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 Classroom
MANAGEMENT
for Gifted and Twice-Exceptional
Students Using Functional
Behavior Assessment
9 Taylor & Francis
I
Taylor & Francis Group
http://taylorandfra ncis.com
 Classroom
MANAGEMENT
for Gifted and Twice-Exceptional
Students Using Functional
Behavior Assessment
A Step-by-Step Professional Learning Program for Teachers

Yara N. Farah, Ph.D.,

and Susan K. Johnsen, Ph.D.
First published in 2021 by Prufrock Press Inc.
Published in 2021 by Routledge

605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

RoutledgeisanimprintoftheTaylor&FrancisGroup,aninformabusiness.
Copyright ©2021 by Taylor & Francis Group.
Cover and layout design by Allegra Denbo
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form
or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.

Notice:
Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

ISBN-13: 978-1-6463-2087-5 (pbk)

DOI: 10.4324/9781003233640
 Table of Contents

Introductio n

MODULE 1 Characteristics of Gifted and

Twice-Exceptional Students 9

Background Information for the Instructor 11

Presentation Guide: Characteristics of Gifted

and Twice-Exceptional Students 31

Optional Activities 41

MODULE 2 Beliefs About Classroom Management 51

Background Information for the Instructor 53

Presentation Guide: Beiiefs About Classroom Management 63

Optional Activities 69

MODULE 3 Influences on Behavior: The A-B-C Model 75

Background Information for the Instructor 77

Presentation Guide: Influences on Behavior

The A-B-C Model 85

Optional Activities 91

MODULE 4 Defining and Describing Behaviors 101

Background Information for the Instructor 103

Presentation Guide: Defining and Describing Behaviors 111

Optional Activities and Forms 121

MODULE 5 Antecedents and Contextual Variables 141

Background Information for the Instructor 143

Presentation Guide: Antecedents and Contextual Variables 151

Optional Activities and Forms 159

MODULE 6 Identifying and Describing Consequences 179

Background Information for the Instructor 181

Presentation Guide: Identifying and Describing Consequences 195

Optional Activities arid Forms 209

MODULE 7 Identifying Schedules of Reinforcing Consequences 229

Background Information for the Instructor 231

Presentation Guide: identifying Schedules

of Reinforcing Consequences 239

Optional Activities and Forms 251

MODULE 8 Analyzing Data to Examine Functions:

Developing o Hypothesis 267

Background Information for the Instructor 269

Presentation Guide: Analyzing Data to Examine Functions

Developing o Hypothesis 275

Optional Activities 283

MODULE 9 Implementing a Behavioral Intervention

With a Student 295

Background Information for the Instructor 297

Presentation Guide: Implementing a Behavioral

Intervention With a Student 311

Optional Activities 325

MODULE 10 Creating a Classroom Environment That
Influences Desired Behaviors 343

Background Information for the Instructor 345

Presentation Guide: Creating a Classroom Environment

That Influences Desired Behaviors 363

Optional Activity 377

Glossary 383

References 389

About the Authors 413

ONLINE RESOURCES
Presentation slides, interactive graphic organizers, formative
assessments, direct and indirect assessment forms, and many other
valuable resources may be accessed at this book’s webpage:
https:/ www.Taylor&Francis.com/Exceptional-Students-Resources.aspx
Classroom-Management-forGifted-and-Twice- .
9 Taylor & Francis
I
Taylor & Francis Group
http://taylorandfra ncis.com
Introduction

Problem behaviors exist in every school and in every classroom. Students who
are at risk of having emotional and behavioral problems can be particularly
challenging
to teach. These students’ behaviors often conflict with teachers’ expectations in
the classroom. As a result, they have higher rates of suspensions, expulsions, and
dropouts than any other population and are most at risk for academic failure. Some
students who misbehave in the classroom are also identified as gifted and talented.
Gifted students who exhibit extreme behaviors may also be classified as having an
emotional disturbance and be labeled as twice-exceptional (i.e., students with gifts
and disabilities).
Knowing how to promote desirable behaviors and the social development of
gifted and twice-exceptional students is critical. Teachers need to learn how to build
a classroom that promotes positive relationships between and among all students.
These types of relationships are not automatic but require an understanding of the
characteristics of gifted and twice-exceptional students, how behavior is learned, and
how behavior is influenced by others and the environment.
Unfortunately, both experienced and novice teachers often feel unprepared for
the challenge of dealing with students who misbehave. The majority of teachers do
not receive practical training in preservice programs or inservice professional
learning
workshops. Without high-quality preparation in behavior management, teachers
tend to develop their own beliefs and strategies toward students who misbehave,
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT for Gifted and Twice-Exceptional
Students Using Functional Behavior Assessment

including those who are gifted and twice-exceptional. If unsuccessful in classroom

behavior management, teachers are more likely to report stress, burnout, and job
dissatisfaction,
which can ultimately result in their leaving the profession prematurely.

Characteristics of the Modules

This set of professional learning modules was developed to provide a high-quality,
practical behavior management model for preservice and practicing teachers in
general,
gifted, and special education. The modules are based on the principles of
functional
behavior assessment and incorporate more than 50 years of school-based
research. They are intended to assist the teacher in developing the necessary
knowledge
and skills to establish classroom management systems and intervene with
individual
students who misbehave. Each module has these important characteristics:
• Problem based. Functional behavior assessment (FBA), the model used in
the modules, is a multimethod problem-solving process that gathers
information
about the influences on students’ desired and undesired behaviors to
plan interventions.
• Effective, yet efficient. The practices are based on a large body of research
that supports FBA’s effectiveness across a wide variety of behaviors,
populations,
and settings. Each module uses only the vocabulary that classroom
teachers will find necessary to the problem-solving process.
• Useful. Throughout the modules, specific classroom examples are used in
solving behavior problems. Along with a description of specific behavioral
interventions for individual students and the classroom, teachers will also
learn more about instructional management systems and differentiated
curriculum practices that are a part of contextual variables influencing both
desired and undesired behaviors.
• Flexible. Each module’s professional learning activities include presentation
slides, small-group activities, interactive graphic organizers, and problem-
solving and practice activities. These may be used as needed for the
development
of the participants’ knowledge and skills.
• Field-tested with gifted, twice-exceptional, and general education
students. Beginning with Module 2, participants will have an opportunity
to examine actual case studies of four students who present behavior
problems.
As participants acquire new concepts, they will examine more
information
related to the case studies, ultimately using the problem-solving process
to develop interventions and comparing their interventions with those that
were effective in the classrooms.
 Introduction

• Applied. Participants will select a student in their classrooms with whom to

practice applying the principles learned during the sessions. They will gather
information, plan the intervention, and actually implement and monitor the
intervention to examine its effectiveness.
• Adaptable. Formative assessments may be found on this book’s webpage
(https://www.Taylor&Francis.com/Classroom-Management-for-Gifted-and-
Twice-Exceptional-Students-Resources.aspx) to adapt the set of modules to
partici-pants’ knowledge and skills. These assessments might be used as an
advanced organizer and assist in revising presentation slides, selecting
professional learning activities, and even eliminating some of the modules
if the content has already been acquired by the participants.
• Sequential with practice opportunities. With each module building on
the knowledge and skills from the previous module, participants have more
opportunities to practice specific problem-solving strategies in their
classroom.
If teachers feel confident in the problem-solving process, they are
more likely to use the process in addressing future student misbehaviors in
their classroom.
• Involving a change process. Given that teachers may have beliefs related
to classroom management that interfere with implementing the problem-
solving process, awareness of these beliefs is addressed in Module 2. Teachers
will have opportunities to examine their beliefs while implementing
interventions
in their classrooms.

