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The Psychology Major’s Companion

Everything You Need to Know to Get You Where
You Want to Go

Dana S. Dunn
Moravian College

Jane S. Halonen
University of West Florida

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Copyright © 2017 by Worth Publishers

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For
David G. Myers
Doug Bernstein
Ludy T. Benjamin, Jr.
Bill McKeachie

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Brief Contents
Preface

CHAPTER 1 College and Psychology

CHAPTER 2 The Nature of Psychology and the Psychology Major

CHAPTER 3 Should You Major in Psychology?

CHAPTER 4 Building Psychology-Related Skills

CHAPTER 5 Hitting Your Stride as a Student

CHAPTER 6 Charting Your Course in the Major

CHAPTER 7 Doing Psychology Research from Start to Finish

CHAPTER 8 Using Psychology to Become an Effective Leader

CHAPTER 9 What Career Options Are There for Students with a BA or BS in Psychology

CHAPTER 10 How Do You Apply To and Get Into Graduate Programs in Psychology

CHAPTER 11 What Can You Do With an Advanced Degree in Psychology

CHAPTER 12 Keeping Connected to Psychology

Appendix A Annotated APA-Style Student Paper
Glossary
References
Name Index
Subject Index

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Preface
One of our favorite childhood books is Oh, the Places You’ll Go! by Dr. Seuss. We have always been impressed
by the open-ended prospects that the phrase invokes; we always smile when we hear it. We both experience that
same sense of optimism when we hear students identify psychology as their chosen major.
Selecting a major is one of the most significant decisions one can make in young adulthood. Selecting the
wrong major is an expensive and inefficient means of getting through the undergraduate years. In contrast,
selecting the right major can make those years rich in present experiences and prepare you for your future.
Although psychology is a popular major, it is also hugely misunderstood. That misunderstanding is held not
just by loved ones who worry about career opportunities but also by some who major in psychology. With good
advising, hard work, and focused energy, a degree in psychology can open a wide range of amazing possibilities
for any student. However, poor advising and lackluster performance in psychology can reinforce some people’s
perceptions that it is a weak major. Therefore, the objective of this book is to help students to declare the
psychology major if it is in their best interest to do so, to successfully leverage what they learn in the major, and to
prepare for a psychology-related future.

NOTE TO STUDENTS
We wrote this book for you, whether you are a traditional-aged college student or a more seasoned adult learner
interested in exploring the options associated with being a psychology major. You might be a college-bound
student fresh out of high school who is curious about psychology. Or perhaps you are already enrolled in college
and about to decide on an academic major area of study and you want to know if majoring in psychology is right
for you. Some readers may have already taken the plunge and want some guidance about what careers are
available to psychology majors or advice on how to pursue graduate study in psychology.
Whatever your background, The Psychology Major’s Companion: Everything You Need to Know to Get You
Where You Want to Go is designed to satisfy your needs. We address a variety of key questions, including:

What do psychologists do? Where do they work?

Is majoring in psychology the right choice for you?

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What skills and benefits does an undergraduate degree in psychology provide?

How can I get the most out of my psychology major while becoming a focused, high-performing student?
How can I leverage my major by pursuing the right organizational memberships, summer jobs, and
internships?
What can I do with a major in psychology after graduation?
What jobs are available to BA- or BS-level psychology majors who decide not to pursue an MA or a
PhD?
How do I begin a job search right out of college?
If I decide to go to graduate school in psychology, what’s involved in the application process?
What area of psychology should I pursue there after college?
How can I make my application a compelling one?
Of what benefit will psychology be to my life beyond my education and my career?
We strongly believe that both prospective and current psychology majors should know what to expect from the
undergraduate major, the larger discipline, and the marketplace beyond campus. This book will give you a good
start in planning your future once psychology piques your interest.

NOTE TO INSTRUCTORS AND ADVISORS

We wrote this book to serve multiple purposes for the psychology instructor. First, we think the text can serve well
in psychology courses that introduce students to the major. Such courses are often titled Introduction to the
Psychology Major or Careers in Psychology. Our book could be the main text or a supplemental text in these
courses. The book provides a solid foundation for students interested in the discipline. We also hope that students
will find the Companion valuable enough that they will use it to help them make the decisions that will follow
their entry into the major.
Some instructors may wish to use the Companion as a supplemental text in introductory psychology courses
exclusively aimed at psychology majors, research methods in psychology courses, and in psychology seminars.
We purposefully designed the book to allow teacher-instructors to discuss and delve into academic as well as
practical issues with students.
Instructors may also find the Companion useful as a supplemental text in capstone courses. A very strong trend
in psychology curricula over the past few years is to require a course that encourages students to integrate what
they have learned across their psychology courses. Because the Companion focuses on preparation for the steps
after graduation—whether those might involve entering the workforce or pursuing graduate or professional school
—we think it can provide appropriate guidance about the important decisions that lie ahead.

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We included some special features that should help students engage and personalize their learning. Each chapter
has a feature called “A Major Success Story” that profiles former students who have successfully navigated life
after graduation. We hope these will be inspirational and provide some good exemplars to cite when students
discuss their choice of the psychology major.
The Companion’s “Reality Check” features will help students personalize the learning in each chapter. The
Reality Checks provide an opportunity to apply the principles of the chapter to their own course and career
planning.
We are proud that the Companion uses emerging best practices from the collaborative national work on the
undergraduate psychology curriculum from the American Psychological Association (APA). Our discussions of
curriculum design and assessment strategies reflect recent work from the APA’s Puget Sound Conference and the
Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major, Version 2.0. As participants in those efforts, we wanted to
ensure that our work here reflects the most current and helpful content.

Supplements
To support instructors in student assessment and in teaching, we have written a test bank comprised of multiple
choice and essay questions as well as lecture slides that summarize the content of each chapter. These materials
are password protected and available from the book’s website (www.macmillanlearning.com/dunnhalonen1e).
Academic/major advisors in psychology departments (primarily faculty members) should welcome the text and
its supplements as a resource to assign or to recommend to students. Advisors often find that they must answer the
same set of questions over and over again. We hope that by providing a comprehensive treatment of curricular and
career issues, we provide a resource that students can use to find the answers to some of these questions.

NOTE TO STUDENT ADVOCATES

We know that students who choose psychology sometimes encounter well-intentioned concern from friends and
family members who suspect the choice isn’t a good idea. Most of the objections rest with the belief that the
degree won’t adequately prepare students for employment after graduation. Concerned allies should find this book
helpful in allaying fears and in assisting students in coming up with the best plan for their future.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are delighted to be a part of the Worth/Macmillan family and are grateful to our editor and good friend,
Christine Cardone, for suggesting we work on this book together. Her enthusiasm for the project, coupled with her
perceptive suggestions, helped us to refine our vision for the book. During the production process, we appreciated
the precision and professionalism of the production

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team, including that of Jane O’Neill and Anna Paganelli. We thank the peer reviewers who read a first draft of the
book: Suzanne C. Baker (James Madison University), Madeleine Fugère (Eastern Connecticut University),
Timothy Franz (St. John Fisher University), Rachelle Cohen (Georgia State University), and Jana McCurdy
(College of Western Idaho).
Dana is grateful to his children, Jake and Hannah, for their interest in and support of his work. He is also
grateful to—and thankful for—Jane, whose friendship has taken him many places he never expected. He thanks
the Moravian College Faculty Development and Research Committee for providing him with a summer 2014
grant that enabled him to work on the book. His colleagues in the Department of Psychology at Moravian College
continue to inspire his teaching efforts and he appreciates their dedication to good pedagogy.
Jane marvels at the fact that she is about to celebrate 40 years of married life with her chief supporter and best
friend. She is distinctly grateful for the APA Psychology Partnerships Project that brought Dana and her together,
little realizing how intertwined their professional lives would become. It has been a fulfilling collaboration that
just keeps elevating the bar. She also wants to acknowledge the support she has had from her colleagues at three
different institutions—Alverno College, James Madison University, and the University of West Florida—who
have fingerprints all over the ideas presented in this text.

A FINAL NOTE
This is by no means our first writing project together but it was certainly the most fun to do. Why? Simply
because we got to swap stories and perspectives on the wonderful students we have taught over the years. We also
had ample opportunity to rely on the wisdom of our many colleagues in psychology, including perhaps especially
those who are so active in the Society for the Teaching of Psychology (Division 2 of the APA).
We welcome comments and suggestions from instructors regarding this first edition of the Companion. We
hope you have as much fun reading the Companion as we did in writing it.

