Platonic solid

In geometry, a Platonic solid is a convex, regular polyhedron in three-dimensional Euclidean space. Being a regular
polyhedron means that the faces are congruent (identical in shape and size) regular polygons (all angles congruent and all
edges congruent), and the same number of faces meet at each vertex. There are only five such polyhedra:

Tetrahedron Cube Octahedron Dodecahedron Icosahedron

Four faces Six faces Eight faces Twelve faces Twenty faces

(Animation, 3D model) (Animation, 3D model) (Animation, 3D model) (Animation, 3D model) (Animation, 3D model)

Geometers have studied the Platonic solids for thousands of years.[1] They are named for the ancient Greek philosopher
Plato, who hypothesized in one of his dialogues, the Timaeus, that the classical elements were made of these regular solids.[2]

History
The Platonic solids have been known since antiquity. It has been suggested that certain carved stone balls created by the late
Neolithic people of Scotland represent these shapes; however, these balls have rounded knobs rather than being polyhedral,
the numbers of knobs frequently differed from the numbers of vertices of the Platonic solids, there is no ball whose knobs
match the 20 vertices of the dodecahedron, and the arrangement of the knobs was not always symmetrical.[3]

The ancient Greeks studied the Platonic solids extensively. Some sources (such as Proclus) credit Pythagoras with their
discovery. Other evidence suggests that he may have only been familiar with the tetrahedron, cube, and dodecahedron and
that the discovery of the octahedron and icosahedron belong to Theaetetus, a contemporary of Plato. In any case, Theaetetus
gave a mathematical description of all five and may have been responsible for the first known proof that no other convex
regular polyhedra exist.

The Platonic solids are prominent in the

philosophy of Plato, their namesake. Plato
wrote about them in the dialogue Timaeus c.
360 B.C. in which he associated each of the
four classical elements (earth, air, water,
and fire) with a regular solid. Earth was Assignment to the elements in Kepler's Harmonices Mundi
associated with the cube, air with the
octahedron, water with the icosahedron, and
fire with the tetrahedron. Of the fifth Platonic solid, the dodecahedron, Plato obscurely remarked, "...the god used [it] for
arranging the constellations on the whole heaven". Aristotle added a fifth element, aither (aether in Latin, "ether" in English)
and postulated that the heavens were made of this element, but he had no interest in matching it with Plato's fifth solid.[4]

Euclid completely mathematically described the Platonic solids in the Elements, the last book (Book XIII) of which is
devoted to their properties. Propositions 13–17 in Book XIII describe the construction of the tetrahedron, octahedron, cube,
icosahedron, and dodecahedron in that order. For each solid Euclid finds the ratio of the diameter of the circumscribed sphere
to the edge length. In Proposition 18 he argues that there are no further convex regular polyhedra. Andreas Speiser has
advocated the view that the construction of the five regular solids is the chief goal of the deductive system canonized in the
Elements.[5] Much of the information in Book XIII is probably derived from the work of Theaetetus.
 In the 16th century, the German astronomer Johannes Kepler attempted to relate the
five extraterrestrial planets known at that time to the five Platonic solids. In Mysterium
Cosmographicum, published in 1596, Kepler proposed a model of the Solar System in
which the five solids were set inside one another and separated by a series of inscribed
and circumscribed spheres. Kepler proposed that the distance relationships between
the six planets known at that time could be understood in terms of the five Platonic
solids enclosed within a sphere that represented the orbit of Saturn. The six spheres
each corresponded to one of the planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and
Saturn). The solids were ordered with the innermost being the octahedron, followed
by the icosahedron, dodecahedron, tetrahedron, and finally the cube, thereby dictating
the structure of the solar system and the distance relationships between the planets by
the Platonic solids. In the end, Kepler's original idea had to be abandoned, but out of
his research came his three laws of orbital dynamics, the first of which was that the
Kepler's Platonic solid model of the orbits of planets are ellipses rather than circles, changing the course of physics and
Solar System from Mysterium
astronomy.[6] He also discovered the Kepler solids, which are two nonconvex regular
Cosmographicum (1596)
polyhedra.

