in small
integrated throughout the book and are practised through groups or as a whole class. These are offered as a guide
iv discussion work, role play and specific tasks. While it is only – the amount of time available and the number of
probably best to follow the units consecutively, there is students in the class will determine the best approach.
no reason why teachers should not focus on a particular However, it is a good strategy to include activities with
language skill or exam question. different group sizes within each lesson; this offers variety
The material becomes progressively more demanding, and gives students the opportunity to interact in different
with longer and more advanced reading and listening ways. To promote confidence, try not to interfere too much
texts in the second half of the book. The exercises in the when students are working together (whether in pairs
‘Further practice’ section of each unit are particularly or in small groups), but monitor and provide support if
useful for homework, for early finishers or for practice requested. You can, of course, make notes to deliver as
outside the classroom, and the exam-style questions at the feedback once students have completed the activity.
Peter Lucantoni
 Assessment criteria for writing and speaking

Assessment criteria
for writing and speaking
Below are the criteria for Cambridge English as a Second Language IGCSE writing and speaking. For full details, go to
the Cambridge International Examinations website.

Writing
Mark Content: relevance and development Mark Language: style and accuracy
band of ideas (AO: W1, W2, W6) band (AO: W1, W3, W4, W5)
8–9–10 Highly effective: 8–9 Precise:
Relevance: Style:
Fulfils the task, with consistently appropriate Ease of style. Confident and wide-ranging use of
register and excellent sense of purpose and language, idiom and tenses. Award 9 marks.
audience. Award 10 marks.
A range of language, idiom and tenses.
Fulfils the task, with consistently appropriate Award 8 marks.
register and very good sense of purpose and
Accuracy:
audience. Award 8/9 marks.
Well-constructed and linked paragraphs with
Development of ideas: very few errors of any kind.
Original, well-developed ideas. Quality is
v
sustained. Outstanding. Award 10 marks.
Shows some independence of thought. Ideas
are well developed, at appropriate length
and convincing. The interest of the readers
is sustained. Award 9 marks.
Ideas are well developed and at appropriate
length. Enjoyable to read. Award 8 marks.
6–7 Effective: 6–7 Competent:
Relevance: Style:
Fulfils the task with appropriate register and a Sentences show a variety of structure and
good sense of purpose and audience. length. Attempt at sophisticated vocabulary
Award 7 marks. and idiom. Award 7 marks.
Fulfils the task with appropriate register and Sentences show some style and ambitious
some sense of purpose and audience. language. However, there may be some
Award 6 marks. awkwardness, making reading less enjoyable.
Award 6 marks.
Development of ideas:
Ideas are developed at appropriate length. Accuracy:
Engages reader’s interest. Mostly accurate apart from minor errors which
may include infrequent spelling errors. Good use of
paragraphing and linking words. Award 7 marks.
Generally accurate with frustrating errors.
Appropriate use of paragraphing. Award 6 marks.
 Cambridge IGCSE English as a Second Language

Mark Content: relevance and development Mark Language: style and accuracy
band of ideas (AO: W1, W2, W6) band (AO: W1, W3, W4, W5)
4–5 Largely relevant: 4–5 Satisfactory:
Relevance: Style:
Fulfils the task. A satisfactory attempt has been Mainly simple structures and vocabulary
made to address the topic, but there may be but sometimes attempting a wider range of
digressions. Award 5 marks. language. Award 5 marks.
Does not quite fulfil the task although there Mainly simple structures and vocabulary.
are some positive qualities. There may be Award 4 marks.
digressions. Award 4 marks.
Accuracy:
Development of ideas: Meaning is clear and of a safe standard.
Material is satisfactorily developed at Grammatical errors occur when attempting
appropriate length. more ambitious language. Paragraphs are used,
showing some coherence. Award 5 marks.
Meaning is generally clear. Simple structures
are usually sound. Errors do not interfere with
communication. Paragraphs are used but
without coherence or unity. Award 4 marks.
2–3 Partly relevant: 2–3 Errors intrude:
Relevance: Style:
Partly relevant and some engagement with the Simple structures and vocabulary.
vi task. Inappropriate register, showing insufficient
Accuracy:
awareness of purpose and/or audience.
Meaning is sometimes in doubt.
Award 3 marks.
Frequent errors do not seriously impair
Partly relevant and limited engagement with the
communication. Award 3 marks.
task. Inappropriate register, showing insufficient
awareness of purpose and/or audience. Meaning is often in doubt. Frequent, distracting
Award 2 marks. errors which slow down reading. Award 2 marks.

Development of ideas:
Supplies some detail but the effect is incomplete
and repetitive.
0–1 Little relevance: 0–1 Hard to understand:
Very limited engagement with task, but this is Multiple types of error in grammar/spelling/word
mostly hidden by density of error. usage/punctuation throughout, which mostly
Award 1 mark. make it difficult to understand. Occasionally,
sense can be deciphered. Award 1 mark.
No engagement with the task or any
engagement with task is completely hidden by Density of error completely obscures meaning.
density of error. Award 0 marks. Whole sections impossible to recognise as pieces
of English writing. Award 0 marks.
If essay is completely irrelevant, no mark can be
given for language.
 Assessment criteria for writing and speaking

Speaking
Give a mark out of 10 for each category (structure, vocabulary, development and fluency), and then add these marks
to give an overall total out of 30.