Dana S. Dunn
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania

Jane S. Halonen
Pensacola, Florida

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Chapter 1 College and Psychology

If you don’t know where you are going, you might wind up someplace else.
—Yogi Berra
T he most important and influential decision you will make in college is how you will find the best fit between
your talents and the array of possibilities that colleges and universities have to offer. We wrote this book
primarily to appeal to two types of college students: those who are already majoring in psychology and those who
are thinking about doing so. We have a sneaking suspicion that another group who will benefit from reading the
book are parents and loved ones who want to understand and support your selection of the psychology major.
□□□
Regardless of the reader group you belong to, we trust you’ll find substantial help within these pages to
reinforce your confidence in choosing psychology as a major, to make the most of the opportunities that lie ahead,
and to prepare wisely and well for the various pathways that lie beyond graduation. We intend our comprehensive
guide to the psychology major to provide friendly support (hence, to serve as your “companion”) throughout your
journey. It is our fondest hope that this text will help you not just to survive the work involved in completing an
undergraduate degree in psychology, but to thrive as the result of the wise choices you make along the way.
We’ll define just what psychology is and is not in Chapter 2; for now, we want to share some facts about the
college experience and the attitudes of those heading to or already enrolled in a college or university.

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THE NATURE OF THE COLLEGE EXPERIENCE

College. “College” is a familiar word. It’s also an exciting word, a word full of promise and possibility. And, if
nothing else, college is a powerful word—it gets people’s attention. Readers who are already in college know that
an undergraduate education opens many doors and sparks multiple conversations. If you haven’t yet made the
transition to being a college student, you may have been thinking about college for quite a while now, well before
you picked up this book.
College is now a rite of passage for many people in the United States, a great opportunity to broaden personal
horizons, to plan for the future, and to explore career options. A college education involves developing knowledge
about a variety of areas, some familiar (e.g., English, math), some less so (e.g., philosophy, zoology). Learning in
these areas provides students with new outlooks on their experiences as well as skills that are often marketable in
the workplace (writing, critical thinking, public speaking).
College is not just about what happens in the classroom but what happens outside of it, too: making new
friends, trying new things, working in groups, learning to be responsible for oneself, possibly holding down a
part-time job in addition to studying, as well as perhaps living away from home for the first time.
And what’s the difference between a college and a university? Generally, community colleges offer a 2-year
degree and 4-year colleges and universities grant bachelor’s degrees. A university is a large institution comprised
of various colleges and schools, including those dedicated to educating graduate students (students who already
hold a 4-year degree and are working toward the next level of education or training). Universities grant
undergraduate and graduate degrees in many different courses of study. Whether you go to a college or a
university, you will have a lot of company. Many students decide to continue their studies after they finish high
school.

Heading to College: Today’s Students

Who goes to college? Over 1.6 million high school graduates became first-time, full-time students in the fall of
2014, enrolling in a 4-year college or university (Eagan et al., 2014). Why do students go to college? The
following seven reasons were rated as “very important” among those fall 2014 freshmen:

to be able to get a better job,

to gain a general education and appreciation of ideas,
to make me a more cultured person,
to be able to make more money,
to learn more about things that interest me,
to get training for a specific career, and
to prepare myself for graduate or professional school.

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What about you? Do these reasons characterize your own thoughts about going to college or do you have other
reasons you might add to this list?
How did this recent group of college-bound students see themselves? They rated the following qualities as
being a “somewhat strong” or “major strength” of theirs compared with the average person their age:

openness to having their own views challenged,

the ability to see the world from someone else’s perspective,
tolerance of others with different beliefs,
the ability to discuss and negotiate controversial issues, and
the ability to work cooperatively with diverse people.

How well do your views of yourself match these beliefs?

Just over 60% of these students considered it either “essential” or “very important” eventually to become an
authority in their career field, while over 57% wanted to have their contributions recognized by peers in that field.
In assessing their objectives in going to college, over 82% of the freshmen ranked “being very well off
financially” as either “very important” or “essential,” and over 72% ranked “helping others who are in difficulty”
as very important or essential. Interestingly, under 45% viewed it as “essential” or “very important” to develop “a
meaningful philosophy of life.”
College turns out to be a very positive experience for most students. After a year of college, the majority of
students—75%—report that they are satisfied or very satisfied with their experience (HERI, 2013). And 81% of
students are satisfied or very satisfied with their overall academic experience.
Where does psychology fit into the mix? In fall 2014, a little under 5% of new freshmen indicated that they
saw psychology as their likely major (interestingly, just shy of 2% of all freshmen that year reported that
becoming a clinical psychologist was their intended occupation; Eagan et al., 2014). In fact, as a possible major,
freshmen see psychology as a more popular choice than all other social science majors, including political
science, sociology, and even economics.
What about 4 years later? How many students graduate with a bachelor of arts (BA) or bachelor of science
(BS) degree in psychology? According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2015), in the 2012–2013
academic year, for example, 114,500 students graduated from a college or university in the United States with a
degree in psychology (compare that number to the estimated 1.7 to 2 million undergraduates who enroll in
introductory psychology yearly; Gurung, 2013; Steuer & Ham, 2008). Only a small percentage of those former
psychology majors will go on to graduate school to continue their studies in the discipline. Most will enter the job
market right away. Others will end up furthering their education by pursuing a graduate degree in some other
educational area, which may or may not be related to psychology. However, the skills they acquired by pursuing a
psychology major serve them well whatever professional paths they follow.

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Common Concern: The Cost of College

We now know that college is many things. One other thing that college can be is expensive. Many students and
their families wonder whether college is worth the cost. The short answer is that a college education remains an
excellent investment—and using the word investment rather than cost is probably a good way to frame the issue.
Working toward an undergraduate degree is an investment in your future.
Nearly all students considering college, in college, or fresh out of college all worry about finding a job,
launching a career, and managing debt, especially student loans. It’s no wonder people question whether a college
degree is worth the money. An expert on college costs (Leonhardt, 2014) recently claimed that “For all the
struggles that many young college graduates face, a four-year degree has probably never been more valuable” (p.
A3). How so?
The evidence is actually quite clear: In 2013, Americans who are graduates of 4-year colleges and universities
earned on average 98% more per hour compared to those without a degree. Other findings make the case this way:
Skipping college and instead heading right into the workforce will cost you about half a million dollars across
your working life—unrealized earnings that having a college degree would have provided. That’s something to
consider when weighing the costs of attending or not attending college.
What about the issue of incurring debt by taking out student loans? College graduates carry an average debt of
about $25,000 (Leonhardt, 2014). That’s not a small amount of money unless you compare it to that half-million
dollars having a degree provides. In that light, borrowing money to attend college seems worth it, as the risk
seems to be a modest one. However you slice it, a college education is still worth the cost.

Making the Most of College

This book is about helping you make the most of psychology as a major, but we also want to point out that
attending college provides students like you with many opportunities. Studying and going to class are important
parts of being a student, but so is attending to what colleges and universities refer to as “cocurricular activities,”
the things that occur outside of formal classes. In fact, it’s a very good idea to establish some balance in your life
during your college years. You should make time to study, eat as healthily as you can, and get regular exercise, of
course, but also make sure to have some downtime. In other words, you might play on an athletic team, join a club
or one of the numerous organizations found on your campus, pledge a fraternity or a sorority, or do volunteer
work in the community. Indeed, a recent survey of first-year students revealed that more than 79% found a
balance between their academic subjects and extracurricular activities (HERI, 2015). The point is to have some
constructive outlet where you can renew your energy and outlook so that you always approach your studies

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with a positive attitude. After all, a balanced life will help you to retain what you learn in class, whether you
choose psychology or another major.

BECOMING PSYCHOLOGICALLY LITERATE

There is very good news for psychology majors and would-be psychology majors: An undergraduate education in
psychology provides students with a variety of skills, values, and outlooks that enable them to pursue and succeed
in a variety of endeavors—in other words, it makes you literate. To be literate is to be (or become) an educated
person who knows a great deal about some subject area, like psychology. Being psychologically literate turns out
to be both personally and professionally valuable (Cranney & Dunn, 2011a). TABLE 1.1 lists some traits
exhibited by psychologically literate students—those who have used their time as psychology majors wisely and
well.
Psychology majors acquire some distinctive skills (Hayes, 1997). Besides learning research skills, psychology
majors learn how to find key information and to evaluate whether it’s useful. They also become adept at “reading”
people and being able to interact with them in appropriate and sensitive ways. Writing skills—being able to
summarize ideas quickly and clearly—are also trademarks of an education in psychology. Compared to students
who major in the natural sciences (e.g., biology, physics) or the humanities (e.g., history, art), psychology students
show better reasoning about those everyday events that benefit from an understanding of research methods and
quantitative skills (Lehman & Nisbett, 1990). They tend to avoid being perfectionists; they are better able than
their peers to get whatever task they face done, practically and quickly (for an example, see A Major Success
Story).