Cartesian coordinates
For Platonic solids centered at the origin, simple Cartesian coordinates of the vertices are given below. The Greek letter is

used to represent the golden ratio .

Parameters
Figure Tetrahedron Octahedron Cube Icosahedron Dodecahedron

Faces 4 8 6 20 12
Vertices 4 6 (2 × 3) 8 12 (4 × 3) 20 (8 + 4 × 3)

Position 1 2 1 2 1 2

(1, 1, 1) (−1, −1, −1) (±1, 0, 0) (±1, ±1, ±1) ( 0, ±1, ±φ) ( 0, ±φ, ±1) (±1, ±1, ±1) (±1, ±1, ±1)
(1, −1, −1) (−1, 1, 1) ( 0, ±1, 0) (±1, ±φ, 0) (±φ, ±1, 0) 1 1
( 0, ±⁠φ ⁠, ±φ) ( 0, ±φ, ±⁠φ ⁠)
Vertex (−1, 1, −1) ( 1, −1, 1) ( 0, 0, ±1) (±φ, 0, ±1) (±1, 0, ±φ)
1 1
coordinates (−1, −1, 1) ( 1, 1, −1) (±⁠φ ⁠, ±φ, 0) (±φ, ±⁠φ ⁠, 0)
1 1
(±φ, 0, ±⁠φ ⁠) (±⁠φ , 0, ±φ)

The coordinates for the tetrahedron, dodecahedron, and icosahedron are given in two positions such that each can be deduced
from the other: in the case of the tetrahedron, by changing all coordinates of sign (central symmetry), or, in the other cases,
by exchanging two coordinates (reflection with respect to any of the three diagonal planes).

These coordinates reveal certain relationships between the Platonic solids: the vertices of the tetrahedron represent half of
those of the cube, as {4,3} or , one of two sets of 4 vertices in dual positions, as h{4,3} or . Both tetrahedral
positions make the compound stellated octahedron.

The coordinates of the icosahedron are related to two alternated sets of coordinates of a nonuniform truncated octahedron,
t{3,4} or , also called a snub octahedron, as s{3,4} or , and seen in the compound of two icosahedra.

Eight of the vertices of the dodecahedron are shared with the cube. Completing all orientations leads to the compound of five
cubes.

Combinatorial properties
A convex polyhedron is a Platonic solid if and only if all three of the following requirements are met.

All of its faces are congruent convex regular polygons.

 None of its faces intersect except at their edges.
The same number of faces meet at each of its vertices.
Each Platonic solid can therefore be assigned a pair {p, q} of integers, where p is the number of edges (or, equivalently,
vertices) of each face, and q is the number of faces (or, equivalently, edges) that meet at each vertex. This pair {p, q}, called
the Schläfli symbol, gives a combinatorial description of the polyhedron. The Schläfli symbols of the five Platonic solids are
given in the table below.

Properties of Platonic solids

Polyhedron Vertices Edges Faces Schläfli symbol Vertex configuration

Regular tetrahedron 4 6 4 {3, 3} 3.3.3

cube 8 12 6 {4, 3} 4.4.4

Regular octahedron 6 12 8 {3, 4} 3.3.3.3

dodecahedron 20 30 12 {5, 3} 5.5.5

icosahedron 12 30 20 {3, 5} 3.3.3.3.3

All other combinatorial information about these solids, such as total number of vertices (V), edges (E), and faces (F), can be
determined from p and q. Since any edge joins two vertices and has two adjacent faces we must have:

The other relationship between these values is given by Euler's formula:

This can be proved in many ways. Together these three relationships completely determine V, E, and F:

Swapping p and q interchanges F and V while leaving E unchanged. For a geometric interpretation of this property, see
§ Dual polyhedra.