Given their flexibility, the modules may be used in a behavior management course
for preservice teachers or as a professional development sequence for teachers who
are engaged in developing prevention and intervention systems for general
education,
special education, gifted students, and twice-exceptional students. They may
also be used as professional learning activities for teachers who provide the first line
of prevention at Tier 1 and Tier 2 levels of support in their schools.
The modules are not intended for professional dev0elopment of those involved in
single-subject research or those in clinical settings who work with students with the
most profound behavioral problems. They are also not intended to build schoolwide
systems of positive behavioral interventions and support. The online resources found
at this book’s webpage provide information for professionals in examining school-
wide systems and in addressing students with more severe behavior disorders.
 ONLINE RESOURCES
Presentation slides, interactive graphic organizers, formative
assessments, direct and indirect assessment forms, and many other
valuable resources may be accessed at this book’s webpage:
https:/ www.Taylor&FranciExceptional-Students-Resources.aspx
s.com/Classroom-Management-forGifted-and-Twi. ce-

Organization of the Modules

Each module is organized similarly with (a) a brief overview of the module,
including goals and main ideas; (b) background information and research; (c) a
presentation
provided
guide; and (d) professional learning activities. Time suggestions are
within the sections of the presentation slides guide but may vary depending
on the participants and the number of activities included. For example, in Module 1,
the leader of the professional learning session may choose to include all of the major
components within the presentation slides (definitions, characteristics of gifted and
talented students, and characteristics of twice-exceptional students) and include
three additional learning activities, or may select those portions that are most
applicable
to the participants’ strengths and needs. A glossary of key terms can be found
at the end of the book. Additional resources and formative assessments are available
at this book’s webpage.

Content Overview
Module 1: Characteristics of Gifted and Twice-Exceptional Students describes the
historical background, definitions, and characteristics of gifted students and gifted
students with disabilities (i.e., twice-exceptional or 2e students).
Module 2: Beliefs About Classroom Management focuses on educators’ beliefs
about students’ misbehaviors and how these beliefs influence their interactions with
students.
Module 3: Influences on Behavior: The A-B-C Model focuses on the A-B-C model
and analyzing relationships between behaviors and one or more environmental
events. The A-B-C model is the underlying framework for the broader functional
behavior assessment.
Module 4: Defining and Describing Behaviors defines and describes behaviors,
the context where the behaviors occur, and ways to observe behaviors.
 Module 5: Antecedents and Contextual Variables describes the characteristics of
antecedents and contextual variables.
Module 6: Identifying and Describing Consequences describes different types of
consequences and their effects.
Module 7 : Identifying Schedules of Reinforcing Consequences defines and
describes different types of schedules of reinforcing consequences and their effects.
Module 8: Analyzing Data to Examine Functions: Developing a Hypothesis
examines
the functions of the target behavior that will assist in developing a summary
statement or a hypothesis. The hypothesis will become the basis for a behavioral
intervention.
Module 9: Implementing a Behavior Intervention With a Student analyzes all of
the previous information collected (i.e., contextual variables and antecedents,
consequences,
schedules of consequences, and the function of the behavior) to develop and
implement an intervention with a student.
Module 10: Creating a Classroom Environment That Influences Desired Behaviors
focuses on creating a classroom instructional management system, implementing
behavior management practices, and using differentiated curricular and
instructional
strategies to encourage desired behaviors.
Each of the modules has a variety of learning activities that include cases from
the classroom, problem solving, self-assessments, and interactive graphic organizers.

Presentation Guides
The presentation guides organize the main ideas for each of the modules and
provide a sequence for all of the learning activities. Presentation slides for each
module
may be downloaded at this book’s webpage. For each slide, suggested statements
are provided for the presenter. The guides begin with each module’s goals and are
then divided into sections related to the major concepts of the module. Each section
has a possible time range (e.g., 45–65 minutes) depending on the number of
activities
included and the amount of participant discussion. This organization allows the
instructor to divide the guides into sections that might be practical for the course or
professional learning session.

Cases From Classrooms

Vignettes of four students are introduced in Module 2. These vignettes are from
actual case studies of students in general and gifted education classrooms. Anthony
is a middle school student who is identified as gifted and attends a magnet school.
He talks loudly and disturbs others during all of his core subject classes. Sarah is
an identified gifted student in a fifth-grade cluster classroom. She refuses to follow
directions and walks around the classroom, talking to other students. Bianca is
identified
as gifted in mathematics and also has a Section 504 accommodation because of
a learning disability. She doesn’t complete routine tasks and talks back to the teacher.
Finally, Jackson is in a self-contained, general education classroom where he does
not begin or complete tasks but talks to other students and plays with objects. The
vignettes are elaborated with more relevant information as the participants progress
through the modules. Participants are able to examine each of the vignettes, applying
new concepts from the module and ultimately planning an intervention for each
student.
The activities related to the vignettes provide practice for the participants, who
are also collecting information and planning an intervention for one of the students
in their classroom who is exhibiting undesired behaviors.

Problem-Solving Activities
Problem-solving activities include shorter descriptions of classroom
interactions,
scenarios, and examples that allow the participants to practice new concepts.
For example, in Module 10, participants are presented with possible problems related
to different classroom management systems. Using monitoring questions related to
instructional management practices, differentiated curricular and instructional
practices,
examine
behavior management practices, and student outcomes, the participants
classroom problems and provide possible solutions.

Self-Assessments
Along with the formative assessments located online, self-assessments are used
so that participants can examine myths and facts, their beliefs, and their progress on
important concepts in the modules. The assessments can be used to stimulate
discussion
and adapt learning activities for participants’ strengths and needs.

Interactive Graphic Organizers

Interactive graphic organizers (IGOs) are also included for each of the modules.
These three-dimensional hands-on displays demonstrate the relationships between
ideas, concepts, and processes. The IGOs exhibit the main ideas first and then include
the subtopics on the inside with space for note-taking. Video demonstrations of how
to cut and fold the IGOs are provided for the session organizer and participants on
this book’s webpage.
 When incorporated in the sessions, the IGOs (a) engage the participants in
creating,
organizing, and storing the newly discussed ideas, concepts, and processes; (b)
improve comprehension by breaking down bigger ideas into smaller, simpler
illustrations;
(c) aid in the retention and recall of concepts and their relationships; and (d)
provide a study guide for participants.

Important Module Outcome

The most important outcome for these modules is the participants’ application of
the functional behavior assessment process to their own classrooms in planning and
implementing interventions. At the conclusion of Module 10, teachers will have had
an opportunity to experience a successful intervention—increasing desired
behaviors
and decreasing undesired behaviors, either for an individual student or for the
entire classroom. Given the importance of the classroom structure to encouraging
student learning, special attention is also given to differentiation and instructional
management systems. We hope that these modules will provide positive outcomes
for participants and their students.
9 Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
http://taylorandfra ncis.com
 MODULE 1
Characteristics of
Gifted and Twice-
Exceptional Students

OVERVIEW
This module will describe the historical background, definitions, and
characteristics
of gifted students and gifted students with disabilities (i.e., twice-exceptional,
or 2e, students).