TABLE 1.1

Characteristics of Psychologically Literate Students

Solve problems in creative, amiable, and skeptical ways

Possess a well-defined vocabulary of psychological terms and concepts
Appreciate and respect diversity and diverse groups and individuals
Reflective about their own thinking processes and those of others
Good at evaluating information and using technology
Able to apply psychology principles to understanding and improving personal relationships, work
issues, and things happening in the community
Act ethically, not out of self-interest
Communicate well and in different ways (writing, speaking, public presentations) to different types
of people and audiences

Information from: Cranney & Dunn (2011b, p. 4). Oxford University Press.

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A Major Success Story The Workplace Advantage of

Psychological Literacy
Dave was a full-time student who ended up majoring in psychology. During his college years, he held a part-
time job at a large, upscale grocery store. He reported that majoring in psychology enabled him to develop both
people and professional skills. He learned to think quickly to solve problems in the workplace, including those
involving the challenges of customer service. He relied on the analytical and organizational skills he learned in
class to be more efficient when restocking shelves and when making certain the produce displays were
replenished. Dave maintained friendly but professional relationships with coworkers and became the “go-to
person” when employees wanted advice or help—his talents as a leader were apparent. His bosses were
impressed with his work ethic as well as his ability to write brief and to-the-point emails and reports.
He remained with the grocery store after graduation and worked his way into a full-time position with
management responsibilities. His employers were especially pleased with his ability to listen to and solve
customer problems. Dave also formally arranged a mentoring relationship with a senior executive to learn more
about the organizational culture. On the strengths of his interpersonal skills with customers and coworkers and
his inventive approach to solving problems, he became the head of a department in one of the grocery chain’s
newest stores with every possibility of rising to the top ranks of the company. Clearly, studying psychology
made him a well-rounded person and allowed him to use the skills he developed in effective ways.

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OUR GOALS: WHY WE WROTE THIS BOOK FOR YOU

As psychology professors, each of us has taught thousands of students, both psychology majors and nonmajors,
about the discipline we love. One of the things we’ve noticed across our careers in higher education is that some
students struggle to see how knowledge gained in the classroom can be applied to everyday work and life. In fact,
an analysis published in the Wall Street Journal (Light, 2010) suggested that psychology majors tended to be the
least satisfied with the major 6 months after graduation when compared to all other majors. Although we think
there were problems in the design of the survey that produced the data driving this unhappy conclusion, we also
recognize that students who don’t learn to transfer their academic skills to life after graduation or who aren’t
proactive about forging a satisfying direction after graduation have lots of reasons to be unhappy. We want
students to use mindful and intentional strategies as they pursue the psychology major. If they do so, they will be
more satisfied with their choice of major both during and after graduation.
We believe that the psychology major provides students with an array of skills and habits of mind that will
serve them well no matter what they do in their careers and in their personal lives. That’s really the message of
psychological literacy and the point of becoming psychologically literate.
We wrote this book so that students like you can use their college days well, as a launching pad for whatever
comes next—career, internship, graduate school, or something altogether different. We discuss key topics,
including:

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Why do students major in psychology? (Chapter 2)

Should you major in psychology? Is it right for you? (Chapter 3)
Developing psychology-related skills to enhance your career options and opportunities (Chapter 4)
How to hit your stride as a student (Chapter 5)
Charting your course in the major (Chapter 6)
Tackling psychological research from start to finish (Chapter 7)
Using psychology to improve leadership (Chapter 8)
What career options are out there for students with a BA or BS in psychology? (Chapter 9)
What about graduate school in psychology—what does it take and where might it take you? (Chapter 11)
How do you apply and get in to quality graduate programs? (Chapter 10)
Keeping connected to psychology after college (Chapter 12)
Learning to write and format an APA-style paper (Appendix A)

Are you already a college student or are you thinking about going to college? Is college the right solution for
you? Answer the questions in Reality Check: Is College the Right Path for You? to assess whether college is a
good fit for your future.
As you read each chapter, don’t forget this important fact: Among all the things that college is, it is a privilege.
Census data show that as recently as 2013, only about 32% of adults in the United States had a 4-year college
degree.

Reality Check Is College the Right Path for You?

Consider the following self-assessment questions:

□ Do I have a clear understanding of my motives for seeking a degree?

□ Does my academic record predict a successful transition to college?
□ Can I set aside the time it will take to secure a diploma?
□ Do I know which kind of higher education context has the greatest appeal to me?
□ Have I taken steps to determine whether I would qualify for financial assistance?
□ Have I considered what kind of living arrangements I’ll be able to afford?
□ Do I have a reasonable idea about the kind of major I want to pursue?
□ Have I developed reasonable time-management strategies to keep up with multiple courses?
□ Am I excited about the prospect of learning with a wide variety of people?
□ Will I be able to function independently from my family?
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□ Will I be able to balance family and friends with school demands?

□ Will I be able to cope with the debt load that will result from my degree?
□ Am I prepared to seek academic advising to clarify my direction?
Review your answers. Obviously the more items to which you can respond “yes,” the better prepared you will
be for making the commitment to a college education.

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Despite the popular hype that “college is now a necessity,” most of our fellow citizens have not had the good
fortune to complete a college degree. Having the opportunity to go to college is still a singular event and one that
can be life changing. Coupled with choosing the right major, your college education should prove to be satisfying
and fulfilling. We hope you feel this way, just as we hope that the insights we share with you about psychology
will help you to make the most of your education.

THOUGHT QUESTIONS
1. What do you hope to get from a college education? Why?

2. At this point in time, what interests you about psychology? Why?

3. Do you know anyone who is already majoring in psychology? What do they like about their studies?

4. What kinds of out-of-class activities do you think you might like to pursue during college?

5. If you decided not to attend college, what would you do instead? Why?

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Chapter 2 The Nature of Psychology and the Psychology

Major

J ane remembers what a struggle it was to try to help her grandmother understand what she planned to do in
college. She described her excitement about what she was learning about human behavior in her psychology
classes. She anticipated how interesting it would be to do research on unsolved questions about human behavior.
She shared a hope that she would be able someday to use what she learned to help people with their problems as a
clinical psychologist. Grandma nodded appreciatively. Later, Jane overheard her bragging to a neighbor that her
granddaughter was studying to be “a brain surgeon.”
□□□
It isn’t surprising that the discipline of psychology can be a hard one to grasp. When that conversation
transpired in the late 1960s, we didn’t have much in the way of visible representatives who could help the
unschooled come to terms with what it meant to study “psychology.” Although we now have abundant examples
of psychology in the media, many exemplars are narrow or misleading stereotypes that don’t do much to reveal
the true nature of the discipline. Despite the fact that psychology has produced some Nobel Prize winners, images
of “Dr. Phil” McGraw tend to come to the minds of the public as the quintessential psychologist.
Most depictions in the entertainment media involve the noble (and sometimes flawed) clinical psychologist
striving to make a difference in people’s lives, often in forensic or legal settings. Such treatments tend to be great
recruiting devices to students into the major but also unfortunately set prospective students up to think that the
sum total of the major is about the diagnosis and treatment of

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mental health problems. These students typically become disappointed when they learn that clinical matters
actually represent a very small percentage of the undergraduate curriculum.
To set the stage for later personal explorations of fit with the psychology major (Chapter 3), in this chapter we
will discuss two key topics: What exactly does the discipline of psychology entail, and what can you expect from
a major in psychology?

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
In this section, we take a look at how psychology has evolved from its origins to its complex contemporary
character, which involves both research and practice. We explore the difficulty the discipline has had in trying to
establish a clear-cut identity for itself. We conclude this section by equipping you to dispel the myths that persist
about the nature of psychology, myths that you may confront as you navigate your way through the major.

How Do We Define Psychology?