As a configuration
The elements of a polyhedron can be expressed in a configuration matrix. The rows and columns correspond to vertices,
edges, and faces. The diagonal numbers say how many of each element occur in the whole polyhedron. The nondiagonal
numbers say how many of the column's element occur in or at the row's element. Dual pairs of polyhedra have their
configuration matrices rotated 180 degrees from each other.[7]
 {p,q} Platonic configurations

Group order: g = 24 g = 48 g = 120

g = 8pq/(4 − (p − 2)(q − 2))

v e f {3,3} {3,4} {4,3} {3,5} {5,3}

v g/2q q q 4 3 3 6 4 4 8 3 3 12 5 5 20 3 3

e 2 g/4 2 2 6 2 2 12 2 2 12 2 2 30 2 2 30 2

f p p g/2p 3 3 4 3 3 8 4 4 6 3 3 20 5 5 12

Classification
The classical result is that only five convex regular polyhedra exist. Two common arguments below demonstrate no more
than five Platonic solids can exist, but positively demonstrating the existence of any given solid is a separate question—one
that requires an explicit construction.

Geometric proof
The following geometric argument is very similar to the one Polygon nets around a vertex
given by Euclid in the Elements:

1. Each vertex of the solid must be a vertex for at least

three faces.
2. At each vertex of the solid, the total, among the {3,3} {3,4} {3,5} {3,6}
Defect 180° Defect 120° Defect 60° Defect 0°
adjacent faces, of the angles between their
respective adjacent sides must be strictly less than
360°. The amount less than 360° is called an angle
defect.
3. Regular polygons of six or more sides have only
angles of 120° or more, so the common face must be {4,3} {4,4} {5,3} {6,3}
the triangle, square, or pentagon. For these different Defect 90° Defect 0° Defect 36° Defect 0°
shapes of faces the following holds:
A vertex needs at least 3 faces, and an angle defect.
A 0° angle defect will fill the Euclidean plane with a regular tiling.
Triangular faces By Descartes' theorem, the number of vertices is 720°/defect.
Each vertex of a regular triangle is 60°, so a
shape may have three, four, or five triangles meeting at a vertex; these are the tetrahedron, octahedron,
and icosahedron respectively.
Square faces
Each vertex of a square is 90°, so there is only one arrangement possible with three faces at a vertex,
the cube.
Pentagonal faces
Each vertex is 108°; again, only one arrangement of three faces at a vertex is possible, the
dodecahedron.

Altogether this makes five possible Platonic solids.

Topological proof
A purely topological proof can be made using only combinatorial information about the solids. The key is Euler's observation
that V − E + F = 2, and the fact that pF = 2E = qV, where p stands for the number of edges of each face and q for the number
of edges meeting at each vertex. Combining these equations one obtains the equation

Simple algebraic manipulation then gives

Since E is strictly positive we must have

Using the fact that p and q must both be at least 3, one can easily see that there are only five
possibilities for {p, q}:

{3, 3}, {4, 3}, {3, 4}, {5, 3}, {3, 5}.

Geometric properties

Angles
There are a number of angles associated with each Platonic solid. The dihedral angle is the
interior angle between any two face planes. The dihedral angle, θ, of the solid {p,q} is given
by the formula

Orthographic projections
and Schlegel diagrams with
Hamiltonian cycles of the
vertices of the five platonic
solids – only the octahedron
has an Eulerian path or
This is sometimes more conveniently expressed in terms of the tangent by cycle, by extending its path
with the dotted one

The quantity h (called the Coxeter number) is 4, 6, 6, 10, and 10 for the tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, dodecahedron, and
icosahedron respectively.

The angular deficiency at the vertex of a polyhedron is the difference between the sum of the face-angles at that vertex and
2π. The defect, δ, at any vertex of the Platonic solids {p,q} is

By a theorem of Descartes, this is equal to 4π divided by the number of vertices (i.e. the total defect at all vertices is 4π).

The three-dimensional analog of a plane angle is a solid angle. The solid angle, Ω, at the vertex of a Platonic solid is given in
terms of the dihedral angle by

This follows from the spherical excess formula for a spherical polygon and the fact that the vertex figure of the polyhedron
{p,q} is a regular q-gon.

The solid angle of a face subtended from the center of a platonic solid is equal to the solid angle of a full sphere (4π
steradians) divided by the number of faces. This is equal to the angular deficiency of its dual.