Mark Structure Vocabulary Development and fluency

9–10 The candidate demonstrates The candidate shows enough The candidate shows sustained
ability to use a variety of structures command of vocabulary to ability to maintain a conversation
accurately and consistently. The respond with precision. Shades and to contribute at some length.
candidate is confidently in control of meaning are achieved and The candidate can respond
of the structures used. some sophisticated ideas are to change in direction of the
communicated. conversation. Pronunciation and
intonation are clear.
7–8 Structures will be generally sound, The candidate has a sufficient The candidate responds relevantly
but will not be used entirely range of vocabulary to convey and at length which makes
accurately or with consistent information and ideas with frequent prompting unnecessary,
confidence. There will be some competence. resulting in a competent
errors in attempting to use more conversation. Pronunciation and
complex sentences. intonation are generally clear.
5–6 The candidate can use simple Vocabulary conveys simple ideas The candidate makes an attempt
structures securely but has and information clearly. Errors to respond to questions and
difficulty venturing beyond them. are noticeable, however, and only prompts. Effort will need to be
partial competence is achieved. made to develop the conversation;
only partial success will be vii
achieved. There is some lack
of clarity of pronunciation and
intonation, but it is unlikely to
impede communication.
3–4 Structures will generally be very Vocabulary is not wide or varied Responses tend to be brief and
simple, limited and with errors, and there will be difficulty in widely spaced. The candidate has
which will restrict communication. conveying simple ideas. There is to be encouraged to go beyond
likely to be hesitation, repetition short responses and struggles
and searching for words. to develop a conversation.
Pronunciation and intonation
cause some communication
difficulty.
1–2 Attempts at structured sentences Vocabulary will generally be Responses are so brief that little
will rarely achieve communication. inadequate to convey simple ideas. is communicated. The candidate
However, some attempt at a hardly engages in a conversation.
response will be made during the Pronunciation and intonation
discussion. patterns cause difficulty for even
the most sympathetic listener.
0 Completely limited/no attempt at Completely limited/no attempt at Completely limited/no attempt at
a response. a response. a response.
UNIT 1: Focus on reading skills

2 Alone, then pairs or small groups

Unit introduction Again there are no right or wrong answers here.
Students work alone and add their own ideas to the
Each unit includes an introduction, explaining which
table, using the previous activity for help if necessary.
areas of the IGCSE E2L examination will be practised
When students have written down their ideas,
and which specific examination skills students need
get them to compare their lists in pairs, identifying
to develop in order to be successful. There is also
similarities and differences.
information on the content of each unit and the
In class feedback, encourage students to talk not
types of activities students will do.
only about their own ideas, but also their partner’s,
A useful way to start a unit is to ask students
to give them some practice in using the third person
to read the introduction, then to identify where
singular.
the various skills can be found. This will also
help students understand how each unit in the
Coursebook is put together and what they can DIFFERENTIATED ACTIVITY
expect from each section. For weaker students, reduce the number of ideas they
need to write – perhaps ask for just two or three. Or get
them to copy any ideas from Activity A1.
A Speaking and vocabulary For stronger students, ask them to write complete
(Coursebook page 7) sentences as in the Language Tip, rather than just notes.
1
1 Pairs or small groups
With this type of question, there are no right or
wrong answers and it is worth pointing this out to B Reading (Coursebook pages 8–11)
students. Encourage them to speculate, discuss
1 Pairs
their ideas and give reasons for their choices. Do
These pre-reading discussion questions are designed
not worry too much about language accuracy when
to get students thinking about how they read a
students write down their words or phrases, as this
text, and there are no right or wrong answers. The
may create a barrier to creativity. Use the question to
purpose is to encourage students to discuss in
promote discussion in English. You could offer help
English (as much as possible), and they should not
to students with derivatives of words, for example
be corrected if they make mistakes. During feedback,
relaxing – relax, relaxed, relaxation.
establish that when we read for pleasure, we often
When students have finished, gather class
read in a different way to when we are trying to
feedback. Again, remember that there are no right
find something quickly in a text (for example in an
or wrong answers, so encourage all your students to
examination situation).
participate – even the weaker ones.
POSSIBLE ANSWERS: having fun, playing sport,
meeting up with friends, surfing the Internet, etc.
TOP TIPS
Throughout the Coursebook, you will find Top Tips boxes.
LANGUAGE TIP The aim of these is to draw students’ attention to areas
Throughout the Coursebook, you will find Language Tip of the examination, or particular examination-taking skills,
boxes. The aim of these is to draw students’ attention to that are especially important. Top Tips boxes can be useful
areas of language (both vocabulary and grammar) that may for revision nearer to the examination and can be used
cause them problems. The tip on page 7 will help students by students to test each other on key areas. The first one
with Activity A2, so make sure you focus on it immediately on page 8 will provide more guidance and feedback to
after students have finished Activity A1. Activity B1.
 Cambridge IGCSE English as a Second Language

2 Alone d a million
This exercise gives students an example of how e three of (i) get a voucher for $5, (ii) 21-day money-
important skim reading is. Give students 10 seconds back, no-questions-asked guarantee, (iii) monthly
to answer questions a and b. newsletter, (iv) membership card and number
ANSWERS: a six, b Datasource NewsFeed f NewsFeed
g Comic Fun
3 Whole class
Get students to tell you how they found the answers
in the previous activity. Encourage them to be DIFFERENTIATED ACTIVITY
specific about the reading skill/s they used.
For weaker students, tell them in which part of the text
4 Alone they can find the answers to the questions.
Make sure students understand what the question is For stronger students, get them to work alone when
asking for, so they know what they should be looking they write their answers to Activity B6. If they finish
for in the text (the % sign). They do not need to write quickly, ask them to write two or three more questions
anything yet. about the Datasource text, then give them to a partner
ANSWER: Datasource Trainer to answer.

5 Alone
The purpose of this activity is to show students that
8 Alone
they do not need to write long answers for this type
Knowing where a text comes from can help students
of question. While all the options a–e are correct, the
to understand more about the layout and content.
best answer here is probably d (Datasource Trainer),
Students quickly look at the text and then choose one
because it is short and concise. No time would be
of the options in the box. There is no right or wrong
wasted in writing a long answer. Make sure students
answer – the important thing is to encourage students
understand that they simply need to include all
2 to give a reason for their choice. However, because of
the necessary information – which may only be
the internet address at the top of the text, hopefully
one or two words. Complete, full sentences are not
students will identify this as coming from a website.
normally necessary.
9 Pairs
Students need to have an effective strategy for
TOP TIPS approaching all types of examination questions, and
The second Top Tip on page 8 reinforces the point about reading the question carefully before doing anything
students not having to write long answers for this type else saves a lot of time.
of question. It also draws students’ attention to the ANSWER: b, d, c, a
importance of including symbols or units of measurement 10 Alone
in their answers, if required. You can follow a similar approach to Activities B6
and B7, but this time students work alone. They do
not need to write the answers to the questions yet,
6 Pairs but should identify and note down the key word/s in
Before they begin this activity, remind students each question.
not to write anything yet. Give them time to work
SUGGESTED ANSWERS: different students may choose
through the questions a–g, asking and answering.
different key words. They can check their choices when
7 Pairs they come to write their answers in Activity B11.
Working together, students write the answers to the a Who
questions in Activity B6. Then they exchange their b When / next publication
answers with a different pair and check for similarities c How many / sections
and differences. During class feedback, you can d maximum number / creative story
provide the answers if students have missed anything. e angry
ANSWERS: f Which section / how many words
a three (Puzzle Finder, Trainer, Comic Fun) g finished / do
b by signing-up to the Datasource loyalty scheme h How long / title
c Puzzle Finder i final box / not receive
 Unit 1: Focus on reading skills