Compared to most other sciences, psychology is the new kid on the block. Most historians trace the formal
beginnings of the science of psychology to 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt founded an experimental laboratory in
Leipzig, Germany. This development marked a departure from the related but nonscientific discipline of
philosophy. Psychology is less than 140 or so years old (by comparison, physics in some form has been around
since ancient Greece, if not before). Although the discipline of psychology is fairly young, it has already
undergone an evolution in character and definition.
During the earliest days of exploring psychology as a scientific endeavor, psychologists were interested in
mapping the most basic functions of the human body. This version or “orientation” of psychology is referred to as
structuralism. The label makes sense because the questions were empirical (that is, based on direct observation
and experimentation) attempts to map human capacity. For example, the structuralists were curious about how
much weight would need to be added to a standard stimulus before we could perceive it as heavier. They spent
significant amounts of time testing and reporting individual perceptual experience about weights, sounds, tastes,
and other dimensions of the senses through a scientific self-report process called introspection. Structuralists
would be dazzled if they could see what has happened to the discipline they helped to establish.
Many other psychology orientations have emerged over time, including functionalism, behaviorism, and
humanistic psychology, as well as psychoanalytic

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and cognitive approaches. It’s beyond our purpose to do a systematic discussion of all of the trends and
orientations in psychology. (If you are a major, you will probably have the opportunity/obligation to study that
evolution in a history of psychology course.) To be fair, psychologists have not yet arrived at a shared paradigm or
approach for studying behavior, which contributes to the confusion that exists about what psychology truly
represents.
Most contemporary psychologists would agree with the definition of psychology as the scientific study of
mind and behavior in human and nonhuman animals. Thus, psychology majors scientifically study the way
living organisms behave, learn, think, and feel. An undergraduate degree doesn’t qualify psychology majors to
claim the title of psychologist, but psychology majors do learn to think as psychologists do by completing the
major.
Let’s take the definition apart because it will help to explain why the major is so easily misunderstood and
might not appeal to everyone. First—and psychologists tend to be quite passionate about this point—psychology
is a SCIENCE. We use scientific methods to draw conclusions about mind and behavior. Stanovich (2007)
summarized that a science is not defined by any specific content area or technologies but by the general
characteristics of the process used for validating conclusions. He suggested that the sciences concentrate on (a)
reliance on systematic empiricism (direct observation); (b) commitment to making findings public to expand and
build our understanding; and (c) application of key ideas in solving problems.
Psychologists like to describe behavior with a high degree of precision, carefully distinguishing descriptions of
behavior from inferences drawn about behavior. We demonstrate the value of carefully defined behavior by
relying on “operational” definitions, meaning we define behaviors through the use of observable operations. For
example, if we are going to research playground aggression, we must carefully delineate what “counts” as an
aggressive act. Must a punch be thrown or can mean words count as an aggressive act? Abiding by the rules of
science, the psychologist is obligated to define key ideas in such a way that others could reproduce the same
research protocols. Defined properly, we measure behavior and subject our measurements to statistical analyses to
establish whether our experiments or research designs produce the outcomes we expect. Psychologists use a
variety of strategies, from self-report measures to behavioral observations to fMRI scans—that is, all of the
approaches psychologists use adhere to the scientific method.
“Mind and behavior” is an expansive way to talk about the content of what psychologists study. Over time,
some subgroups in psychology have concentrated on one arena or another. For examples, behaviorists, who
declared their founding principles in a historic manifesto (Watson, 1913), believed that the only valid focus of
study was observable behavior. If you couldn’t directly observe a phenomenon, then it had no place in their labs.
In contrast, cognitive psychology broadened the focus to justify studying covert activity, such as dreaming and
thinking. This field uses 1956—the year George Miller published a seminal article about the capacity of human
information processing—as its official origin.

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Psychologists don’t restrict themselves to the study of humans. Contemporary psychology labs can feature
primates, planaria, or pelicans, among others. Virtually any life form that engages in behavior can be the focus of
a psychological investigation. Although enthusiasm has waned a bit for requiring students to work with animals as
a part of their major, psychologists remain committed to conducting research on animals as long as they abide by
strict rules to protect and care for those animals (Plous, 1996). Similarly, research with humans is also governed
by a standard set of regulations.

Psychology’s Struggle for Identity

Although the definition of psychology is fairly straightforward, the discipline has been plagued with identity
problems from the outset. William James, arguably the founder of American psychology, described psychology as
a “nasty little subject” (Hunt, 1961). Frustrated by the constraints of structuralism, James (1892/1961, p. 335)
concluded, “This is no science, it is only the hope of a science.” James was optimistic that psychology could
evolve into a respectable natural science and opened the first experimental lab in America at Harvard. He later
founded the orientation of functionalism, shifting attention to the motives behind and the purpose of behavior and
away from structuralism’s focus on sensory capacity.
Although many other orientations would follow over time, no one orientation has proven to be a unifying force
to help strengthen psychology’s identity. Contemporary critics (cf. Henriques, 2014) suggest that the proliferation
of viewpoints and knowledge in the discipline reduces the coherence of psychology and may foster a deep sense
of fragmentation within the discipline.
Just as a starting point, psychology operates in two distinct but related scientific spheres, as it has elements of
both natural science and social science. As a natural science, psychology attempts to explain and predict natural
phenomena that parallel the focus of chemistry and biology. For example, studies on the effectiveness of a new
antidepressant medication clearly illustrate the natural science focus of psychology. As a social science,
psychology strives to explain and predict social phenomena, using empirical methods that are similar to those
used in economics, anthropology, and political science, among others. For example, a relevant social science
study might explore why sports victories can sometimes result in mob violence. Any introductory course in
psychology will ground students in both the natural and social dimensions of the discipline.
Another dichotomy complicates psychology’s contemporary identity. Broadly speaking, professional
psychology has been characterized as having two cultures (Kimble, 1984). The first culture represents the
academic psychologists who create new knowledge through scientific research. The second culture includes those
who apply psychological principles to solve problems. Popular culture tends to concentrate on the second culture
—psychologists as helpers. Indeed, the vast majority of psychology majors initially start out in psychology in
response to the impulse to “help people.” However, the range of possibilities for the psychology major is not
restricted to clinical concerns.

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Technically, research has the potential to help people, too. And the remarkable thing about psychology is the wild
diversity of options one can study. However, simply contrasting the psychology communities as “research” or
“practice” doesn’t capture the richness of the topics that can be studied in psychology.
The American Psychological Association (APA) maintains special interest groups that provide a great array
of the special interests psychology fostered within psychology. Table 2.1 reflects the full range of subdisciplines
that constitute contemporary psychology. As you can see in Table 2.1, only some divisions (numbers 12, 17, 29,
39, 42, and 49) deal explicitly with the clinically or counseling-oriented issues most laypeople think of when they
think of “psychology.”

TABLE 2.1

Current Divisions in the American Psychological Association

Division 1: Society for General Psychology

Division 2: Society for the Teaching of Psychology

Division 3: Society for Experimental Psychology and Cognitive Science

[There is currently no Division 4]

Division 5: Quantitative and Qualitative Methods

Division 6: Society for Behavioral Neuroscience and Comparative Psychology

Division 7: Developmental Psychology

Division 8: Society for Personality and Social Psychology

Division 9: Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI)

Division 10: Society for the Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity and the Arts

[There is currently no Division 11]

Division 12: Society of Clinical Psychology

Division 13: Society of Consulting Psychology

Division 14: Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology

Division 15: Educational Psychology

Division 16: School Psychology

Division 17: Society of Counseling Psychology

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Division 18: Psychologists in Public Service

Division 19: Society for Military Psychology

Division 20: Adult Development and Aging

Division 21: Applied Experimental and Engineering Psychology

Division 22: Rehabilitation Psychology

Division 23: Society for Consumer Psychology

Division 24: Society for Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology

Division 25: Behavior Analysis

Division 26: Society for the History of Psychology

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 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
 vulnerātus … fuerat: cf. questa fuisset, Bk. I, 8.
22. īnfīnītum: ‘a very great (amount).’
aurī: cf. argentī, Ch. 19.
24. VI Īdūs Mārtiās: the full expression would be ante diem
sextum Īdūs Mārtiās; cf. XI Kal. Māiās, Bk. I, 1.
25. tribūta … pāx: peace was granted finally on these terms:
Carthage was to evacuate Sicily, to give up the Roman prisoners
without ransom, and to pay a war indemnity of 3,200 talents,—
$4,000,000,—one third down and the remainder in ten annual
payments.

Page 27.

1. licēret: ‘it might be permitted’; the subject is redimī captīvōs.

4. redīrent: iubeō generally takes the Accusative and Infinitive, but
in poetry and in late prose it sometimes takes ut with the
Subjunctive.
5. ex fiscō: ‘from the treasury’; a late meaning.

Ch. 28.

6. Q. Lutātius: Cercō.
A. Mānlius: Torquātus.
8. quam vēnerant: ‘after they had come.’

Book III
Ch. 1.