The various angles associated with the Platonic solids are tabulated below. The numerical values of the solid angles are given
1 + √5
in steradians. The constant φ = ⁠ 2 ⁠is the golden ratio.
 Dihedral Face
θ Defect
Polyhedron angle tan ⁠2 ⁠ Vertex solid angle (Ω) solid
(δ)
(θ) angle

tetrahedron 70.53°

cube 90°

octahedron 109.47°

dodecahedron 116.57°

icosahedron 138.19°

Radii, area, and volume

Another virtue of regularity is that the Platonic solids all possess three concentric spheres:

the circumscribed sphere that passes through all the vertices,

the midsphere that is tangent to each edge at the midpoint of the edge, and
the inscribed sphere that is tangent to each face at the center of the face.
The radii of these spheres are called the circumradius, the midradius, and the inradius. These are the distances from the
center of the polyhedron to the vertices, edge midpoints, and face centers respectively. The circumradius R and the inradius r
of the solid {p, q} with edge length a are given by

where θ is the dihedral angle. The midradius ρ is given by

where h is the quantity used above in the definition of the dihedral angle (h = 4, 6, 6, 10, or 10). The ratio of the circumradius
to the inradius is symmetric in p and q:

The surface area, A, of a Platonic solid {p, q} is easily computed as area of a regular p-gon times the number of faces F. This
is:

The volume is computed as F times the volume of the pyramid whose base is a regular p-gon and whose height is the inradius
r. That is,
The following table lists the various radii of the Platonic solids together with their surface area and volume. The overall size
is fixed by taking the edge length, a, to be equal to 2.

Polyhedron, Radius Surface area, Volume

a=2 In-, r Mid-, ρ Circum-, R A V Unit edges

tetrahedron

cube

octahedron

dodecahedron

icosahedron

The constants φ and ξ in the above are given by

Among the Platonic solids, either the dodecahedron or the icosahedron may be seen as the best approximation to the sphere.
The icosahedron has the largest number of faces and the largest dihedral angle, it hugs its inscribed sphere the most tightly,
and its surface area to volume ratio is closest to that of a sphere of the same size (i.e. either the same surface area or the same
volume). The dodecahedron, on the other hand, has the smallest angular defect, the largest vertex solid angle, and it fills out
its circumscribed sphere the most.

Point in space
For an arbitrary point in the space of a Platonic solid with circumradius R, whose distances to the centroid of the Platonic
solid and its n vertices are L and di respectively, and

we have[8]

For all five Platonic solids, we have[8]

If di are the distances from the n vertices of the Platonic solid to any point on its circumscribed sphere, then[8]

Rupert property
A polyhedron P is said to have the Rupert property if a polyhedron of the same or larger size and the same shape as P can
pass through a hole in P.[9] All five Platonic solids have this property.[9][10][11]

Symmetry

Dual polyhedra
Every polyhedron has a dual (or "polar") polyhedron with faces and vertices interchanged.
The dual of every Platonic solid is another Platonic solid, so that we can arrange the five solids
into dual pairs.

The tetrahedron is self-dual (i.e. its dual is another tetrahedron).

The cube and the octahedron form a dual pair.
The dodecahedron and the icosahedron form a dual pair.
If a polyhedron has Schläfli symbol {p, q}, then its dual has the symbol {q, p}. Indeed, every
combinatorial property of one Platonic solid can be interpreted as another combinatorial
property of the dual.

One can construct the dual polyhedron by taking the vertices of the dual to be the centers of the
faces of the original figure. Connecting the centers of adjacent faces in the original forms the
edges of the dual and thereby interchanges the number of faces and vertices while maintaining
the number of edges.

More generally, one can dualize a Platonic solid with respect to a sphere of radius d concentric
with the solid. The radii (R, ρ, r) of a solid and those of its dual (R*, ρ*, r*) are related by

Dualizing with respect to the midsphere (d = ρ) is often convenient because the midsphere has
Dual compounds
the same relationship to both polyhedra. Taking d2 = Rr yields a dual solid with the same
circumradius and inradius (i.e. R* = R and r* = r).