GOALS
At the conclusion of this module, participants will be able to:
•define and describe the characteristics of gifted students,
• define and describe the characteristics of twice-exceptional students, and
• compare and contrast the strengths and needs of gifted and 2e students.

MAIN IDEAS
Definitions of gifted students emphasize their potential for high
• performance;
their variability relative to others of the same age, experience, and
background; and their need for services.
• Gifted students have individual strengths, needs, and interests.
• Characteristics vary by area of giftedness, culture, socioeconomic class,
school conditions, social and emotional areas, and disability.
• Twice-exceptional students are those with both a gift and a disability,
which may mask one another.
• Working with gifted and twice-exceptional students requires specialized
professional development.
9 Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
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Background Information
for the Instructor

The information in the following sections provides background for the

instructor,
which may or may not be used with the participants depending on the
instructor’s
goals and the participants’ knowledge and skill level.

Is This Student Gifted?

Jeff is a high school student. He plays the trombone and enjoys time with his
friends in the school band. He and a small group of his friends have started a jazz
ensemble that plays at school and community events. He is also academically
talented
and enjoys writing, recently publishing a short story in a literary magazine.
This past week, he learned that he is a National Merit Scholar.
Stephanie is in middle school and attends a school for gifted and talented
students.
She performs at the top of her science and math classes but is struggling with
her classes in English language arts, particularly in writing. Realizing that students
are not talented in every domain, the teachers have begun to differentiate their
classrooms
to match the strengths and needs of the students. However, even with this
assistance in her language arts classes, Stephanie is still struggling.
Allen is in fourth grade and has been identified as a student with gifts and talents
because he performed in the top 5% on both achievement and intelligence tests. He
currently attends a weekly magnet school program in his school district that offers
opportunities for investigations in areas of interest and problem-based
interdisciplinary
units. However, he is very disruptive in his magnet school classroom, often
talking with his friends during instructional time. Because his behavior has become
quite disruptive to the other students, the teachers are considering removing him
from the program.
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT for Gifted and Twice-Exceptional
Students Using Functional Behavior Assessment

Jennifer is in fifth grade and does just enough work to pass from one year to the
next. She appears to do well on the required state achievement tests but does not seem
to be very engaged in her classwork. Recently Jennifer has been building mechanical
objects in her backyard, much to the delight of her neighborhood friends! She holds
performances each week, weaving her mechanical objects into puppet shows.
All of these examples describe children who are gifted and talented. These
students
demonstrate their gifts in different contexts—at home, at school, and with
their friends—and in a variety of areas—music, writing, leadership, science, math,
drama. Although Jeff would definitely be identified as gifted and talented because
of his outstanding performance in school and on assessments, Jennifer might not
because of her underachievement, and Allen and Stephanie may be at risk of not
receiving services in the gifted program.

Who Are Gifted Students?

Brief Historical Perspective of Intelignce
In the beginning of the 20th century, the concept of giftedness was closely
associated
with highly intelligent and academically achieving children who were typically
identified by scores on intelligence tests (Henry, 1920; Whipple, 1924). As an
example,
Terman (1925) identified individuals as gifted if they performed in the top 1%
of the school populations as measured by the Stanford Revision, an extension of the
Binet-Simon Scales for Measuring Intelligence (Terman, 1917). Hollingworth (1926)
also defined gifted children as those in the top 1% of the school population, although
she did note, “a gifted child may be far more excellent in some capacities than in
others” (p. 202). In the 1920s, Spearman (1923) viewed intelligence as an underlying
ability common to all tests and tasks, which he labeled g, for general intelligence. He
also identified variations of g as s—a two-factor theory.
In 1950, at an address to the American Psychological Association, Guilford
added another kind of ability, divergent production, which he identified using
factor
analysis. He distinguished divergent production from other abilities found on
intelligence tests, such as comprehension, memory, evaluation, and convergent
production. A decade later, Cattell (1963) represented Spearman’s g by two kinds of
ability—fluid and crystalized. Fluid ability referred to the successful adaptation in
situations in which previously learned skills offer no advantage, whereas crystallized
ability referred to those areas influenced by experience and education. Carroll (1993)
later elaborated Cattell’s view by analyzing different ability matrices and developing
a three-stratum taxonomic structure in which g, general intelligence, is at the apex
 Module 1: Characteristics of Gifted and Twice-Exceptional Students

of a hierarchical structure of abilities followed by eight broad factors that include

crystallized and fluid intelligence, general memory and learning, and other general
processes (e.g., visual and auditory perception, retrieval, and speed). The bottom
stratum
consists of 65 narrow abilities, such as those found in core academic areas. The
Cattell-Horn-Carroll model is central to the design of most current intelligence tests.

Models of Giftedness and Talent

These definitions reflect the changing conception of giftedness that initially
was associated with intelligence. The most current models focus on the number of
influences that contribute to giftedness as well as talent development. For example,
Tannenbaum (2003) described how excellence is influenced by general ability;
special
aptitudes in specific areas; nonintellectual facilitators, such as persistence,
mental
health, and metalearning; environment, such as caregivers, peers, culture, social
class, and classrooms; and chance, ranging from accidental to personalized action.
(2005) placed these areas into a developmental model. He suggested that
individuals
Gagné are born with natural abilities or gifts that are developed into talents
systematically.
The development of gifts into talents has three subcomponents: access
to a systematic program of activities; investment of time, money, and
psychological
energy; and progress from novice to expert. Contributors to this developmental
process include environmental (individual, milieu, and provisions) and intrapersonal
(physical, mental, motivation, awareness, volition) catalysts. All of the components
of Gagné’s model are influenced by chance, such as being born into a particular
family,
time, and culture.

Definitions of Gifted and Talented

The first federal definition of gifted and talented children was provided by the
Advisory Panel to the U.S. Office of Education in 1972 in its report to Congress
Education of the Gifted and Talented (Marland, 1972):

Gifted and talented children are those identified by professionally

qualified persons who, by virtue of outstanding abilities, are capable
of high performance. These are children who require differentiated
educational programs and/or services beyond those normally
provided
by the regular school program in order to realize their
contribution
to self and society.
 Children capable of high performance include those with
demonstrated
achievement and/or potential ability in any of the following
areas, singly or in combination:
1. general intellectual ability;
2. specific academic aptitude;
3. creative or productive thinking;
4. leadership ability;
5. visual and performing arts;
6. psychomotor ability. (p. 9)

According to Marland (1972), general intellectual abilities included verbal,

number,
spatial, memory, and reasoning factors most often associated with superior
performance in school and on intelligence tests. Specific academic aptitude included
abilities in one or more school subject areas, such as science, mathematics, social
studies, and language. Creative or productive thinking represented originality in
solving problems, flexibility in thinking, and fluency in ideas. The category of
leadership
ability included those individuals who demonstrated an ability to improve
human relationships and assist groups in attaining goals. Gifts and talents in the
visual and performing arts were demonstrated by the abilities and skills of prominent
artists, dancers, writers, musicians, and actors in their fields. Psychomotor ability
was demonstrated in athletics or in those mechanical skills required by engineering,
fine arts, and science. Although psychomotor was dropped from the definition in
1976, this definition focusing on multiple areas of giftedness continues to dominate
the field of gifted education.
In the 1990s, the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Educational Research
and Improvement (Ross, 1993) issued a report titled National Excellence: A Case for
Developing America’s Talent, which included this definition:

Children and youth with outstanding talent perform or show the

potential for performing at remarkably high levels of accomplishment
when compared with others of their age, experience, or environment.
These children and youth exhibit high performance capability in
intellectual,
creative, and/or artistic areas, possess an unusual leadership
capacity, or excel in specific academic fields. They require services or
activities not ordinarily provided by the schools. Outstanding talents
are present in children and youth from all cultural groups, across all
economic strata, and in all areas of human endeavor. (p. 11)
The important addition in this definition was the comparison with others of the
same age, experience, or environment and the emphasis on children and youth from
diverse backgrounds. This definition opened the door to identifying students relative
to their peers and the use of local norms.
The No Child Left Behind Act (2001) states:

The term “gifted and talented,” when used with respect to students,
children, or youth, means students, children or youth who give
evidence
of high achievement capability in areas such as intellectual,
creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields,
and who need services or activities not ordinarily provided by the
school in order to fully develop those capabilities. (p. 535)

The latest federal definition does not emphasize the relative comparisons within a
particular group. However, the National Association for Gifted Children’s (NAGC,
2019b) most recent definition emphasizes different subgroups that might be
overlooked
by previous definitions and stresses the importance of providing for these
students’ needs not only in academic areas, but also socially and emotionally:

Students with gifts and talents perform—or have the capability to

perform—at higher levels compared to others of the same age,
experience,
and environment in one or more domains. They require mod-
ification(s) to their educational experience(s) to learn and realize
their potential. Student with gifts and talents:
• Come from all racial, ethnic, and cultural populations, as well
as all economic strata.
Require sufficient access to appropriate learning
• opportunities
to realize their potential.
Can have learning and processing disorders that require
• specialized
intervention and accommodation.
Need support and guidance to develop socially and
• emotionally
as well as in their areas of talent.
• Require varied services based on their changing needs. (p. 1)

This definition emphasizes groups that are currently underrepresented in gifted

programs and the importance of identifying culturally and linguistically diverse
students and those from low-socioeconomic backgrounds (Worrell et al., 2019). It
also emphasizes the importance of providing educational opportunities to gifted
students. Without these services students’ potential might be adversely affected,
particularly for those from low-income backgrounds or those who underperform
(Olszewski-Kubilius & Corwith, 2018; Plucker et al., 2013; Wyner et al., 2007; Xiang
et al., 2011). In addition, some students who are gifted and talented may also have a
disability or mental health diagnosis in one or more domains (Reis et al., 2014). This
definition also addresses the need to develop gifted students not only in their talent
areas, but also socially and emotionally in such areas as social skills and coping with
challenges. Finally, the definition stresses variations in the cognitive and
psychosocial
needs of gifts and talents. The goal of services should be to alleviate a need that
would otherwise go unmet (Borland, 2005; Lohman, 2006; Peters et al., 2014).

Characteristics of Gifted Students

Given the diversity of students with gifts and talents, characteristics vary based
on the domain and students’ backgrounds. Based on the research literature, Johnsen
(2018) identified the following characteristics for each of the areas in the federal
definition
and for some special populations.
General Intellectual Ability. In the area of general intellectual ability (i.e., “g”),
researchers agreed on several important characteristics (B. Clark, 2013; Colangelo &
Davis, 2003; Coleman & Cross, 2005; Davis et al., 2018; J. E. Gilliam & Jerman, 2015;
Khatena, 1992; Piirto, 2007; Renzulli et al., 2013; Rogers, 2002; Ryser & McConnell,
2004; Sternberg & Davidson, 2005; Tannenbaum, 1983). The student:
• Has an extensive and detailed memory, particularly in an area of interest.
• Has advanced vocabulary for their age—precocious language.
• Has advanced communication skills for their age; able to express ideas and
feelings.
• Asks intelligent questions.
• Is able to identify the important characteristics of new concepts/problems.
• Learns information quickly.
• Uses logic in arriving at commonsense answers.
• Has a broad base of knowledge—a large quantity of information.
• Understands abstract ideas and complex concepts.
• Uses analogical thinking, problem solving, or reasoning.
• Observes relationships and sees connections.
• Finds and solves difficult and unusual problems.
• Understands principles, forms generalizations, and uses them in new
situations.
• Wants to learn and is curious.
• Works conscientiously and has a high degree of concentration in areas of
interest.
• Understands and uses various symbol systems.
• Is reflective about learning.

Specific Academic Fields—General Characteristics. Specific academic fields

include these foundation areas: English language arts, mathematics, social studies,
and science. Researchers (J. E. Gilliam & Jerman, 2015; Piirto, 2004, 2007; Rogers,
2002; Ryser & McConnell, 2004; Tannenbaum, 1983) have identified these general
characteristics that are demonstrated within an area of interest. The student:
• Has an intense, sustained interest.
• Has hobbies/collections related to the field.
• Is attracted toward cognitive complexity and enjoys solving complex problems.
• Prefers classes/careers in a specific academic field.
• Is highly self-motivated; persistent.
• Has a broad base of knowledge.
• Reads widely in an academic field.
• Learns information quickly.
• Has an inquisitive nature; asks good questions.
• Examines and recalls details.
• Recognizes critical elements and details in learning concepts.
• Analyzes problems and considers alternatives.
• Understands abstract ideas and concepts.
• Uses vocabulary beyond grade level.
•Verbalizes complex concepts and processes.
• Visualizes images and translates them into other forms—written, spoken,
symbolic (e.g., music notation, numbers, letters).
• Sees connections and relationships in a field and generalizes them to other
situations, applications.

Specific Academic Fields—Characteristics in Specific Domains.

Researchers
(Gilliam & Jerman, 2015; Piirto, 2004, 2007; Rogers, 2002; Ryser & McConnell,
2004; Tannenbaum, 1983) have also identified the following characteristics within
specific domains.
Math/Science Characteristics. The student:
• Is interested in numerical analysis.
• Has a good memory for storing main features of problems and solutions.
• Appreciates parsimony, simplicity, or economy in solutions.
• Reasons effectively and efficiently.
• Solves problems intuitively using insight.
• Can reverse steps in the mental process.
• Organizes data and experiments to discover patterns or relationships.
• Improvises with science equipment and math methods.
• Is flexible in solving problems.