delightful (but) + simple + app, huge + number, next +

TOP TIPS purchase, monthly + digital + newsletter
The Top Tip on page 11 introduces students to the idea of You Write! text: amazing + online + webzine, next +
key words in questions. issue, funny (or) + serious + original + creative +
stories, interesting + person, unusual + place,
funny + pet, extreme + weather, inspired + writing,
11 Alone, then pairs new + cinema, local + team, recent + match, other +
Students write their answers in their notebooks. products, such + information
Remind them to keep their answers brief, but to
include all the information that the questions ask for. DIFFERENTIATED ACTIVITY
When they have finished, students discuss and check
their answers. Words in brackets below are optional; For weaker students, tell them to only look at one of the
words separated by / are alternative answers. two texts.
For stronger students, ask them to find more
ANSWERS:
examples. They could also work in pairs, with each
a teenagers (who want to share their writing)
student looking at only one text. They then tell each
b 31st July
other an adjective (without the noun) from their text, to
c four / 4
see if their partner can remember the noun. Then they
d 275
change roles.
e My Opinion
f My Poem
g complete and submit the form (electronically) 3 Alone, then pairs
h (maximum) five / 5 words Tell students to copy the table into their notebooks,
i information about other products then to fill in as many gaps as possible. Make sure
they understand that not all the gaps can be filled.
C Language focus: Adjective + When they have done as much as they can, pair them 3

noun (Coursebook page 12) up to check their answers. Allow them to use paper
or digital reference sources for help.
1 Alone ANSWERS:
Focus on the position of the adjective before the
noun in the examples. Point out that other languages Adjective Noun Adverb Verb
may use a different word order. Also mention that it amazing amazement amazingly amaze
is possible – and quite common – to have more than special speciality, specially specialise
one adjective. Then students complete the short specialisation,
definition about adjectives in part a. specialist
ANSWER: Adjectives are used to provide more incredible incredulity incredibly
information/details about nouns. In English, delightful delight delightfully delight
adjectives usually come before the noun. funny fun funnily
2 Alone, then pairs serious seriousness seriously
The purpose of this exercise is to encourage original origin, originator originally originate
students to notice language in context, so that creative creation, creator creatively create
they can focus on both form and meaning. Allocate
two to three minutes for students to skim the two 4 Alone, then pairs
texts (Datasource & You Write!) and to find at least Students choose at least five more adjectives from
three more examples. Then they can compare their the texts they have read and add them to their table.
answers with a partner. Then they add the corresponding noun, adverb and
ANSWERS: verb for each one. They can use paper or digital
Datasource text: new + apps, special + discount + price, reference sources for help, then check their answers
normal + download + price, amazing + app, up-to-date + with a partner.
app, online + puzzles, discount + price, amazing + 5 Alone, then pairs
images, amazing + price, incredible + app, fantastic + There are many possible adjective endings. From
app, free + minutes, favourite + movies, new + releases, the previous activities, students should be able to
 Cambridge IGCSE English as a Second Language

identify the following: -ing, -al, -ible, -ful, -y, -ious, 2/3 Alone, then pairs
-ive, -ent, -ed, but there are others too. Students then After listening, students look at page 188 in their
write three words for each adjective ending. Coursebook and identify the three underlined
6 Alone phrases. Then, with their partner, they think of more
This activity gives students the opportunity to use ways to show a preference and make a suggestion
adjective + noun combinations in their own writing. and add them to a copy of the table on page 13.
Do not worry about corrections at this stage.
DIFFERENTIATED ACTIVITY 4 Alone
Make sure students understand that giving a reason
For weaker students, reduce the number of sentences
is an important part of showing a preference or
they need to write, or tell them to use the adjective +
making a suggestion. In this activity, they need to
noun combinations from the text in their own sentences.
identify the reasons given by Maria and Christos.
For stronger students, ask them to write more
complex sentences – perhaps with adjective + ANSWERS: Maria – she wants to get some new
adjective + noun combinations. trainers; Christos – he’ll have some money to spend

LANGUAGE TIP
D Speaking: Showing This is an important tip, because it highlights the structures
preferences and making used after showing a preference or making a suggestion.
Show students that there are three possibilities: phrase +
suggestions (Coursebook pages 12–13) infinitive, phrase + ‘to’ infinitive, phrase + -ing.
Speaking is an important part of many English as After students have looked at the information in the box,
a Second Language examinations. In this section, you could get them to close their books and try to remember
students have the opportunity to listen to and which phrases are followed by which ending. Stronger
4 use language to express preferences and make students could work with all three endings, while for weaker
suggestions. students you could allocate just one phrase + ending.