12. Ptolemaeum: this was the famous Ptolemy Philadelphus. He

was engaged in war with Antiochus II, king of Syria, for a long
 time, but finally concluded peace with him and gave him his
daughter in marriage. He was noted for his patronage of
literature and science.
14. Antiochus: this was the name of several kings of Syria. The one
referred to here was Antiochus II, called Theos.
grātiās … ēgit: ‘gave thanks.’
16. Hierō: more properly the king of Syracuse (see Bk. II, 18, 19).
During his reign the celebrated mathematician Archimedes lived.
He became the firm ally of the Romans, and when the Second
Punic War broke out he remained true to his alliance. After the
battle of Lake Trasimenus he sent a fleet with provisions and
other gifts to the Romans and also furnished them with a body of
light troops.
18. exhibuit: lit. ‘held out’ ＝ ‘presented.’

Ch. 2.

19. quibus: sc. annīs; cf. tempore, Ch. 1.

20. Ligurēs: they inhabited the upper part of the Po valley. They
were of small stature, but strong, active, and brave. In early
times they served as mercenaries in the armies of Carthage.
They were not subdued finally by the Romans until after a long
and fierce struggle. Genua was their chief city.
21. dē hīs: cf. dē hīs, Bk. I, 11.

Page 28.

1. Sardiniēnsēs: when a revolt occurred in Sardinia, Rome took

advantage of the exhausted condition of Carthage, and
demanded the surrender of the island and an additional
indemnity of 1200 talents ($1,500,000). Corsica was obtained in
a similar manner. This was the beginning of the Roman provincial
system. Each province was governed by a praetor and paid taxes
 to the Roman people. Rome and Carthage, p. 102; Creighton, p.
39.
3. impellentēs: nominative agreeing with Karthāginiēnsēs and
governing Sardiniēnsēs.

Ch. 3.

7. nūllum bellum habuērunt: at Rome there was the so-called

Temple of Janus, the gates of which were open in time of war
and closed in time of peace. The gates were closed only three
times from the building of the temple by Numa to Augustus, viz.
by T. Manlius, 235 b.c., and by Augustus in 29 and 25 b.c.
8. semel tantum: ‘only once.’
Numā Pompiliō rēgnante: cf. conditā cīvitāte, Bk. I, 2.

Ch. 4.

10. Īllyriōs: the Illyrians lived on the eastern side of the Adriatic
Sea. They were a nation of pirates, and made the whole Adriatic
and Ionian seas unsafe for commerce. Even the towns on the
coast were not safe from their ravages. The Romans sent a force
against them and compelled them to give up their conquests and
to make peace.
11. ex Īllyriīs: dē Īllyriīs would be more common.

Ch. 5.

13. Gallōrum: the Romans, recalling the terrible battle of Allia, Bk.
I, 20, were panic-stricken at first. A large army was raised and
stationed at Ariminum, where the first attack was expected. But
the Gauls passed around the Roman army, and, falling in with a
small reserve force, utterly defeated it. Instead of hastening to
Rome, they resolved to put their plunder in a place of safety. The
 Roman army following them met them finally near Telamon,
where the decisive battle was fought, and the Gauls were
annihilated.
14. cōnsēnsit: ‘united.’
15. Fabiō: Q. Fabius Pictor, the earliest of the annalists. He wrote in
Greek an account of the early history of Rome. He is frequently
quoted by Livy.
17. tantum: ‘alone.’

Ch. 6.

20. M. Claudiō Mārcellō: he was five times consul. This was his
first consulship. He was one of the chief generals of the Romans
in the Second Punic War. He captured Syracuse after a siege of
two years (Chs. 12, 14). He fell in battle 208 b.c., and was buried
by the enemy with military honors (Ch. 16).
24. Mediōlānum: the modern Milan.
expūgnāvit: note the difference between expūgnō and
oppūgnō.
26. spolia: called opīma, were the arms taken from a hostile
general by a Roman general commanding under his own
auspices. They were hung in the Temple of Jupiter Feretrius on
the Capitol. This temple is said to have been built by Romulus,
who inaugurated the custom. They were won on only two
subsequent occasions, when A. Cornelius Cossus killed Lars
Tolumnius, king of the Veii (Bk. I, 19), and the time mentioned in
this chapter.

Page 29.

Ch. 7.
4. bellum Pūnicum secundum: immediately after the end of the
First Punic War the Carthaginians began to prepare for a renewal
of the struggle against Rome. Hamilcar, the father of Hannibal,
crossed over into Spain and conquered a large part of it.
Probably it was his intention to make this province the basis of
operations against Italy. But death prevented the realization of
his plans. Hasdrubal, his son-in-law, took command of the empire
Hamilcar had founded in Spain, and organized and enlarged it.
He founded the city of New Carthage, which from its situation
seemed destined to become a second Carthage in commercial
importance. In 221 b.c. he was assassinated. At his death the
command was turned over to Hannibal, the idol of the army and
the sworn enemy of the Romans. Active preparations were made.
Forces were assembled, supplies were prepared, and when all
was ready Hannibal gave the signal for war by besieging
Saguntum.
per Hannibalem: cf. per fīliōs, Bk. I, 6.
5. Saguntum: a town on the southern coast of Spain, said to have
been founded by the Greeks as a trading post. It was in alliance
with the Romans, although by the terms of the last treaty with
the Carthaginians independence was secured to the Saguntines
by both parties. The capture of this town was the first hostile act
of the war. Rome and Carthage, p. 112; Creighton, p. 40.
7. annum … aetātis: lit. ‘passing the twentieth year of his life’ ＝
‘being twenty years of age’; cf. decem et octō annōs nātus, Bk. I,
1.
10. mīsērunt: sc. lēgātōs.
ut mandārētur: lit. ‘that it might be commanded’ ＝ ‘that
instructions might be given.’
11. dūra respōnsa: the story is told that when Q. Fabius, the chief
of the embassy, held up his toga, saying, ‘I carry here peace and
war: choose ye which ye will have.’ ‘Give us which ever you
please,’ replied the Carthaginians. ‘War, then,’ said Fabius; and
 the decision was greeted by the short-sighted acclamations of
the masses.
13. adficiuntur: historical Present.

Ch. 8.

15. in Hispāniam: cf. Rōmam, Ch. 2.

16. Ti. Semprōnius: sc. Longus.
17. Alpēs: there is a disagreement as to the pass by which Hannibal
entered Italy. Probably he crossed by the Little St. Bernard pass,
and came into Italy near the present town of Aosta. Creighton, p.
41; Rome and Carthage, p. 118.
19. LXXX mīlia peditum: the number of the forces of Hannibal
given here is taken from L. Cincius Alimentus, a Roman annalist.
He was captured by Hannibal, and so had excellent opportunities
for gaining information.
21. Semprōnius Gracchus: a mistake of Eutropius. It was Ti.
Sempronius Longus. In the next chapter it should be Semprōnius
Longus instead of Semprōnius Gracchus.

Ch. 9.

23. P. Cornēlius Scīpiō: at the beginning of the war he set out for
Spain, Ch. 8, but finding that Hannibal had already left and was
on his way to Italy, he went to Gaul to encounter the
Carthaginian before he should cross the Alps. Hannibal was too
quick for him. Scipio returned to Italy and awaited the arrival of
the Carthaginians in Cisalpine Gaul. Near the river Ticinus, one of
the northern tributaries of the Po, the first engagement of the
war took place. The Romans were defeated; Scipio received a
severe wound, and was only saved from death by the courage of
his son Publius, the future conqueror of Hannibal. P. Scipio and
 his brother Gnaeus were killed in Spain, Ch. 14. Rome and
Carthage, p. 127; Creighton, p. 43.

Page 30.

1. apud Trebiam amnem: the Trebia is a small stream flowing into

the Po from the south. For an account of the battle see Rome
and Carthage, p. 130; Creighton, p. 43.
2. multī … dēdidērunt: it was Hannibal’s policy to encourage the
communities subject to Rome to revolt and to attach themselves
to his standard. Everywhere he proclaimed himself to be the
‘Liberator of Italy.’
3. Flāminiō … occurrit: this battle took place in the following year,
217 b.c. Hannibal wintered in the plains of Lombardy, and at the
approach of spring attempted to cross the Apennines. He was
driven back by a violent storm, and was forced to return to his
winter quarters. Later in the year he passed the mountains and
marched into Etruria, where he was met by the Romans under
Flaminius, who had been elected consul for that year, in the
battle of Lake Trasimenus, in which the Romans were utterly
defeated, and almost the whole force was annihilated. Rome and
Carthage, p. 138; Creighton, p. 43.
6. Q. Fabius Māximus: was the great-grandson of the Q. Fabius
Maximus mentioned in Bk. II, 8, and grandson of the Q. Fabius
mentioned in Bk. II, 9. He was one of the greatest generals of
Rome. He was chosen dictator in 217 b.c., after the battle of Lake
Trasimenus. The policy he adopted is well known. By following
Hannibal from place to place, by watching for any error or
neglect on his part and immediately taking advantage of it, and
by avoiding a general engagement, he earned for himself the
name of Cunctator, ‘delayer,’ but he saved the state. In 215 b.c.
he was elected consul again, and again employed the same
tactics. In 210 b.c., when he was consul for the fifth time, he
recaptured Tarentum by stratagem (Ch. 16). He opposed the
 sending of Scipio to Africa, saying that Italy ought to be rid of
Hannibal first.
eum … frēgit ＝ ab impetū eum prohibuit; ‘prevented him from
attacking in force.’
differendō pūgnam: ‘by postponing battle’: i.e. by avoiding a
decisive engagement.