Social Studies/Language Arts Characteristics. The student:

• Enjoys language/verbal communication; has excellent communication skills.
• Engages in intellectual play, enjoys puns, and has a good sense of humor.
 • Organizes ideas and sequences in preparation for speaking and writing.
• Suspends judgment; entertains alternative points of view.
• Is original and creative—has unique ideas in writing or speaking.
• Is sensitive to social, ethical, and moral issues.
• Is interested in theories of causation.
• Likes independent study and research in areas of interest.
• Uses the following qualities in writing: paradox, parallel structure, rhythm,
visual imagery, melodic combinations, figures of speech, reverse structure,
unusual adjectives/adverbs, a feeling of movement, uncanny wisdom,
sophisticated
syntax, prose lyricism, sense of humor, philosophical bent,
willingness
to play with words.
Creativity Area. Although creativity and intelligence are related, one of the key
characteristics that differentiate the two is divergent thinking. Convergent
thinking
is arriving at a single conclusion, whereas divergent thinking requires producing
many ideas that are different from the “norm,” such as ideas between peers in a
classroom,
at competitions, or even among professionals in a field. Characteristics in this
area have been defined by test developers, cognitive psychologists who study problem
solving, and researchers who examine case studies of creators. Researchers have
identified
some of these common characteristics (B. Clark, 2013; Coleman & Cross, 2005;
Gardner, 1993; J. E. Gilliam & Jerman, 2015; Goertzel & Goertzel, 1962; Goertzel et
al., 1978, 2004; Gruber, 1982; Guilford, 1950; Khatena, 1992; Perkins, 1981; Piirto,
2007; Renzulli et al., 2013; Sternberg, 1988; Tannenbaum, 1983; Torrance, 1974;
Treffinger et al., 2013). The student:
• Has in-depth foundational knowledge.
• Prefers complexity and open-endedness.
• Contributes new concepts, methods, products, or performances.
• Has extreme fluency of thoughts and a large number of ideas.
• Is observant and pays attention to detail.
• Uses unique solutions to problems; improvises.
• Challenges existing ideas and products.
• Connects disparate ideas.
• Is constantly asking questions.
• Criticizes constructively.
• Is a risk-taker; confident.
• Is attracted to the novel, complex, and mysterious.
• Is a nonconformist, uninhibited in expression, adventurous, and able to
resist group pressure.
• Accepts disorder.
• Tolerates ambiguity; delays closure.
• Is persistent and task committed in an area of interest.
 • Has a sense of humor.
• Is intellectually playful.
• Is aware of their own creativity.
• Is emotionally sensitive; sensitive to beauty.
• Is intuitive.
•Enjoys alone time.
• Is reflective about the personal creative process.

Artistic Area—General Characteristics. Artistic areas include art, drama, or

music. Similar to the academic areas, researchers have identified general and
specific
characteristics (G. A. Clark & Zimmerman, 1984; J. E. Gilliam & Jerman, 2015;
Khatena, 1988, 1992; Piirto, 2007; Renzulli et al., 2013; Seashore et al., 1960). The
student:
• Chooses artistic activity for projects or during free time.
• Studies or practices artistic talent without being told.
• Strives to improve artistic skills.
• Demonstrates talent for an extended period of time.
• Concentrates for long periods of time on artistic projects.
• Seems to pick up skills in the arts with little or no instruction.
• Possesses high sensory sensitivity.
• Observes and shows interest in others who are proficient in the artistic skill.
• Uses the artistic area to communicate.
• Experiments in the artistic medium.
• Sets high standards in the artistic area.
• Demonstrates confidence in the artistic area.

Artistic Area—Specific Domains. Khatena (1992) suggested that each art

form requires different language, skills, and highly specialized abilities. These specific
characteristics are listed for art, drama, and music.
Art Characteristics. The student:
• Scribbles earlier than most.
• Initiates drawing.
• Incorporates a large number of elements into artwork.
• Provides balance and order in artwork.
• Elaborates on ideas from other people as a starting point.
• Observes details in environment and artistic areas.
• Has unique, unusual solutions to artistic problems.
• Uses unusual and interesting visual imagery.
• Is innovative in selecting and using art materials.
• Has a highly developed sense of movement and rhythm in drawings.
• Has a great feel for color.
 • Varies organization of elements to suit different situations.
• Uses content that is interesting, tells a story, or expresses feelings.
• Produces many drawings.

Drama Characteristics. The student:

• Is innovative and creative in performing.
• Easily tells a story or gives an account of some experience.
• Uses gestures or facial expressions to communicate feelings.
• Is adept at role-playing, improvising, and acting out situations.
• Identifies with moods and motivations of characters.
• Handles their body with ease and poise.
• Creates original plays or makes up plays from stories.
• Commands and holds the attention of a group when speaking.
• Evokes emotional responses from listeners.
• Communicates feelings through nonverbal means.
• Imitates others; uses their voice to reflect changes of idea and mood.

Music Characteristics. The student:

• Discriminates fine differences in tone or absolute pitch.
• Identifies a variety of sounds (e.g., background noise, singers, orchestral
instruments).
• Varies loudness and softness.
• Remembers melodies and can produce them accurately.
• Plays an instrument or indicates a strong desire to do so.
• Is sensitive to rhythm; changes body movements to tempo.
• Dances to tunes with different rhythms.
• Can complete a melody.
• Creates own melodies.
• Likes listening to music.
• Likes producing music with others.

Leadership Area. Leadership emerges in various types of situations and is

influenced by the individual context, status, and characteristics of the followers.
Researchers have identified these characteristics by using formal assessments and
observing leaders in specific settings (Bean & Karnes, 2015; Davis et al., 2018; Jolly
& Kettler, 2004; Karnes & Zimmerman, 2001; Khatena, 1992; Renzulli et al., 2013;
A. A. Roach et al., 1999; Smyth & Ross, 1999). The student:
• Is well-organized.
• Can do backward planning.
• Is visionary; has a holistic view.
• Is a problem finder.
 • Is able to see problems from multiple perspectives.
• Adapts to new situations.
• Can manipulate systems.
• Is highly responsible; can be counted on.
• Maintains on-task focus.
• Is self-confident.
• Is a persuasive communicator.
• Has a cooperative attitude; works well in groups.
• Participates in most social activities; enjoys being around other people.
• Influences the behavior of others; is recognized as a leader by peers.
• Is respected, liked, or both by others.
• Is aware of verbal and nonverbal cues; has sophisticated interpersonal skills.
• Is emotionally stable.
• Is willing to take risks.
Social and Emotional Area. Along with cognitive characteristics, gifted
students
also exhibit specific characteristics in the social and emotional area. Although
some researchers (Cross et al., 2018; Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1997; Feist, 1998;
Piirto, 2007; Winner, 1996) view these characteristics as innate, others view them as
learned. The student:
• Is motivated in work that excites them.
• Persists in completing tasks in areas of interest.
• Is self-directed; independent.
• Is conscientious.
• Evaluates and judges critically.
• Has a high degree of concentration.
• Becomes bored with routine tasks.
• Is interested in “adult” problems.
• Is concerned about right and wrong (i.e., ethical principles).
• Has higher self-concept, particularly in academics.
• Has high expectations of themselves and others.
• Has a sense of humor.
• Is highly sensitive.
• Takes other perspectives; is empathic.
• Is a perfectionist.
Because of underrepresentation of specific subgroups of gifted and talented
students,
special attention and professional development need to be provided to
educators
in this area (Johnsen, 2018). These underrepresented groups include culturally
diverse students, those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, and students with
disabilities, who will be discussed in the next section.
 Students Who Are Culturally Different. Culturally diverse students include,
but are not limited to, African Americans, Native Americans, Asian Americans, and
Hispanic/Latinx Americans. Great variation exists between the macroculture and the
culture of the student, such as their religion, geographic region, family traditions,
community, age, and so on. The greater the numbers of cultural areas that are
different,
the greater the chance that these gifted students will display characteristics
different from the norm (B. Clark, 2013; Gollnick & Chinn, 2009; Johnsen, 2018).
Torrance (1969) suggested 18 “creative positives” that may be helpful in identifying
culturally different youth. The student:
• Expresses feelings and emotions easily.
• Improvises with commonplace materials and objects.
• Is articulate in role-playing, sociodrama, and storytelling.
• Enjoys and has an ability in visual arts, such as drawing, painting, and
sculpture.
• Enjoys and has an ability in creative movement, dance, dramatics, and so
forth.
• Enjoys and has an ability in music, rhythm, and so forth.
• Uses expressive speech.
• Is fluent and flexible in figural media.
• Enjoys and uses skills in small-group activities, problem solving, and so forth.
• Responds to concrete activities.
• Responds to kinesthetic activities.
• Is expressive with gestures, body language, and so forth.
• Has a sense of humor.
• Uses rich imagery in informal language.
• Has original ideas in problem solving.
• Is problem-centered or persistent in problem solving.
• Is emotionally responsive.
• Has an ability to warm-up quickly.
Other researchers (Castellano, 1998; Esquierdo & Arreguín-Anderson, 2012; Irby
& Lara-Alecio, 1996) have provided these descriptions of bilingual and Hispanic
students.
The student:
• Is culturally sensitive and takes pride in language and culture.
• Adheres to traditional family responsibilities.
• Prefers collaboration.
• Exhibits oral and written language rich in imagery.
• Displays originality in the arts.
• Acquires social English language skills readily.
• Expresses self-confidence and positive self-concept.
• Exhibits a desire for learning.
• Uses expressive, elaborate, and fluent verbal behaviors.
 Students From Lower Socioeconomic Backgrounds. Another group frequently
overlooked are those children who are from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. These
students may have had fewer opportunities to acquire background knowledge and
academic skills to be recognized as gifted (Siegle et al., 2016). Moreover, educators
may focus more on their deficits than their differences (Ford, 2007). Researchers
(A. Baldwin, 1973; B. Clark, 2013; Ford, 2007; Torrance, 1969; VanTassel-Baska &
Stambaugh, 2007) have identified these characteristics. The student:
• Has higher mathematical abilities relative to other areas.
• Exhibits differences between reasoning and academic achievement.
• Is curious and has varied interests.
• Is independent.
• Has a good imagination.
• Is fluent in nonverbal communication.
• Improvises when solving problems.
• Learns quickly through experience.
• Retains and uses information well.
• Shows a desire to learn in daily work.
• Is original and creative.
• Uses language rich in imagery.
• Responds well to visual media and concrete activities.
• Shows leadership among peers; is responsible.
• Shows relationships among unrelated ideas.
• Is entrepreneurial.
• Has a keen sense of humor.