Symmetry groups
In mathematics, the concept of symmetry is studied with the notion of a mathematical group. Every polyhedron has an
associated symmetry group, which is the set of all transformations (Euclidean isometries) which leave the polyhedron
invariant. The order of the symmetry group is the number of symmetries of the polyhedron. One often distinguishes between
the full symmetry group, which includes reflections, and the proper symmetry group, which includes only rotations.

The symmetry groups of the Platonic solids are a special class of three-dimensional point groups known as polyhedral
groups. The high degree of symmetry of the Platonic solids can be interpreted in a number of ways. Most importantly, the
vertices of each solid are all equivalent under the action of the symmetry group, as are the edges and faces. One says the
action of the symmetry group is transitive on the vertices, edges, and faces. In fact, this is another way of defining regularity
of a polyhedron: a polyhedron is regular if and only if it is vertex-uniform, edge-uniform, and face-uniform.

There are only three symmetry groups associated with the Platonic solids rather than five, since the symmetry group of any
polyhedron coincides with that of its dual. This is easily seen by examining the construction of the dual polyhedron. Any
symmetry of the original must be a symmetry of the dual and vice versa. The three polyhedral groups are:

the tetrahedral group T,

the octahedral group O (which is also the symmetry group of the cube), and
the icosahedral group I (which is also the symmetry group of the dodecahedron).
The orders of the proper (rotation) groups are 12, 24, and 60 respectively – precisely twice the number of edges in the
respective polyhedra. The orders of the full symmetry groups are twice as much again (24, 48, and 120). See (Coxeter 1973)
for a derivation of these facts. All Platonic solids except the tetrahedron are centrally symmetric, meaning they are preserved
under reflection through the origin.

The following table lists the various symmetry properties of the Platonic solids. The symmetry groups listed are the full
groups with the rotation subgroups given in parentheses (likewise for the number of symmetries). Wythoff's kaleidoscope
construction is a method for constructing polyhedra directly from their symmetry groups. They are listed for reference
Wythoff's symbol for each of the Platonic solids.

Schläfli Wythoff Dual Symmetry group (reflection, rotation)

Polyhedron
symbol symbol polyhedron Polyhedral Schön. Cox. Orb. Order

Td [3,3] *332 24
tetrahedron {3, 3} 3|23 tetrahedron Tetrahedral
T [3,3]+ 332 12

cube {4, 3} 3|24 octahedron Oh [4,3]

Octahedral *432 48
octahedron {3, 4} 4|23 cube O [4,3]+ 432 24

dodecahedron {5, 3} 3|25 icosahedron

Ih [5,3] *532 120
Icosahedral
icosahedron {3, 5} 5|23 dodecahedron
I [5,3]+ 532 60

In nature and technology

The tetrahedron, cube, and octahedron all occur naturally in crystal structures. These by no means exhaust the numbers of
possible forms of crystals. However, neither the regular icosahedron nor the regular dodecahedron are amongst them. One of
the forms, called the pyritohedron (named for the group of minerals of which it is typical) has twelve pentagonal faces,
arranged in the same pattern as the faces of the regular dodecahedron. The faces of the pyritohedron are, however, not
regular, so the pyritohedron is also not regular. Allotropes of boron and many boron compounds, such as boron carbide,
include discrete B12 icosahedra within their crystal structures. Carborane acids also have molecular structures approximating
regular icosahedra.

In the early 20th century, Ernst Haeckel described (Haeckel, 1904) a number of species of Radiolaria, some of whose
skeletons are shaped like various regular polyhedra. Examples include Circoporus octahedrus, Circogonia icosahedra,
Lithocubus geometricus and Circorrhegma dodecahedra. The shapes of these creatures should be obvious from their names.

Many viruses, such as the herpes[12] virus, have the shape of a regular icosahedron. Viral structures are built of repeated
identical protein subunits and the icosahedron is the easiest shape to assemble using these subunits. A regular polyhedron is
used because it can be built from a single basic unit protein used over and over again; this saves space in the viral genome.