1 Alone
Tell students they are going to listen to a short 5 Pairs
exchange between two teenagers. As they listen, Before students do Activity D5, make sure they read
they need to count how many expressions Maria carefully the information in the Top Tips box. This
and Christos use that show a preference or make gives some general advice on how to approach
a suggestion. a speaking assessment. You can pair students in
various ways for this activity. To support weaker
TRACK 2 students, you could pair them with someone
stronger, but make sure the more confident student
Maria: Hi Christos, how are you?
does not dominate the conversation. You could
Christos: Hey Maria, I’m really great, what about you? also give the role of the person suggesting to a
M: Everything’s fine! Why don’t we go to the weaker student and the person responding to a
shopping centre later? I want to see if I can stronger student. There are no ‘right’ answers, so
get some new trainers. allow students to speak freely without interruptions
C: Yes, we could do that, but I’d rather go at and corrections. You can gather class feedback once
the weekend. Can you wait until then? students have finished.
M: I suppose so, but why? 6 Alone, then whole class
C: Well, I get paid for my part-time job This is quite a demanding activity, but it is extremely
tomorrow, so I’ll have some money to useful. The purpose is for students to prepare a
spend. short speech, which they will deliver to their class,
M: Fair enough! So let’s go at the weekend then respond to any questions the class may have
instead. But what are we going to do today? about the content of the speech. Allow sufficient
planning and preparation time, and provide plenty
of guidance where needed – particularly for weaker
ANSWER: three (underlined above) students.
 Unit 1: Focus on reading skills

f sleep / Day 2
DIFFERENTIATED ACTIVITY
g hotels / swimming facilities
If you feel that some students may struggle with this h hotel / best
activity, get them to work in small groups (maximum i When / animals / natural environment
three students), made up of one stronger and two j On which day / shopping
weaker students. They could all be involved in the k meal / basic price
preparation – writing down ideas, making a mind map, l airline
thinking of reasons for suggestions and preferences, ANSWERS:
and so on. The speech itself could be delivered by all a $1999
members of the group, with different students taking b camping under the stars / African music and
on more or less, depending on their abilities. If there dance / tennis / squash / badminton / swimming /
are visuals to support the content, students could be bowls / relaxing in the gardens / shopping /
involved by displaying and/or explaining these. During cinema
the questions at the end, a weaker student could field c six nights
(but not answer) the questions. d 30 kilometres
e breathtaking waters / Victoria Falls
f under the stars / campsite / in a tent / in the
African rainforest
E Further practice g Zimbabwe National and Plaza
(Coursebook pages 14–17) h Koningin Hotel
i day 5
The Further practice activities are provided for early
j day 6
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convenient for the purposes to which it is applied than a crank would
be.

EARLY APPLICATION OF THE ECCENTRIC.

On the early forms of locomotives, a single eccentric was used to
operate the valve for forward and back motion. The eccentric was
made with a half circular slot, on which it could be turned to the
position needed for forward or back motion. It was held in the
required position by a stop-stud fastened on the axle. Several forms
of movable eccentrics were invented, and received considerable
application during the first decade of railroad operating; but the best
of them provided an extremely defective reversing motion. The first
engineer to apply two fixed eccentrics as a reversible gear was
William T. James of New York, who made a steam carriage in 1829,
and worked the engine with four eccentrics,—two for each side. The
eccentrics were connected with a link, but the merits of that form of
connection were not then recognized here; for it was not applied to
locomotives till it became popular in England, and was re-introduced
to this country by Rogers. The advantage of the double fixed
eccentrics seemed, however, to be recognized from the time James
used them; for the plan was adopted by our first locomotive
builders. The first locomotive built by Long, who started in 1833
what was afterwards known as the Norris Locomotive Works,
Philadelphia, had four fixed eccentrics.

RELATIVE MOTION OF PISTON AND CRANK, SLIDE-

VALVE, AND ECCENTRICS.
 Fig. 9.

When a locomotive is running, the wheels turn with something

near a uniform speed; but any part which receives a reciprocating
motion from a crank or eccentric travels at an irregular velocity.
Fig. 9 shows the relative motion of the crank-pin and piston during a
half revolution. The points in the path of the crank-pin marked A, 1,
2, B, 3, 4, C, are at equal distances apart. The vertical lines run from
them to the points a, b, c, d, e, represent the position of the piston
in relation to the position of the crank-pin. That is, while the crank-
pin traverses the half-circle, A B C, to make a half revolution, the
piston, guided by the cross-head, travels a distance within the
cylinder equal to the straight line A C. The crank-pin travels at nearly
uniform speed during the whole of its revolution, but the piston
travels with an irregular motion. Thus, while the crank-pin travels
from A to 1, the piston travels a distance equal to the space between
A and a. By the space between the lines, it will be seen that the
piston travels slowly at the beginning of the stroke, gets faster as it
moves along, reaches its highest velocity about half stroke, then
slows down towards the end till it stops, and is ready for the return
stroke.

ATTEMPTS TO ABOLISH THE CRANK.

Certain mechanics and inventors have been terribly harassed
over this irregular motion of the piston, and numerous devices have
been produced for the purpose of securing a uniform motion to the
power transmitted. These inventions have usually taken the shape of
rotary engines. Probably the fault these people find with the
reciprocating engine is one of its greatest merits, for the piston
stopping at the end of each stroke permits an element of time for
the steam to get in and out of the cylinder.

VALVE MOVEMENT.
The valve travels in a manner similar to the piston; although its
stroke is much shorter, and its slow movement is towards the limit of
travel. The small circle in the figure shows the orbit of the eccentric’s
center, and the valve-travel is equal to the rectilinear line across the
circle. If the valve opened the steam-ports at the outside of its
travel, the slow movement at that point would be an objection, since
the operation of opening would be slow: but the valve opens the
ports towards the middle of its travel, when its velocity is greatest;
and, the nearer to the mid travel the act of opening is done, the
more promptly it will be performed. This has a good deal to do with
making an engine “smart” in getting away from a station.

EFFECT OF LAP ON THE ECCENTRIC’S POSITION.

 Fig. 10.

With the short valve without lap used on the earliest forms of
locomotives, the eccentric was set at right angles to the crank or
“square” on the dotted line e, Fig. 10. The least movement of the
eccentric from its middle position had the effect of opening the
steam-ports. One advantage about an eccentric set in this position,
was that it opened and closed the ports when moving the valve at its
greatest velocity. Lengthening the valve-face by providing lap entails
a change in the location of the eccentric; for, were it left in the right-
angle position, the steam-port would remain covered till the
eccentric had moved the valve a distance equal to the extent of the
lap on one end, and the piston would begin its stroke without steam.

ANGULAR ADVANCE OF ECCENTRICS.