Who Are Gifted Students

With Disabilities?
Brief Historical Perspective of Gifted
Students With Disabilities
As early as the 1920s, researchers recognized special talents in children with
learning difficulties (Hollingworth, 1923). By 1944, a description of Asperger’s
syndrome
not only included impairments in social interactions but also excellent logical
abstract thinking and isolated areas of interest (Asperger, 1944/1991). In 1962, the
term learning disability emerged (Kirk, 1962), and experts acknowledged that some
children have strengths in some areas and disabilities in others. The term learning
disabilities was defined by the Education for All Handicapped Children Act passed in
1975. Three years later, the Gifted and Talented Children’s Education Act (1978) was
passed. This act established a federal office and a national definition (see Marland,
1972). Although neither of these two acts included gifted students who might also
have disabilities, it was not long before researchers called attention to the possibility
of a dual diagnosis. Maker’s (1977) seminal work, Providing Programs for the Gifted
Handicapped, described individuals who had gifts and talents but also experienced
physical and cognitive disabilities. Attention to this group of gifted students grew
during the 1980s with special programs in schools and professional organizations
such as the Association for the Education of Gifted Underachieving Students. NAGC
created a division focused on special populations of gifted students, including those
with disabilities. Concurrently, the research literature grew as well. In 2004, the
reauthorization
of the Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA,
1990) mentioned students with disabilities who may also have gifts and talents.
Because approximately 6% of students with disabilities (7.1 million) have a gift or
talent, it is estimated that there are 300,000–400,000 twice-exceptional students
who exist in the public school population (Baum et al., 2017; National Center for
Education Statistics, 2020; National Education Association, 2006). In addition, it is
estimated that only 11.1% of these students participate in programs for gifted and
talented students (Barnard-Brak et al., 2015). A number of publications and websites
have emerged since that time. Recently, an advocacy group for twice-exceptional
students
was formed with members from 26 national, state, and local organizations (L.
Baldwin et al., 2015). This group, called the National Twice-Exceptional Community
of Practice (2e CoP) identified these two priorities for policies and identifying and
serving gifted students with disabilities (Baldwin et al., 2015):
1. Develop an agreed-upon understanding, based on research and experience,
of what 2e is and is not and what needs to be done to support a 2e student’s
capacity to grow and prosper.
2. Create a consistent national message to inform policy about 2e students. (p.
212)

Definition of Twice-Exceptional Students

Although the U.S. Department of Education has defined both gifted and learning
disability, it has not addressed how these terms intersect. Some states have written
definitions, such as this example from the Texas Education Agency (n.d.):

A “twice-exceptional learner” is a child or youth who performs at—or

shows the potential for performing at—a remarkably high level of
accomplishment when compared to others of the same age, experi-
 ence, or environment . . . and who also gives evidence of one or more
disabilities as defined by federal or state eligibility (IDEA, 2004)
(300.8) (Section 504) criteria such as:
• learning disabilities;
• speech and language disorders;
• emotional/behavioral disorders;
• physical disabilities;
• traumatic brain injury;
• autism spectrum disorder; or
• other health impairments such as ADHD.

The 2e CoP developed this common definition for twice-exceptional students (L.
Baldwin et al., 2015):

Twice-exceptional individuals evidence exceptional ability and

disability,
which results in a unique set of circumstances. Their
exceptional
ability may dominate, hiding their disability; their disability
may dominate, hiding their exceptional ability; each may mask the
other so that neither is recognized or addressed.
2e students, who may perform below, at, or above grade level,
require the following:
Specialized methods of identification that consider the
• possibleinteraction of the exceptionalities,
• Enriched/advanced educational opportunities that develop
the child’s interests, gifts, and talents while also meeting the
child’s learning needs,
• Simultaneous supports that ensure the child’s academic
success and social-emotional well-being, such as
accommodations,
therapeutic interventions, and specialized
instruction,
and

Working successfully with this unique population requires

specialized
(p. 212)
academic training and ongoing professional development.