Ch. 10.

8. quadrāgēsimō: Eutropius is mistaken in the date; it was 216 b.c.

9. L. Aemilius Paulus: father of the L. Aemilius Paulus mentioned
in Bk. IV, 6, 7. He had distinguished himself in his former
consulship in the war against the Illyrians. Against his advice the
battle of Cannae was fought, and, refusing to fly from the field
when the battle was lost, he was slain. He was an aristocrat, and
was raised to the consulship by that party to counterbalance the
influence of the plebeian P. Terentius Varro.
13. impatientiā Varrōnis: the aristocracy laid all the blame of the
defeat on Varro.
14. Cannae: a town of Apulia to the south of the Aufidus, about
halfway between Canusium and the sea. This was one of the
most important battles of the war. Although the Romans greatly
outnumbered the Carthaginians, by the skillful maneuvers of
Hannibal, they were surrounded on all sides and were cut down
without mercy. “For eight hours the work of destruction went on,
and at the end 50,000 men lay dead upon the ground. Aemilius
Paulus, the Illyrian hero, who, though wounded by a sling early
in the day, had clung to his horse, heartening on his men, till he
dropped exhausted from his saddle, the proconsul Servilius, the
late high-spirited master of the horse, Minucius, both quaestors,
twenty-one military tribunes, sixty senators, and an unknown
number of knights were among the slain. Nearly 20,000 Roman
prisoners were taken. Of the rest, Varro, with a few horsemen
 only, escaped to Venusia. Amid all this slaughter the conqueror
had lost only 5500 of his infantry and but 200 of that matchless
cavalry to whom the victory was mainly due.” Rome and
Carthage, p. 160; Creighton, p. 44.
16. pars dē exercitū ＝ pars exercitūs; a very rare usage.
18. acceptī sunt: ‘were handled’; an ironical use of the word.
20. nōbilēs virī: men whose ancestors had held high office.
22. mentiōnem habēre: usually mentiōnem facere.
quod numquam ante: sc. factum erat.
23. manūmissī: sc. sunt; they were liberated because none but
freemen could serve in the Roman legions.

Ch. 11.

24. multae Ītaliae cīvitātēs: “chiefly Samnites and other south

Italian states. The Greek cities held to Rome, and ‘not one
Roman citizen, nor one Latin community, had joined Hannibal.’”

Page 31.

2. variīs suppliciīs: probably the Romans exaggerated the cruelty

and treachery of Hannibal.
3. ānulōrum: these rings were the distinctive badges of the knights
and senators.
7. duōbus Scīpiōnibus: P. Cornelius and Gnaeus, the father and
uncle of P. Scipio Africanus. For the campaign in Spain see Rome
and Carthage, p. 183.

Ch. 12.

12. annō quartō postquam: H. 486 (429); M. 243, 1; A. & G. 256;

G. 393; B. 223; cf. aliquot annīs post, Ch. 6.
13. Mārcellus: see note on M. Claudiō Mārcellō, Ch. 6.
cīvitātem ＝ urbem; cf. conditā cīvitāte, Bk. I, 2.
16. rēx Macedoniae Philippus: although Philip promised aid, he
never gave it. Owing to his frequent struggles with the states of
Greece, and the invasion of Macedonia by the Romans, he was
compelled to devote his undivided attention to preserving his
realm.
21. prōcōnsulem: ‘ex-consul’; at the expiration of his term of office
the consul was given a province to govern, under the title of
proconsul.
22. ea: the antecedent is Sardinia.

Ch. 13.

25. Hispāniīs: the two divisions of Spain, Hither and Further.

28. missus fuerat: cf. questa fuisset, Bk. I, 8.

Page 32.

3. et Hasdrubalem: ‘including Hasdrubal.’

Ch. 14.

8. ad … urbis: cf. ad quintum mīliārum urbis, Bk. I, 15. This was

merely a feint on the part of Hannibal to draw the Romans away
from Capua, which they were besieging, to the defense of Rome.
Rome and Carthage, p. 187.
12. per multōs annōs: cf. per annum, Bk. I, 10.
16. nōbilissima urbs Syrācūsāna: “So fell Syracuse, the virgin
city, which had seen two Athenian armaments perish beneath its
walls which had for centuries saved Sicily from becoming
altogether, what its greater part then was, a Carthaginian
 appanage. … It fell to rise no more, at least to its former
opulence. Its temples were left standing, because they would not
pay for moving; … but the choicest works of art were swept off
to adorn the imperial city.” Rome and Carthage, p. 181.
22. in dēditiōnem accēpit: cf. in dēditiōnem accēpērunt, Bk. II,
21.
24. cōnsulem: he was praetor, not consul. He was surprised by
Hannibal and slain before Herdonia.

Page 33.

Ch. 15.

2. P. Cornēlius Scīpiō: he is one of the most interesting characters

in Roman history. Brilliant and versatile, he seemed to be the
favorite of fortune. When the senate had resolved to make one
more attempt to conquer Spain and were looking for a leader, he
offered himself and was sent with 11,000 men. On his arrival he
found the forces of the Carthaginians scattered in different parts
of the province, and New Carthage defended by a weak garrison.
By a brilliant stratagem he captured this with its riches and
munitions of war, 207 b.c. Next he attacked Hasdrubal at Baecula
in Andalusia. Although the Romans claimed the victory, Hasdrubal
escaped from his hands and started for Italy to bear aid to his
brother Hannibal. Spain was left to the undisputed possession of
the Romans.
3. annōs nātus … vīgintī: cf. decem … nātus, Bk. I, 1. He was too
young to be elected to the consulship.
5. ferē prīmus: ‘almost the first.’
Karthāginem Hispāniae: called ‘New Carthage.’ See note on
bellum Pūnicum secundum, Ch. 7. A town still exists on the same
spot bearing the name Cartagena.
11. ūnō animō: ‘with one accord.’
 Ch. 16.

14. Q. Fabius Māximus: see note on Q. Fabiō Māximō, Ch. 9.

17. pecūniam hominum vēnditōrum: ‘the money derived from
the sale of the prisoners.’
18. ad fiscum: cf. ex fiscō, Bk. II, 27.
21. ēgregiās rēs: ‘extraordinary exploits.’
per sē: cf. per fīliōs, Bk. I, 6.
22. L. Scīpiōnem: became famous for his victories in the East, Bk.
IV, 4.
23. Claudius Mārcellus: see note on M. Claudiō Mārcellō, Ch. 6.

Ch. 17.

26. rēs inclitās: cf. ēgregiās rēs, Ch. 16.

Page 34.

1. in amīcitiam accēpit: cf. in dēditiōnem accēpērunt, Bk. II, 21. It

meant practical subjection in either case.
ā victō: sc. hoste.
2. obsidēs nōn poposcit: by pursuing the opposite course to that
of the Carthaginians he hoped to win over the Spaniards.

Ch. 18.

3. dēspērāns: ‘giving up the hope.’

6. ā cōnsulibus: construe with īnsidiās compositās.
7. apud Sēnam: one of the critical battles of the world’s history. It
is generally known as the battle of the Metaurus, from the name
of the river near which it was fought. The messenger sent by
 Hasdrubal to inform his brother Hannibal of his coming fell into
the hands of the Romans. Nero, leaving a part of his forces to
watch Hannibal, with a picked band hastened north, joined the
force under Salinator, defeated Hasdrubal, who perished in the
battle, and returned to his army in Apulia before Hannibal
discovered his absence. It is said that he ordered the severed
head of Hasdrubal to be flung into the camp of Hannibal. He
“recognized the features of the brother whom he had so long and
eagerly expected, and in them sadly saw the doom of Carthage.”
Rome and Carthage, p. 196; Creighton, p. 45.
12. ingēns animus accessit: lit. ‘great courage came to in
addition’ ＝ ‘great courage was inspired in.’
et ipsī ＝ etiam: cf. et ipse, Bk. I, 8.

Ch. 20.