The change made on the eccentric location is to advance it from
e to F, being a horizontal distance equal to the extent of lap and
lead, and known as the angular advance of the eccentric. The
centers F and B represent the full part, or “belly,” of the forward and
back eccentrics in the position they should occupy, where a rocker is
employed, when the piston is at the beginning of the backward
stroke. It will be perceived that the eccentrics both incline towards
the crank-pin, and the eccentric which is controlling the valve follows
the crank-pin. Thus, when the engine is running forward, F follows
the crank: when she is backing, B follows.
It is a good plan for an engineer to make himself familiar with
the proper position of the eccentrics in relation to the crank, for the
knowledge is likely to save time and trouble when any thing goes
wrong with the valve-motion. With this knowledge properly digested,
a minute’s inspection is always sufficient to decide whether or not
any thing is wrong with the eccentrics.

ANGULARITY OF CONNECTING ROD.

In following out the relative motion of the piston and crank, we
discover a disturbing factor in what is called the angularity of the
connecting rod, which has a curiously distorting effect on the
harmony of the motion. When the piston stands exactly in the mid-
travel point, the true length of the main rod will be measured from
the center of the wrist-pin to the center of the driving-axle. If a tram
of this length be extended between these points, this will be found
correct, as every machinist accustomed to working on rods knows.
Now, if the back end of the tram should be raised or lowered
towards the points where the center of the crank-pin must be when
the crank stands on the top or bottom quarter, it will be found that
the tram point will not reach the crank-pin center, but will fall short a
distance in proportion to the length of the main rod. The dotted lines
a′ and b′ in Fig. 11 show how far a rod 7½ times the length of the
crank falls short. A shorter rod will magnify this obliquity, while a
longer rod will reduce it.
 Fig. 11.

EFFECT ON THE VALVE-MOTION OF CONNECTING-ROD

ANGULARITY.
As the opening and closing of the steam-ports by the valves are
regulated by the eccentrics, which are subject to the same motion as
the crank, following it at an unvarying distance, it is evident that
their tendency will be to admit and cut off steam at a certain
position of the crank’s movement. If the motion is planned to cut off
at half stroke, it will be apparent, that, in the backward stroke, the
piston will be past its mid travel before the crank-pin reaches the
quarter, so that end of the cylinder will receive steam during more
than half the stroke. On the forward stroke of the piston, however,
the crank-pin will reach the quarter before the piston has attained
half travel; the consequence being, that in this case steam is cut off
too early. The disturbing effect of the angularity of the connecting
rod on the steam distribution thus tends to make the cut-off later in
the backward stroke than in the forward stroke, resulting in giving
the forward end of the cylinder more steam than what is admitted in
the back end. The link-motion provides a convenient means of
correcting the inequality of valve opening due to the connecting-rod
angularity, the details of which will be explained farther on.

AIDS TO THE STUDY OF VALVE-MOTION.

An engineer or machinist who wishes to study out this peculiarity
of connecting-rod angularity, will find that the use of a tram or long
dividers will help him to comprehend it better than any letter-type
description. All through the study of the valve-motion, there are
numerous difficult problems encountered. The use of a good model
will be found an invaluable aid to the study of the valve-motion, and
every division of engineers or firemen should make a combined
effort to furnish their meeting-room with a model of a locomotive
valve-motion. In no way can the spare time of the men connected
with locomotive running be better employed than in the wide range
for study presented by a well-devised model. Great aid can be
obtained in the study of the valve-motion from good books devoted
to the subject, and they will impart more information than can be
obtained by mere contact with the locomotive. The valve and its
movements are surrounded with so many complicated influences,
that an intelligent man may work for years about a locomotive doing
valve setting occasionally, and other gang boss work, yet, unless he
studies the valve-motion by the aid of the drawing-board, or by
models, which admit of changing sizes and dimensions, he may
know less about the cause of certain movements than the bright lad
who has been a couple of years in the drawing-office. The man who
thinks he can study the valve-motion, and understand its philosophy,
by merely running the engine, deceives himself. The engineer who
never looks at a book or a paper in search of information about his
engine, knows very little about any thing not visible to the eye. Yet
many men of this stamp, by looking wise, and by exercising a
judicious use of silence, pass among their fellows as remarkably
profound. But let a fireman, in quest of locomotive knowledge, put a
question to such a man, and he is immediately silenced with a “You
ought to know better” answer.
Where the use of a model can not be obtained, any one
beginning the study of the valve-motion can assist himself by
making a cross section of the valve and its seat, similar to those
published, on a strip of thin wood or thick paper. By slipping the
valve on the seat, its position at different parts of the stroke can be
comprehended more clearly than by a mere description. With a pair
of dividers to represent the motion of the eccentric, and strips of
wood to act as eccentric, and valve rod and rocker, and some tacks
to fasten them together, a helpful model can be improvised on a
table or board. By the time a student gets a rig of this kind going, he
will see his way to contrive other methods of self-help.

EVENTS OF THE PISTON STROKE.

By the aid of Fig. 10, we will trace the relative movements of the
crank and eccentric connections. For the sake of simplicity, the
eccentric is represented as connecting directly with the rocker-arm.
The crank-pin being at the point A, or the forward center, the
piston must be in the front of the cylinder, or at the beginning of the
backward stroke. Owing to the angular advance already referred to,
the eccentric center is at F; and, being a certain distance ahead of
the middle position, it has pushed the lower arm of the rocker from
a to b, drawing back the top arm, which, in its turn, has moved the
valve so that it is just beginning to admit steam at the forward port,
i. As the crank-pin goes round, the eccentric follows it, opening the
steam-port wider till the eccentric reaches the point of its travel
nearest A, the limit of the throw. When the eccentric is at this point
of its throw, the valve must be at the outside of its travel; and
therefore the steam-port is wide open. By this time the crank-pin is
getting close up towards the quarter. After passing this point, the
forward eccentric begins to draw the bottom rocker-pin towards the
axle, and to push the valve ahead, this being the point where the
valve changes its direction of motion, just as the piston returns when
the crank-pin passes the center. When F reaches the point B, the
valve is in the same position it occupied at the beginning of the
stroke; but, as it is traveling in the opposite direction, a very small
movement more closes the port, cutting off steam. When this
happens, the crank-pin has reached the point x. When F gets to g, it
is on the central point of its throw; so the valve must then be on the
middle point of its travel, with the exhaust cavity just covering the
outside edges of the bridges, the forward edge being ready to put
the steam-port, i, in communication with the exhaust cavity. This
releases the steam from the forward end of the cylinder; and at the
same moment the inside edge of the valve covers the back port, k,
causing the piston-head to compress any steam left in the back part
of the cylinder. When the piston reaches the beginning of the
forward stroke, the eccentric F has got to the point f, and the valve
is beginning to admit steam for the return stroke, the events of
which are similar to those described.
In actual practice, the steam distribution is a little different from
the manner that has been followed; for the link-motion provides the
means of equalizing the cut-off, making it uniform for both strokes.
This changes the events of the stroke a little; but the student who
engraves in his mind the movements as they are represented in the
diagram, will not be far astray.