Characteristics of 2e Students
Characteristics of twice-exceptional students will vary not only within each
child’s talent domain, but also within each disability. For example, children who have
writing disabilities may be highly verbal but not be able to spell and write cohesive
paragraphs. On the other hand, children who are deaf may have weaker oral
communication
skills but a superior memory and the ability to solve problems. These
students’ challenges often mask their gifts, which result in negative perceptions by
adults, peers, and self. They may not be viewed as needing gifted education or special
education because they have some characteristics of both groups. Trail (2011)
identified
these overall strengths and challenges for twice-exceptional students:

Strengths
• superior vocabulary
• highly creative
• resourceful
• curious
• imaginative
• questioning
• problem solving ability
• sophisticated sense of humor
• wide range of interests
• advanced ideas and opinions
• special talent or consuming interest (p. 3)

Challenges
• easily frustrated
• stubborn
• manipulative
• opinionated
• argumentative
• written expression
• sensitive to criticism
• inconsistent academic performance
• difficulty with written expression
• lack of organization/study skills
• difficulty with social interactions (p. 3)
More specifically, of the 13 disability categories identified under IDEA (1990), all
but one (intellectual disability) could exist in cognitively/academically gifted students.
Foley-Nicpon et al. (2011), however, noted that only three of the twice-exceptionality
areas have been investigated: gifted students with specific learning disabilities, gifted
students with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, and gifted students with
autism spectrum disorders. Researchers have identified the following characteristics
for each group.
Students With Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD). Gifted students with
SLD may exhibit some of the following characteristics (Assouline et al., 2010; Ferri
et al., 1997; Montague, 1991; Nielsen, 2002; Waldron & Saphire, 1990). The student:
 • Has strong verbal abilities (i.e., verbal comprehension, conceptualization).
• Has relatively weaker nonverbal abilities.
• Has slower processing speeds.
• Exhibits difficulties with long- and short-term memory.
• Has extremely uneven academic skills (e.g., superior in one domain but weak
in others).
• Lacks organizational and study skills.
• Is frustrated by school work in their area of disability.
• Has limited confidence in their abilities and low self-efficacy.

Students With Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). Gifted students with

ASD may exhibit the following characteristics (Assouline et al., 2008, 2009; Bianco
et al., 2009; Doobay et al., 2014; Foley-Nicpon et al., 2010, 2011; Kalbfleisch, 2014).
The student:
• Has delays in verbal and nonverbal communication.
• Has limited abilities to read body language or facial expressions.
• Has difficulty making friends.
• Engages in repetitive activities.
• Resists change.
• Responds unusually to sensory experiences.
• Has slower processing speeds.
• Exhibits difficulty with tasks involving fine motor skills.

Students With Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Gifted

students with ADHD may exhibit some of the following characteristics (Assouline et
al., 2009; L. Baldwin et al., 2015; Kalbfleisch, 2014; Kaufmann et al., 2000; Reis &
McCoach, 2002; Webb & Latimer, 1993). The student:
• Has slower processing speeds.
• Has less working memory.
• Exhibits less executive function for emotional control.
• Is easily distracted and has difficulty sustaining attention.
• Seeks stimuli through a variety of actions to stay focused.
• May interrupt or intrude on others.
• Cannot see the consequences of their actions.
• Has difficulty remaining focused during less motivating activities.

Comparisons Between 2e and Gifted Students

Table 1 indicates the challenges that gifted students with disabilities may face in
the school setting.
TABLE
TABLE 11

Challenges That
That Gifted
Gifted Students
Students With
With Disabilities
Disabilities May Face
Face

Without Disabilities With Disabilities

Have the ability to learn basic Often struggle to learn basic skills due to
skills quickly and easily and cognitive
processing difficulties; need to learn
retain information with less compensatory
strategies in order to
acquire basic skills

repetition. and information.

Have high verbal ability. Have high verbal ability but extreme difficulty in
written language area; may use language in

inappropriate ways and

inappropriate at times.

Have keen powers of Have strong observation skills but often have
observation. deficits in memory skills.

Show strong critical Excel in solving "real-world" problems; have

thinking,
problem-solving, and
skills.
outstandingcritical thinking and decision-making

decision-making skills; often independently develop compensatory

skills.

Have a
long attention Frequently have difficulty paying attention but
span—persistent, intense may concentrate for long periods in areas of
concentration. interest.

Are creative in the generation Have unusual imagination; frequently generate

an

of thoughts, idea, and actions; original and, at times, rather "bizarre" ideas; are
innovative. extremely divergent in thought; may appear to
daydream when generating ideas.
Take risks. Are often unwilling to take risks with regard to
academics; take risks in nonschool areas without
consideration of consequences.

Have an unusual, often highly May use humor to divert attention from school

developed sense of humor. failure, to make fun of peers, or to avoid trouble.

May mature at different rates Sometimes appear immature, as

they may use
than age peers. anger, crying, withdrawal, etc., to express feelings
and to deal with difficulties.

Have a sense of Require frequent teacher support and feedback

independence. in deficit areas; highly independent in other
areas; often appear to be extremely stubborn and
inflexible.

Are sensitive. Are sensitive regarding disability area(s); highly

critical of self and others, including teachers; can
concern about the
express feelings of others even
while engaging in antisocial behavior.
9 Taylor & Francis
I
Taylor & Francis Group
http://taylorandfra ncis.com
Presentation Guide
Characteristics of Gifted and
Twice-Exceptional Students

Presentation Purposes
Identify important concepts within current and historical definitions of
• students
with gifts and talents.
• Define and describe the characteristics of gifted and twice-exceptional students.
Identify strengths, needs, and interests of gifted and twice-exceptional
• students.

Optional Activities
• Activity 1.1: IGO: Definitions of Gifted and Talented Students
• Activity 1.2: Identifying Strengths, Needs, and Interests
• Activity 1.3: Who Are Gifted Students With Disabilities?: Fact or Myth?

Note. Reproducible activities are located at the end of the module, along with answer
keys. To form IGOs, participants will need access to scissors and glue.