19. in Āfricam missus: the senate, led by Fabius, opposed the

sending of Scipio, but the people forced that body to accede to
their demands. Owing to the opposition Scipio was not as well
equipped for the expedition as he should have been.
dīvīnum quiddam: ‘something divine.’ The ancients believed
that great men were inspired by the gods. Scipio pretended to
hold communication with Jupiter Capitolinus. Probably he merely
took advantage of a popular superstition.
24. Syphācem: Syphax had driven Masinissa, a Libyan king, from
his throne. Masinissa joined Scipio on his arrival in Africa and
gave him valuable aid. When the war was ended Masinissa was
restored to his throne as his reward.

Page 35.

Ch. 21.
5. lēgātī … petīvērunt: their purpose was to enable Hannibal to
reach Africa and prepare for war against Scipio.
7. quoūsque ＝ dōnec: a late usage.
8. mīlia: sc. lībrārum.
pondō: ‘by weight.’
11. nē … redderent: Indirect Discourse depending on an idea of
commanding implied in hīs … dedit.

Ch. 22.

19. quibus prius: sc. data esset; cf. hīs condiciōnibus dedit, Ch. 21.
20. quīngentīs mīlibus: Dative, object of additīs.
24. Karthāginī bellum: the details of these operations are
imperfectly known. Rome and Carthage, p. 222.

Page 36.

Ch. 23.

2. ūllā memoriā: ‘within the memory of any one.’

3. Scīpiō victor: this was at the famous battle of Zama, one of the
decisive battles of the world. Although Hannibal managed his
forces with his usual skill, and his veterans fought like the men
who had so often conquered in Italy, the Carthaginians were
utterly defeated. This ended the Second Punic War. Rome and
Carthage, p. 224; Creighton, p. 46.
6. mīlia: sc. lībrārum.
7. supellectilis: Nominative, the usual form is supellex.
9. Āfricānus: later Māior was added to his name to distinguish him
from the Scipio Africanus who destroyed Carthage, 146 b.c.
11. quam coeperat: cf. quam vēnerant, Bk. II, 28.

Book IV
Ch. 1.

12. Macedonicum: sc. bellum.

Ch. 2.

13. Philippum: Philip V, king of Macedonia, began to reign 220 b.c.,

was defeated by Flamininus at Cynoscephalae 197 b.c., and died
179 b.c. The Story of the Romans, p. 137; Creighton, p. 47.
15. rem prōsperē gessit: in 196 b.c., at the meeting of the
Isthmian games, Flamininus caused a herald to proclaim, “that
the senate and the people of Rome, and their commander, Titus
Quinctius, having subdued Philip and the Macedonians, now
restored the Corinthians, Phocians, Locrians, Euboeans,
Thessalians, Achaeans, etc., to their freedom and independence,
and to the enjoyment of their own laws.”
19. quaterna mīlia: sc. lībrārum; note the force of the distributive.
pondō: cf. pondō, Bk. III, 21.

Page 37.

2. Nabidem: Nabis, the tyrant of Lacedaemon, had seized the city

of Argos.
quibus voluit condiciōnibus ＝ quibus voluit eīs condiciōnibus.
in fidem accēpit: cf. in fidem acceptae, Bk. II, 19. This is a mild
way of saying that he made the king a subject of Rome.

Ch. 3.
6. Syriacum: sc. bellum. Creighton, p. 48.
7. Antiochum: the most illustrious of the family of the Seleucidae,
kings of Syria, was Antiochus, surnamed the Great. After having
conquered Caelo-Syria and Palestine, he was urged by Hannibal,
who had taken refuge at his court, to make war on the Romans.
He invaded Greece, but was defeated by L. Scipio at
Thermopylae in 191 b.c., and again at Mt. Sipylus in Magnesia in
190 b.c., when he was compelled to sue for peace.
12. fuisset: cf. quia … fēcissent, Bk. II, 11.

Ch. 4.

14. L. Cornēliō Scīpiōne: cf. Bk. III, 16.

Scīpiō Āfricānus: although Scipio Africanus was the legatus of
his brother, yet he practically acted as commander, as his brother
was a man of no ability.
17. nāvālī proeliō: this battle, fought at the mouth of the
Eurymedon, off Aspendus in Pamphylia, “was the first naval
battle and the last battle fought by Hannibal against the
Romans.”
18. apud Māgnēsiam: “with the day of Magnesia Asia was erased
from the list of great states; and never perhaps did a great
power fall so rapidly, so thoroughly, and so ignominiously as the
kingdom of the Seleucidae under this Antiochus the Great.”
Mommsen.
20. Eumenēs: Antiochus had offered one of his daughters in
marriage to Eumenes, the king of Pergamus, on condition that he
assist him against the Romans.
22. ex parte rēgis: ‘on the side of the king.’
24. data est: sc. pāx.
25. recēderet: cf. īnferret, Ch. 2.
 Page 38.

1. concitātōrem bellī: ‘who had aroused the war’; often it is best

to translate nouns of Agency by a clause.
6. et ipse: cf. et ipse, Bk. I, 8.
Asiāgenis: the more usual title is Asiāticus.

Ch. 5.

12. per T. Quīntium Flāminīnum: cf. per fīliōs, Bk. I, 6.

13. trādendus esset: the bitterness with which the Romans hunted
down Hannibal was unworthy of such a man and such a nation.
venēnum bibit: “Thus ignominiously ended the career of the
man who stood once at the head of the commanders of the
world, and whose memory is still honored for the magnificence of
his ambition in daring to attack and expecting to conquer the
most powerful nation of his time.”

Ch. 6.

19. rebellāvit: on account of the division of the conquered territory

after the fall of Antiochus, Philip became indignant at the
Romans, and planned a revolt on a large scale. His death in 179
b.c. prevented him from putting his plans into execution. His son
Perseus attempted to carry them out. Owing to his lack of
genius, he did not act promptly and with energy when the
opportunity offered, and let it slip by.
20. Thraciae: Thrace was the name given originally to the whole
region north of the Aegean Sea. Afterwards it was confined to
the valley of the Hebrus. It became a Roman province in 46 a.d.
Īllyricī: Illyricum was on the east coast of the Adriatic Sea. Its
rocky coasts were infested with pirates until it was conquered by
 the Romans in the second century b.c. It was made a province
afterwards and known as Dalmatia.
21. Rōmānīs … auxiliō: cf. auxiliō … Rōmānīs, Ch. 4.
24. utrīsque … praebuit: lit. ‘furnished himself equal to both’ ＝
‘remained neutral.’
25. P. Licinius: sc. Crassus. He was utterly incompetent and
thoroughly unscrupulous.
26. gravī proeliō victus: near Larisa. If Perseus had possessed the
energy to follow up this victory, the result might have been
different.

Page 39.

1. mox missus contrā eum: Eutropius does not mention the two
campaigns under Aulus Hostilius and Quintius Marcius Philippus,
in both of which the Romans were unsuccessful.
2. L. Aemilius Paulus: he was the son of the consul who fell at
Cannae, Bk. III, 10. He was one of the best specimens of the
sturdy Roman character. He was noted for his discipline in the
army, and maintained throughout life a pure and unspotted
character.
6. ante … quam: cf. note on ante … quam, Bk. II, 13.

Ch. 7.

8. III Nōnās Septembrēs: the full expression would be ante diem

tertium Nōnās Septembrēs; cf. XI Kal. Māiās, Bk. I, 1.
9. vīcit: at the battle of Pydna in Macedonia, 168 b.c. “It was in fact
the last battle in which a civilized state confronted Rome in the
field on a footing of equality with her as a great power. … The
whole civilized world henceforth recognized in the Roman senate
the supreme tribunal whose commissioners decided in the last
 resort between kings and nations.” Mommsen, History of Rome,
Vol. II, p. 330.
14. honōrem … habuit: ‘held him in honor’ ＝ ‘honored him.’
victō: in apposition with eī.
15. sibi: sibi and sē refer to Paulus.
23. convīviī apparātū: ‘in his entertainments.’

Ch. 8.

25. praedam … distribuit: this act of cruelty was commanded by

the senate.

Page 40.

2. triumphāvit autem māgnificentissimē: never before had

Rome seen so grand a triumph. It lasted for three days.
3. cum duōbus fīliīs: Q. Fabius Maximus and P. Scipio Africanus
Minor, both of whom had been adopted into other families.
9. Bīthȳniae: supply rēx from rēgēs above.

Ch. 10.