WHAT HAPPENS INSIDE THE CYLINDERS WHEN AN

ENGINE IS REVERSED.
Many men who have a fair understanding of the action of steam
in an engine’s cylinders during ordinary working, have no idea of the
operations performed in the cylinders when a locomotive is running
in reverse motion. All men who have had any thing to do with train
service, know, that, when an engine is reversed, the action works to
stop the train, even if the locomotive should have no steam on the
boiler; but just in what way this result comes round they can not
clearly perceive. In hopes of throwing light upon this subject for
those who have not studied it out, we will follow the events of a
stroke in reversed motion, as we did in the ordinary working.

EVENTS OF THE STROKE IN REVERSED MOTION.

Supposing an engine to be running ahead, and the necessity
arises for stopping suddenly, and the reverse-lever is pulled into the
back notch. When the crank-pin is on the forward center, and
therefore the piston at the forward end of the cylinder, about to
begin its backward stroke, the valve has the forward port open a
distance equal to the amount of lead, as in Fig. 10. But, as the back-
up eccentric has control of the valve, the latter is being pushed
forward; and it closes the forward port just as the piston begins to
move back. This shuts off all communication with the forward end of
the cylinder; and the receding piston creates a vacuum behind it,
just as a pump-plunger does under similar circumstances. At this
time the back end of the cylinder is open to the exhaust, and the
piston pushes out the air freely to the atmosphere. By the time the
piston travels about two inches, the valve gets to its middle position;
and, immediately after passing that point, it opens the forward end
of the cylinder to the exhaust, and closes the back port. When this
event happens, the vacuum in the forward end of the cylinder gets
filled with hot gases, that rush in from the smoke-box; and the
receding piston keeps drawing air into the cylinder in this way during
the remainder of the stroke, and air from that quarter seldom gets in
without bringing a sprinkling of cinders. The back steam-port is
closed only during about two inches of the stroke, while the lap of
the valve is traveling over it. About the time the piston reaches four
inches of its travel, the back steam-port is open to the steam-chest,
and the piston forces the air through the steam-pipes into the boiler
during the remainder of the stroke. The forward stroke is merely a
repetition of the backward stroke described.
When it is necessary to reverse a locomotive, it is a better plan
to hook the lever clear back than to have it a notch or two past the
center, as some men persist in doing, under the mistaken belief that
they are in some way saving their engine from harsh usage. When
the link is reversed full, the cylinders are merely turned into air-
pumps. When the links are put near the center, the travel of the
valve is reduced; and the periods when the piston is creating a
vacuum in one end of the cylinder, and compressing the air in the
other, are prolonged. The result is, that, when the exhaust is opened
in the first case, the gases rush in violently from the smoke-box,
carrying a heavy load of cinders: in the other case, the piston
compresses the air in the cylinder so high that it jerks the valve
away from its seat in trying to find outlet. This causes the clattering
noise in the steam-chest, so well known in cases where engines are
run without steam while the reverse-lever is near the center.
 A locomotive with the piston-packing in bad order will not hold
well running in reverse-motion. Some kinds of piston-packing do not
seem to act properly when the engine is reversed, especially at low
speed. Where a valve has much inside lap, there will be a vacuum in
one end of the cylinder, and compressed air in the other end. With
piston packing that requires pressure to expand it, the void at one
end of the cylinder may neutralize the pressure at the other by
drawing the air through the piston. This would be most liable to
happen where the lever was kept near the center.

PURPOSE OF RELIEF-VALVE ON DRY PIPE.

Should the throttle-valve close so tight that the compressed air
from the cylinders can not pass into the boiler, there is danger of
bursting the steam-chest or some part of the steam-pipes. The
compressed air will lift most of the throttle-valves far enough to
prevent any great danger from this source. In some engines a relief-
valve is secured in the dry pipe, which provides a passage for this
compressed air. When the cylinder-cocks of an engine are opened
when the motion is reversed, they form an outlet to the compressed
air, and also admit air to the sucking end without letting the piston
draw air so freely through the nozzles. Many cylinder-cocks are now
made so that they will open automatically to permit the piston to
draw air through them. The reversed engine will stop nearly as well
with the cylinder-cocks opened as when they are closed, and it is
much more easily handled with the cocks opened. Where the cocks
are kept closed, the rush of hot air from the smoke-box laps every
trace of oil from the valve-seat, and a heavy pressure—frequently
above that of the boiler—is present in the steam-chest. When the
engine stops under these circumstances, its tendency is to fly back;
and an engineer has some difficulty in controlling it with the reverse-
lever till a few turns empty the chest and pipes.

USING REVERSE-MOTION AS A BRAKE.

 Numerous attempts have been made to utilize the reversed
engine as a brake for stopping the train, and even by this means to
save some of the power lost in stopping. Chatelier, a French
engineer, experimented for many years on this mechanical problem.
He injected a jet of water into the exhaust-pipe, which supplied low-
tension steam to the cylinder, instead of hot gas or air coming
through the smoke-box. This was pumped back into the boiler on
the return stroke. Thus the act of stopping a train was used to
compress a quantity of steam, converting the work of stopping into
heat, which was forced into the boiler and retained to aid in getting
the train into speed again. Modifications of this idea produce the car-
starters that pass so frequently through our Patent Office.
As a means of conserving mechanical energy, the Chatelier brake
was not a success; but, in the absence of better power brakes, it
met with some applications in Europe. Some of our mountain
railroads use it, under the name of the water-brake, as an auxiliary
to the automatic brake.
 CHAPTER XVIII.
THE SHIFTING LINK.