In meteorology and climatology, global numerical models of atmospheric flow are of increasing interest which employ
geodesic grids that are based on an icosahedron (refined by triangulation) instead of the more commonly used
longitude/latitude grid. This has the advantage of evenly distributed spatial resolution without singularities (i.e. the poles) at
the expense of somewhat greater numerical difficulty.
Geometry of space frames is often based on platonic solids. In the MERO system, Platonic
solids are used for naming convention of various space frame configurations. For example,
1
2
⁠O+T refers to a configuration made of one half of octahedron and a tetrahedron.

Several Platonic hydrocarbons have been synthesised, including cubane and dodecahedrane and
not tetrahedrane.

Circogonia icosahedra, a
species of radiolaria,
shaped like a regular
icosahedron.

Tetrahedrane Cubane Dodecahedrane

Platonic solids are often used to make dice, because dice of these shapes can be made fair. 6-
sided dice are very common, but the other numbers are commonly used in role-playing games.
Such dice are commonly referred to as dn where n is the number of faces (d8, d20, etc.); see
dice notation for more details.

These shapes frequently show up in other games or puzzles. Puzzles similar to a Rubik's Cube Icosahedron as a part of
come in all five shapes – see magic polyhedra. Spinoza monument in
Amsterdam

Liquid crystals with symmetries of Platonic solids

For the intermediate material phase called liquid crystals, the existence of such
symmetries was first proposed in 1981 by H. Kleinert and K. Maki.[13][14] In
aluminum the icosahedral structure was discovered three years after this by Dan
Shechtman, which earned him the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2011.

In architecture
Architects liked the idea of Plato's timeless forms that can be seen by the soul in the A set of polyhedral dice.
objects of the material world, but turned these shapes into more suitable for
construction sphere, cylinder, cone, and square pyramid.[15] In particular, one of the
leaders of neoclassicism, Étienne-Louis Boullée, was preoccupied with the architects'
version of "Platonic solids".[16]

Related polyhedra and polytopes

A project of the Isaac Newton's
Uniform polyhedra cenotaph (Étienne-Louis Boullée,
1784)
There exist four regular polyhedra that are not convex, called Kepler–Poinsot
polyhedra. These all have icosahedral symmetry and may be obtained as stellations of
the dodecahedron and the icosahedron.

The next most regular convex polyhedra after the Platonic solids are the cuboctahedron, which is a rectification of the cube
and the octahedron, and the icosidodecahedron, which is a rectification of the dodecahedron and the icosahedron (the
rectification of the self-dual tetrahedron is a regular octahedron). These are both quasi-regular, meaning that they are vertex-
and edge-uniform and have regular faces, but the faces are not all congruent (coming in two different classes). They form two
of the thirteen Archimedean solids, which are the convex uniform polyhedra with
polyhedral symmetry. Their duals, the rhombic dodecahedron and rhombic
triacontahedron, are edge- and face-transitive, but their faces are not regular and
their vertices come in two types each; they are two of the thirteen Catalan solids.

The uniform polyhedra form a much broader class of polyhedra. These figures
are vertex-uniform and have one or more types of regular or star polygons for cuboctahedron icosidodecahedron
faces. These include all the polyhedra mentioned above together with an infinite
set of prisms, an infinite set of antiprisms, and 53 other non-convex forms.

The Johnson solids are convex polyhedra which have regular faces but are not uniform. Among them are five of the eight
convex deltahedra, which have identical, regular faces (all equilateral triangles) but are not uniform. (The other three convex
deltahedra are the Platonic tetrahedron, octahedron, and icosahedron.)

Regular tessellations
The three regular tessellations of the plane are closely related to Regular spherical tilings
the Platonic solids. Indeed, one can view the Platonic solids as Platonic
regular tessellations of the sphere. This is done by projecting
each solid onto a concentric sphere. The faces project onto
regular spherical polygons which exactly cover the sphere.
Spherical tilings provide two infinite additional sets of regular
tilings, the hosohedra, {2,n} with 2 vertices at the poles, and {3,3} {4,3} {3,4} {5,3} {3,5}

lune faces, and the dual dihedra, {n,2} with 2 hemispherical Regular dihedral
faces and regularly spaced vertices on the equator. Such
tesselations would be degenerate in true 3D space as polyhedra.