15. tertium … Karthāginem: The Story of the Romans, p. 139;

Creighton, p. 50; Rome and Carthage, Ch. XIX. The Romans
encouraged their ally Masinissa to encroach on the territories of
Carthage and to harass her in every way. They were seeking a
pretext for war, having fully decided to utterly destroy their hated
rival. The story is told that every speech that Cato the Censor
made was concluded with the words ‘Dēlenda est Carthāgō,’
‘Carthage must be destroyed.’
16. L. Mānliō Cēnsōrīnō et M. Mānīliō: they were utterly
incompetent. On several occasions they were saved from
 destruction only by the skill of Scipio.
19. Karthāginem oppūgnāvērunt: the Carthaginians tried in
every way to avert the war. Embassy after embassy was sent to
Rome, offering everything that could be asked. When the
Romans demanded the surrender of the arms of the city, they
were given. But when it was demanded that they should leave
their city and should settle somewhere else at a distance of ten
miles from the sea, they refused and prepared for the struggle
that was inevitable.
21. Scīpiō: “Publius Cornelius Scipio was the youngest son of
Aemilius Paulus, the conqueror of Macedonia. When quite a
youth he had fought at his father’s side at Pydna, and he was
afterwards adopted into a still more illustrious family, that of the
Scipios. Like his grandfather, the great Africanus, he had early
shown a taste for other arts than that of war; and his fondness
for literature was cemented by the friendship which he formed,
while still a youth, with the historian Polybius. He was inferior in
all respects to his grandfather by adoption, the elder Africanus.”
He is chosen by Cicero in the De Amicitia as one whose
friendship was worthy of immortality.
24. cōnsultissimus: ‘most fertile in council.’
per eum: cf. per Ancī fīliōs, Bk. I, 6.
27. committere: sc. proelium; the omission is late and rare.

Page 41.

Ch. 11.

1. per idem tempus: equivalent to the Ablative of Time within

which.
Masinissa: see note on Syphācem, Bk. III, 20.

Ch. 12.
5. iuvenis: see note on annōrum, Bk. II, 6. Scipio was about thirty-
seven years old, and had held the office of military tribune only.
6. cōnsul est factus: as in the case of his grandfather by adoption,
there was the tacit understanding that his office was to be
continued until he had brought the war to an end. The Romans
by this time had learned the advantage of retaining in office in
times of danger a man who showed himself adapted to the place.
9. quae sua recognōscēbant: ‘which they recognized as their
own.’
10. Karthāgō … dēlēta est: “Thus happened what, happily, has
rarely happened in history before or since. An ancient seat of
civilization with the race which inhabited it, with its arts and its
sciences, its laws, its literature, and its religion, was swept away
at a single stroke, leaving hardly a wrack behind; and with it
vanished the last rival whom Rome had to fear, the one state
which ever met her on equal terms, and therefore alone stood
between her and universal empire.” Rome and Carthage, p. 260.
quam ＝ postquam.
11. avus ēius: his grandfather by adoption, P. Cornelius Scipio
Africanus Maior, the conqueror of Hannibal.
12. Āfricānus iūnior: etiam ipse can, of course, refer only to
Africanus, iunior being adversative; ‘Africanus (but) younger’; cf.
note on Tarquinius iūnior, Bk. I, 8.

Ch. 13.

14. Pseudophilippus: “A pretender, calling himself Phillip, the son

of Perseus, met with support from Thrace and Byzantium, and
was accepted as king by the Macedonian nation. He even
extended his rule over Thessaly by his victory over the Roman
praetor Juventius.” Mommsen, p. 219.
15. praetorem: the praetor was one of the chief magistrates at
Rome, next to the consuls. The number varied at different times.
After Sulla’s time there were eight. The duties of the praetor
were to administer justice, and in the absence of the consuls to
act in their place. Praetors were also sent to govern provinces
subject to Rome.
16. ad interneciōnem: ‘to the point of destruction.’

Ch. 14.

22. cēpit: after the battle of Leucopatra, in which the Achaeans

were utterly defeated.
dīruit: “With Corinth fell the liberties of Greece; a Roman
province took the place of the state that for six centuries had
been the home of art and eloquence, the intellectual sovereign of
antiquity; but though overcome and despoiled, she became the
guide and teacher of her conqueror.” The light of Greece was
extinguished.
27. pīctae tabulae: ‘pictures.’

Page 42.

Ch. 15.

3. habēret: H. 598 (515, III); M. 378, 6; A. & G. 313, d; G. 587; B.

309, 3.
quaestōre: the quaestor was an officer in charge of the
treasury. Two remained in the city while the others accompanied
the provincial governors and managed the finances of the
provinces.

Ch. 16.
5. Metellus: Q. Caecilius Metellus, called Macedonicus, was the son
of Caecilius mentioned in Bk. III, 19. He was consul in 143 b.c.,
and received the province of Hither Spain, where he carried on
war with success for two years against the Celtiberi. His brother,
L. Caecilius, was consul in 142 b.c. Chs. 21, 23.
8. Viriāthus: it is said that Caepio procured his assassination.
9. quō metū ＝ cūius metū: for the case of metū, cf. metū, Ch. 3.
12. adsertor: ‘restorer of liberty.’

Ch. 17.

17. pācem ignōbilem fēcit: but fearing the reckoning that awaited
him at home for concluding peace, he denied before the senate
the agreement he had made with the people of Numantia. The
total incompetency of Pompeius and of his successor, Mancinus,
and the demoralization of the army, caused the war to drag on
with disgrace and disaster for three years. Creighton, p. 49.
20. Mancīnum hostibus trādī: they refused to receive him, as the
senate knew they would.
24. cōnsul factus: sc. est; this was in 134 b.c. He was then at the
legal age for the consulship.
25. mīlitem: ‘the soldiers’; a collective noun.

Page 43.

4. reliquam … accēpit: “A senatorial commission was shortly

afterwards sent to Spain, and the provinces were reorganized.
Spain gradually became exceedingly prosperous, and, despite the
guerilla warfare ever waged by the half-subdued native tribes, it
was the most flourishing and best organized country in the
Roman dominions.” Mommsen, p. 215.

Ch. 18.
6. Attalus: the kingdom of Attalus consisted of Lydia, Phrygia,
Mysia, and Caria, four states on the coast of Asia Minor.

Ch. 19.

9. Callaecīs: generally written Gallaecī. They were a people

inhabiting the northwestern part of Spain, bordering on the
Atlantic. They were the most uncivilized people of Spain.
Lūsitānīs: they lived a little south of the Gallaeci.
10. P. Scīpiō … Numantīnīs: from the capture of the city of
Numantia he received the name Numantīnus.
12. dē Āfricā: i.e. dē Karthāgine.

Ch. 20.

13. Aristonīcō: he was a natural son of Eumenes II of Pergamus.

Upon the death of his brother Attalus, who left his kingdom to
the Romans, Ch. 18, he claimed the throne. At first he met with
considerable success.
15. P. Licinius Crassus: he was consul for the year 131 b.c. He was
a good orator and jurist.
25. carcere: the Mamertine prison at the foot of the Capitoline Hill.
This was the only prison in Rome in early times. In it most of the
famous captives of the Romans were strangled. It consisted of an
upper and lower chamber. The term Tullianum sometimes applied
to the prison as a whole is more properly restricted to the lower
dungeon. Sallust in the ‘Catiline’ gives an impressive picture of
the lower vault in which Jugurtha perished. “There is,” he says,
“in the prison a chamber named the Tullianum, about twelve feet
below the surface of the earth. It is surrounded by walls, and
covered by a vaulted roof of stone; but its appearance is
repulsive and fearful, because of the neglect, the darkness, and
the stench.”
27. diem obierat: lit. ‘he had met his day’ ＝ ‘he died.’

Ch. 21.

29. quae nunc manet: Eutropius is in error. The Carthage of his

time was founded by Augustus. He was carrying out the plans of
Julius Caesar in this.

Page 44.

2. dēductī sunt: the regular term for the founding of a colony.

eō ＝ ad eum locum.

Ch. 22.

5. Gallīs trānsalpīnīs: the Gauls of the modern France and

Switzerland were called trānsalpīnī, to distinguish them from the
Gauls of northern Italy, who were called cisalpīnī.
Arvernōrum: the Arverni were a people of Aquitania, in the
modern Auvergne. In early times they were the most powerful
people in southern Gaul. They still possessed considerable power
in Caesar’s time, as he refers to them several times in the Gallic
War.
7. fluvium: a late word. The regular term for river is flūmen.
8. torquibus: cf. torque, Bk. II, 5.
9. dēductus est: i.e. from Gaul.

Ch. 23.

12. Narbōne: this was the first colony of the Romans in Gaul. Later
it gave the name of Narbōnēnsis to the province. It was situated
on the river Atax, and was of considerable commercial
importance.
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