EARLY REVERSING MOTIONS.

In the engineering practice of the world, before the locomotive
and marine engines came into use, there was no need for devices to
make engines rotate in more than one direction. When the need for
a reversible engine first arose, it was met by very crude appliances.
Locomotives were kept at work, earning money for their owners,
which were reversed by the man in charge stopping the engine, and
by means of a wrench changing the position of the eccentric by
hand. A decided improvement on the wrench was the movable
eccentric, which was held in forward or back gear by stops; the
operation of reversing being done by a treadle or other attachment
located near the engineer’s position. A serious objection to this form
of reversing gear was, that the abrasion of work enlarged the slot
ends, and wore out the stops, leading to inaccuracy and frequent
breakage. A somewhat better form of reversing motion was a fixed
eccentric, with the means at the end of the eccentric-rod for
engaging with the top or bottom of a rocker-shaft, which operated
the valve-stem. This was the form of reversing motion used on the
early Baldwin engines. Numerous other appliances, more or less
defective, were experimented with before the double fixed eccentrics
were introduced. Till the link was applied to valve-motion, the
double eccentrics—an American invention—were the most important
improvement that had been made on the locomotive valve-motion
since the incipiency of the engine. The V hook, in connection with
the double eccentrics, made a fair reversing motion in comparison to
any thing that had preceded it. The objection to the hook was, that,
when the necessity arose for reversing the engine while in motion,
much difficulty was experienced in getting the hook to catch the pin.
As a simple, prompt, and certain reversing motion, the link was
readily acknowledged to be far superior to any thing that had
previously been tried.

INVENTION OF THE LINK.

There is no doubt but the link was first applied to a steam
engine by William T. James of New York, a most ingenious mechanic,
who also invented the double eccentrics. James experimented a
great deal about the period from 1830 to 1840, with steam carriages
for common roads; and it was in this connection that he invented
the link. His work having proved a commercial failure, the
improvements on the valve-motion were not recognized at the time;
although the probability is, that Long, who started the Norris
Locomotive Works of Philadelphia, and brought out the double
eccentrics upon the locomotives built there, was indebted to James
for the idea of a separate eccentric for each direction of engine
movement.
The credit of inventing the ordinary shifting link is due to William
Howe of Newcastle, England. This inventor was a pattern-maker in
the works of Robert Stephenson & Co., and he invented the link in
1842 in practically its present form. The idea of Howe was to get out
an improved reversing motion; and he made a pencil-sketch of the
link, to explain his views to his employers. The superintendent of the
works was favorably disposed to the invention, and ordered Howe to
make a pattern of the motion, which was done; and this was
submitted to Stephenson, who approved of the link, and directed
that one should be tried on a locomotive. Although Stephenson gave
Howe the means of applying his invention, he does not seem to
have perceived its actual value, for the link was not patented; and
Stephenson never failed to patent any device which he thought
worth protecting.
 The link-motion was applied to a locomotive constructed for the
Midland Railway Company, and proved a success from the day it was
put on. Seeing how satisfactorily the invention worked, Robert
Stephenson paid Howe twenty guineas (one hundred and five
dollars) for the device, and adopted the link as the valve-gear for his
locomotives. This is how the shifting link comes to be called the
“Stephenson link,” and the credit for this invention was not
extravagantly paid for.
The capability which the link possesses of varying the steam
admission and release, did not appear to be understood by the
inventor; nor was the mechanical world aware, for some time after
the link was brought into use, that it could be employed to adjust
the inequality of steam distribution, due to the angularity of the
connecting rod.

CONSTRUCTION OF THE SHIFTING LINK.

Fig. 12.
 As usually constructed for American locomotives, the link is a
slotted block curved to the arc of a circle, with a radius about equal
to the distance between the center of the driving-axle and the center
of the rocker-pin. The general plan of the link-motion is shown in
Fig. 12. Fitted to slide in the link-slot is the block which encircles the
rocker-pin. The eccentric-rods are pinned to the back of the link; the
forward eccentric-rod connecting with the top, and the back-up
eccentric-rod with the bottom, of the link. Bolted to the side and
near the middle of the link is the saddle, which holds the stud to
which the hanger is attached; this, in its turn, connecting with the
lifting arm, which is operated by the reversing rod that enables the
engineer to place the link in any desired position.

ACTION OF THE LINK.

Regarded in its simplest form, the action of the link in full gear is
the same upon the valve movement as a single eccentric. When the
motion is working, as in the figure, with the eccentric-rod pin in line
with the rocker-pin, it will be perceived that the movement can not
differ much from what it would be were the eccentric-rod attached
to the rocker. Here the forward eccentric appears as controlling the
movement of the valve. Putting the link in back motion brings the
end of the backing eccentric-rod opposite the rocker-pin, the effect
being that the back-up eccentric then operates the valve. When the
link-block is shifted toward the center of the link, the horizontal
travel of the rocker-pin is decreased; consequently, the travel of the
valve is reduced; for, with ordinary engines, the travel of the valve in
full gear equals the throw of the eccentrics, the top and bottom
rocker-arm being of the same length. The motion transmitted from
the eccentrics, and their means of connection with the link, make
the latter swing as if it were pivoted on a center which had a
horizontal movement equal to the lap and lead of the valve. The
extremities of the link, or rather the points opposite the eccentric-
rods, swing a distance equal to the full throw of the eccentric. The
variation of valve-travel that can be effected by the link, is from that
of the eccentric throw in full gear down to a distance in mid gear
which agrees with the extent of lap and lead. The method of
obtaining these various degrees of travel is by moving the link so
that the block which encircles the rocker-pin shall approach the
middle of the link.
When an engine is run with the lever in the center notch, the
supply of steam is admitted by the lead-opening alone. In full gear
the eccentric, whose rod-end is in line with the rocker-pin, exerts
almost exclusive control over the valve movement; but, as the link-
block gets hooked towards the center, it comes to some extent
under the influence of both eccentrics.
A thoughtful examination of Fig. 12 will throw light on the
reason why the proper position of a slipped eccentric can be
determined by the other eccentric when the engine is on the center.
In the cut, the crank-pin is represented on the forward center; and
in that position the eccentric centers are both an equal distance in
advance of the main shaft center. It will be evident now that the
valve must occupy practically the same position for forward or back
gear, as each of the eccentric-rods reaches the same distance
forward. Putting the motion in back gear would bring the backup
eccentric-rod pin to the position now occupied by the pin belonging
to the forward eccentric-rod.