Every regular tessellation of the sphere is characterized by a

1 1 1 {2,2} {3,2} {4,2} {5,2} {6,2}...
pair of integers {p, q} with ⁠p ⁠ + ⁠q ⁠ > ⁠2 ⁠. Likewise, a regular
Regular hosohedral
tessellation of the plane is characterized by the condition
1 1 1
⁠+ ⁠ ⁠= ⁠ ⁠. There are three possibilities:
p q 2

The three regular tilings of the Euclidean plane

{2,2} {2,3} {2,4} {2,5} {2,6}...

{4, 4} {3, 6} {6, 3}

In a similar manner, one can consider regular tessellations of the hyperbolic plane. These are characterized by the condition
1 1 1
⁠+ ⁠ ⁠< ⁠ ⁠. There is an infinite family of such tessellations.
p q 2

Example regular tilings of the hyperbolic plane

{5, 4} {4, 5} {7, 3} {3, 7}

Higher dimensions
In more than three dimensions, polyhedra generalize to polytopes, with higher- Number of Number of convex
dimensional convex regular polytopes being the equivalents of the three- dimensions regular polytopes
dimensional Platonic solids. 0 1

1 1
In the mid-19th century the Swiss mathematician Ludwig Schläfli discovered
the four-dimensional analogues of the Platonic solids, called convex regular 4- 2 ∞
polytopes. There are exactly six of these figures; five are analogous to the 3 5
Platonic solids : 5-cell as {3,3,3}, 16-cell as {3,3,4}, 600-cell as {3,3,5}, 4 6
tesseract as {4,3,3}, and 120-cell as {5,3,3}, and a sixth one, the self-dual 24-
>4 3
cell, {3,4,3}.

In all dimensions higher than four, there are only three convex regular polytopes: the simplex as {3,3,...,3}, the hypercube as
{4,3,...,3}, and the cross-polytope as {3,3,...,4}.[17] In three dimensions, these coincide with the tetrahedron as {3,3}, the
cube as {4,3}, and the octahedron as {3,4}.

See also
Archimedean solid List of regular polytopes
Catalan solid Prince Rupert's cube
Deltahedron Regular polytope
Johnson solid Regular skew polyhedron
Goldberg polyhedron Toroidal polyhedron
Kepler-Poinsot polyhedron

Citations
1. Gardner (1987): Martin Gardner wrote a popular account of the five solids in his December 1958 Mathematical
Games column in Scientific American.
2. Zeyl, Donald (2019). "Plato's Timaeus" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-timaeus/). The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
3. Lloyd 2012.
4. Wildberg (1988): Wildberg discusses the correspondence of the Platonic solids with elements in Timaeus but
notes that this correspondence appears to have been forgotten in Epinomis, which he calls "a long step
towards Aristotle's theory", and he points out that Aristotle's ether is above the other four elements rather than
on an equal footing with them, making the correspondence less apposite.
5. Weyl 1952, p. 74.
6. Olenick, R. P.; Apostol, T. M.; Goodstein, D. L. (1986). The Mechanical Universe: Introduction to Mechanics
and Heat. Cambridge University Press. pp. 434–436. ISBN 0-521-30429-6.
7. Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, sec 1.8 Configurations
8. Meskhishvili, Mamuka (2020). "Cyclic Averages of Regular Polygons and Platonic Solids" (https://www.rgnpubl
ications.com/journals/index.php/cma/article/view/1420/1065). Communications in Mathematics and
Applications. 11: 335–355. arXiv:2010.12340 (https://arxiv.org/abs/2010.12340). doi:10.26713/cma.v11i3.1420
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General and cited sources