VALVE-MOTION OF A FAST PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVE.

Reducing the travel of the valve by drawing the reverse-lever
towards the center of the quadrant, and consequently the link-block
towards the middle of the link-slot, not only hastens the steam cut-
off, but it accelerates in a like degree every other event of steam
distribution throughout the stroke. To explain this point, let us take
the motion of a well-designed engine in actual service, which has
done good economical work on fast train running. The valve-travel is
five inches, lap one inch, no inside lap, lead in full gear 1/16 inch,
point of suspension 9/16 inch back of center of link.

EFFECT OF CHANGING VALVE-TRAVEL.

 When this engine is working in full gear, the steam will be freely
admitted behind the piston till about eighteen inches of the stroke,
when cut-off takes place; and the release or exhaust opening will
begin at about twenty-two inches of the stroke, giving four inches
for expansion of steam. Now, if the links of this engine are hooked
up so that the cut-off takes place at six inches of the stroke, the
steam will be released at sixteen inches of the stroke; and at that
point compression will begin at the other end of the cylinder.

WEAK POINTS OF THE LINK-MOTION.

This attribute which the link-motion possesses, of accelerating
the release and compression along with the cut-off, is very
detrimental to the economical operating of locomotives that run
slow. High-speed engines need the pre-release to give time for the
escape of the steam before the beginning of the return stroke; and
the compression is economically utilized in receiving the heavy blow
from the fast-moving, reciprocating parts, whose direction of motion
has to be suddenly changed at the end of each stroke, and in
helping to raise the pressure promptly in the cylinder at the
beginning of the stroke. A locomotive, on the other hand, that does
most of its work with a low-piston speed, would not suffer from back
pressure if the steam were permitted to follow the piston close to
the end of the stroke; and a very short period of compression would
suffice. If the engine, whose motion we have been considering,
instead of releasing at sixteen inches, could allow the steam to
follow the piston to twenty-two inches of the stroke, after cutting off
at six inches, a very substantial gain of power would ensue. And this
would be well supplemented by avoiding loss of power, did
compression not begin till within two inches of the return stroke.

WHY DECREASING THE VALVE-TRAVEL INCREASES THE

PERIOD OF EXPANSION.
Increase of expansion follows reduced valve-travel, from a
similar cause to that which produces expansion when lap is added to
the edge of a slide-valve. When the valve is made with the face
merely long enough to cover the steam-ports, there can be no
expansion of the steam; for, so soon as the valve ceases to admit
steam, it opens the steam-port to the exhaust. When lap is added,
however, the steam is inclosed in the cylinder, without egress for the
time that it takes the lap to travel over the steam-port. An
arrangement of motion which will make the valve travel quickly over
the port, has a tendency to shorten the period for expansion; while
making the valve travel slowly over the port, has the opposite effect,
and protracts expansion. A valve with, say, five inches travel, has a
comparatively long journey to make during the stroke of the piston;
and the lap-edges will pass quickly over the steam-ports,—much
more quickly than they will when the travel is reduced to three
inches. In a case of this kind, there is more than the mere reduction
of travel to be considered. Suppose the valve has one inch lap at
each end. When it stands on the middle of the seat, it has a
reciprocating motion of two and one-half inches at each side of that
point to make. At the beginning of the stroke, it has been drawn
aside one inch (we will ignore the lead), but still has one and one-
half inch to travel before it begins to return. On the other hand,
when the travel is reduced to three inches, the valve has only one
and one-half inch to travel away from the center; and, one inch
being moved to draw the lap over the port, there only remains one-
half inch for the valve to move before it must begin returning. This
entails an early cut-off; for the valve must pass over the ports with
its slow motion, and be ready to open the port on the other end,
before the return stroke. Thus a travel of five inches draws the
outside edge of the valve one and one-half inch away from the
outside of the steam-ports, three inches travel only draws it one-half
inch away, and a greater reduction of travel decreases the opening
in like proportion.

INFLUENCE OF ECCENTRIC THROW ON THE VALVE.

As reducing the travel of the valve diminishes the port opening,
a point is reached in cutting off early in the stroke where the port
opening is hardly any more than the port opening due to the lead.
This is what makes long steam-ports essential for a successful high-
speed locomotive. The best-designed engines give an exceedingly
limited port opening at short cut-offs, and badly planned motion
sometimes seriously detracts from the efficiency of the engine, by
curtailing the opening at the point where a very brief time is given
for the admission of steam. The magnitude of the eccentric throw
exerts a direct influence on the port opening when cutting off early.
A long throw tends to increase the opening, while a short throw
reduces it. The long-throw eccentric will draw the valve farther away
from the edge of the steam-port, when admitting steam for the
same point of cut-off, than a short-throw eccentric will move its
valve. For an ordinary 17 × 24 inch locomotive, the throw of
eccentric should not be less than five inches, unless the engine is
intended entirely for slow running. There are many engines running
with eccentric throw less than five inches, but they are invariably
slow unless the valve-lap is very short. With an ordinary lap, an
engine having an eccentric throw of 4½ inches needs so much
angular advance to overcome the lap, and provide lead, that the
rectilineal motion of the eccentric is very meager at the beginning of
the stroke. That is, the center of the eccentric is traveling downward
in its circular path, which gives little motion to the valve, just as the
crank gives decreased motion to the cross-head when near the
centers.

HARMONY OF WORKING-PARTS.
Hitherto we have regarded the link as merely performing the
functions of transmitting the motion of the eccentrics to the valves,
with the additional capability of reducing the travel at the will of the
engineer. Otherwise, the motion of the link is intensely complex; and
its movements are susceptible to a multitude of influences, which
improve or disturb its action on the valve. A good valve-motion is
planned according to certain dimensions of all the working-parts;
and any change in their arrangement will almost invariably entail
irregularities upon the link’s movement, which will radically affect the
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