Atiyah, Michael; Sutcliffe, Paul (2003). "Polyhedra in Physics, Chemistry and Geometry". Milan J. Math. 71:
33–58. arXiv:math-ph/0303071 (https://arxiv.org/abs/math-ph/0303071). Bibcode:2003math.ph...3071A (http
s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003math.ph...3071A). doi:10.1007/s00032-003-0014-1 (https://doi.org/10.100
7%2Fs00032-003-0014-1). S2CID 119725110 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119725110).
Boyer, Carl; Merzbach, Uta (1989). A History of Mathematics (https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00b
oye) (2nd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 0-471-54397-7.
Coxeter, H. S. M. (1973). Regular Polytopes (3rd ed.). New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-61480-8.
Euclid (1956). Heath, Thomas L. (ed.). The Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements, Books 10–13 (https://archive.
org/details/thirteenbooksofe00eucl) (2nd unabr. ed.). New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-60090-4.
Gardner, Martin (1987). The 2nd Scientific American Book of Mathematical Puzzles & Diversions, University of
Chicago Press, Chapter 1: The Five Platonic Solids, ISBN 0226282538
Gelernter, Mark (1995). Sources of Architectural Form: A Critical History of Western Design Theory (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=Ri6qER8Ej6kC). Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-4129-7. Retrieved
2024-02-12.
Haeckel, Ernst, E. (1904). Kunstformen der Natur. Available as Haeckel, E. (1998); Art forms in nature (https://
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Kepler. Johannes Strena seu de nive sexangula (On the Six-Cornered Snowflake), 1611 paper by Kepler
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n.de/~kleinert/75/75.pdf) (PDF). Fortschritte der Physik. 29 (5): 219–259. Bibcode:1981ForPh..29..219K (http
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External links
Platonic solids at Encyclopaedia of Mathematics (http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php/Platonic_solid
s)
Weisstein, Eric W. "Platonic solid" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/PlatonicSolid.html). MathWorld.
Weisstein, Eric W. "Isohedron" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Isohedron.html). MathWorld.
Book XIII (http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/java/elements/bookXIII/propXIII13.html) of Euclid's Elements.
Interactive 3D Polyhedra (https://web.archive.org/web/20050403235101/http://ibiblio.org/e-notes/3Dapp/Conv
ex.htm) in Java
Platonic Solids (http://dmccooey.com/polyhedra/Platonic.html) in Visual Polyhedra
Solid Body Viewer (https://archive.today/20130411004747/http://kovacsv.github.com/JSModeler/documentatio
n/examples/solids.html) is an interactive 3D polyhedron viewer which allows you to save the model in svg, stl
or obj format.
 Interactive Folding/Unfolding Platonic Solids (http://www.mat.puc-rio.br/~hjbortol/mathsolid/mathsolid_en.html)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070209043012/http://www.mat.puc-rio.br/~hjbortol/mathsolid/mathsoli
d_en.html) 2007-02-09 at the Wayback Machine in Java
Paper models of the Platonic solids (http://www.software3d.com/Platonic.php) created using nets generated
by Stella software
Platonic Solids (http://www.korthalsaltes.com/cuadros.php?type=p) Free paper models (nets)
Grime, James; Steckles, Katie. "Platonic Solids" (https://web.archive.org/web/20181023183946/http://www.nu
mberphile.com/videos/platonic_solids.html). Numberphile. Brady Haran. Archived from the original (http://ww
w.numberphile.com/videos/platonic_solids.html) on 2018-10-23. Retrieved 2013-04-13.
Teaching Math with Art (http://www.ldlewis.com/Teaching-Mathematics-with-Art/Polyhedra.html) student-
created models
Teaching Math with Art (http://www.ldlewis.com/Teaching-Mathematics-with-Art/instructions-for-polyhedra-proj
ect.html) teacher instructions for making models
Frames of Platonic Solids (http://www.bru.hlphys.jku.at/surf/Kepler_Model.html) images of algebraic surfaces
Platonic Solids (http://whistleralley.com/polyhedra/platonic.htm) with some formula derivations (http://whistleral
ley.com/polyhedra/derivations.htm)
How to make four platonic solids from a cube (http://woodenpolyhedra.web.fc2.com/making.pdf)

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