Time Required
100–165 minutes, depending on the number of activities included and the
amount of discussion. The presenter may wish to divide the presentation into these
sections:
• Slides 1–18 (45–60 minutes; Definitions + Activity 1.1),
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 After completing the plans and sections of the lines explored,
the party, in September, 1848, returned to England and rejoined
the survey department.
The personal services of sergeant Calder on this duty are
sufficiently interesting to receive notice in this place; and, with
some little difference in points of duty and incident, may be
taken as an average type of the individual adventures of the rest
of the party. From Halifax to Folly Village, he surveyed a line of
seventy-five miles with the barometer, and from thence, for
twenty-five miles, measured the roads from the high-water mark
of the Bay of Fundy, by taking the heights with the theodolite,
using the angle of elevation and depression, and checking the
same simultaneously, by barometrical observation. He afterwards
traversed a varied country for about sixty miles to Amherst, from
whence he carried on the survey, barometrically, to Mirimichi.
The completion of another rough road of ten miles now took him
fully into the wilderness, where he continued his work till the
winter set in. During his labours in the woods he ran short of
provisions. He was then in charge of twelve men, carrying with
them 3 lbs. of pork, 1 lb. of oatmeal, and a small bag of ginger.
Upon this scanty fare the party subsisted for three days; and,
harassed as they were by hard travelling through a mountainous
country, entangled with a tissue of bush and branches covered
with deep snow, their fatigues and privations were considerably
increased. Heavy loads also they carried, and so closely were the
trees packed together, in the exuberant vegetation of the forest,
that the adventurers not only had to tear themselves through
the thicket, but were continually impeded by logs of fallen trees
and tufts of stubborn underwood. On the evening of the third
day the hunger of the men began to show its effects in
emaciation and despondency. At this moment sergeant Calder
found it necessary to relieve the party of the stores and abandon
them in the woods. The theodolite and barometers he attached
in a safe position to a tree. He then directed the men to use
their utmost exertions in tracking a spot where provisions could
be found. Scrambling down the banks of a large river they
hurried onwards some six miles, when a newly-blazed tree was
discovered, indicating the proximity of a lumbering camp. The
blazed marks were followed further on for about five miles, and
then, to the unbounded joy of the party, a light seen through the
chinks of a log-hut on the opposite shore drew the men in the
dark on a fallen tree across the stream to the desired camp,
where their wants were appeased and their exhausted strength
restored. Sergeant Calder acted with coolness and kindness
throughout, and maintained the strictest discipline and order. He
afterwards recovered the instruments and stores left in the
woods, which his men, from weakness and want, had been
unable to carry.
In the second season the sergeant returned to the Cobiquid
Mountains, the scene of his former exertions. This range was the
vertebræ of the country, and the hinging point of an important
tract in the route of the proposed railway. Some doubts were
entertained as to the practicability of accurately ascertaining the
gradients of this dangerous and unknown district, and had they
not been determined, the scheme must have proved abortive;
but sergeant Calder undertook the service, and accomplished it
by means of rods and the spirit-level, to the entire satisfaction of
his officers, verifying at the same time the correctness of his
former investigations in connexion with the survey of the hills.
After this, travelling 200 miles to Cape Canso, he surveyed a
branch line along a rugged coast and through an intricate
wilderness, to within a few miles of Pictou. In conducting this
work one of his labourers was seized with fever. Calder took
especial care of the man’s comforts, which, however, from the
necessity of crossing rivers and lakes of great breadth on
catamarans, or rafts of logs, were unavoidably much restricted.
As he proceeded, the trials of the sergeant and his men
multiplied, both from the fatigue of travelling and the want of
provisions. Wild berries were eaten to supply the cravings of
hunger; but to assuage the more fastidious necessities of the
sick man, the berries were taken by him with a little sugar. What
was most distressing at this time was the absence of all shelter
from the inclement weather, and both hale and sick were
therefore forced to stretch their limbs under the snow-laden
boughs of some dwarf trees, exposed to the keenness of the
night frost. At last the party arrived at a district known as the
“Garden of Paradise”—a rugged and inhospitable region, where
the men were benevolently entertained by some wild Highland
settlers. Soon afterwards the sergeant journeyed to Halifax,
where he completed the plans and sections of his surveys, and
returned to England after a service with the exploration
expedition of two years and three months.[494]
A large increase to the army and artillery led to a
proportionate increase to the royal sappers and miners. This was
suggested by Sir John Burgoyne, the inspector-general of
fortifications, to maintain a sufficient disposable force for
employment in any military services rendered necessary by the
exigencies of the times. Eight companies were ordered to be
added to the corps, but their formation was spread over three or
four years. The first addition gave, on the 1st April, 1846, 1
sergeant, 1 corporal, 1 second-corporal, and 8 privates to each
of the 10 service companies; and a company numbered the
12th, of 100 non-commissioned officers and men, was formed at
the same time. The corps was thus raised in establishment from
1,290 to 1,500, and on the 1st September it was further
increased to 1,600, by the formation of the 15th company. The
Corfu company remained at its original establishment of 62
sergeants and rank and file.
On the 22nd July, eighteen rank and file embarked for China,
and landed at Hong Kong on the 26th December. This was the
third reinforcement to that command. When relieved in
November, 1852, the party had dwindled away to 8 men: 7 had
died, 2 deserted, and 1 was invalided. The total deaths in the
three parties, whose united strength was 67, amounted to 27
men.
The abandonment of the execution of some extensive works in
Bermuda permitted the recall to England of the eighth company,
which arrived at Woolwich on the 5th August, 1846. The
strength of the company on landing at Bermuda was seventy-
nine of all ranks. Of this number eight were invalided, thirty-
eight had died, one was drowned, one killed, and one
transported for desertion. Only thirty-one men, therefore,
regained our shores.
A reading-room was established for the corps at Southampton
in the summer, which obtained much attention from
distinguished visitors. The Marquis of Anglesey—then Master-
General—presented an engraving of himself to the room, and the
Queen also patronized it by presenting an engraving of his Royal
Highness, Prince Albert.[495] In placing the gift in the room,
Colonel Colby thus recorded the fact in a general order to the
companies under his command;—“The valuable services of this
distinguished corps, having been brought under Her Most
Gracious Majesty’s notice by the ordnance surveys of Great
Britain and Ireland, the demarcation of the boundary line
between the British dominions and those of the United States in
America, and more especially by the survey of the royal domains
at Windsor and the duchy of Lancaster, Her Majesty has
condescended to mark her gracious approval of these services,
by ordering the presentation of a portrait of the Prince Albert to
be placed in the reading-room.”
Twice this year the second and eleventh companies were
inspected by General Sir Robert Wilson, the Governor of Gibraltar
—on the 16th May and 17th October. On both occasions they
presented a very creditable appearance under arms. “The
progress of the new work,” observes his Excellency, “attests their
skill and indefatigable diligence, and their merits become the
reputation of the service to which they belong.”
The third company of three sergeants and forty-five rank and
file, under Captain Wynne, R.E., received orders at ten o’clock at
night on the 21st September, and in seven hours after was on
route viâ Liverpool for Dublin, where it arrived on the 24th.
Placed at the disposal of the Irish Board of Works to oversee the
poor during the continuance of the famine, which, from the
failure of the potato crop was now the scourge of Ireland, the
company was instantly removed in small parties to Limerick,
Castlebar, Roscommon, Newcastle, Boyle, and Castlerea,
retaining at Dublin as storekeeper and accountant for the Board
sergeant John Baston.[496] From these several stations the men
were again dispersed over districts of wild country, where the
poor, clamorous for subsistence and life, were in a state of
revolt. Numbers of these turbulent but starving people were
employed on the construction of public roads, &c.; and the
sappers, appointed their overseers, not only laid out their work,
but instructed them in its performance. To this general duty
several of them united the office of steward and inspecting check
clerk; and besides controlling the check clerks, superintended
and examined the measurements of tasks, and had a general
supervision of all arrangements in the field. More than six
months they continued on this duty, and returned to Woolwich
on the 8th April, 1847, with a high character.
The works superintended by them were always distinguished
from other works by the superior order and discipline which they
enforced, not unfrequently in circumstances of great personal
danger, and during a winter of unusual severity. In detecting
frauds and correcting abuses they were found particularly
valuable; and their uniform zeal, ability and good conduct, met
with the perfect satisfaction of the Board of Works and the Lords
of the Treasury. Even Daniel O’Connell spoke favourably of their
employment.[497] The working pay of the men while under the
relief board ranged between 1s. and 2s. 6d. a-day.
While on this novel service, private George Windsor, from the
upright way in which he performed his duty, made himself
obnoxious to the peasantry in the lawless district of Croom; and
but for the gallantry with which he defended himself, would
probably have lost his life. On the 26th December this private
was employed in the barony of Cashma on the Pullough line of
road, and on passing down the line in advance of the check clerk
and a number of labourers, &c., was met by two persons
dressed in women’s clothes, with veils hanging from their
bonnets covering their faces. One was armed with a gun, the
other with a pistol. Presenting their pieces, they ordered him to
kneel, but this the private refused, and though he was unarmed,
the ruffians at once closed upon him. At this moment Windsor
seized the person armed with the pistol, (dexterously thrusting
his finger between the trigger and the guard,) and getting hold
of his throat with the other hand, they fell together, fortunately
in such a way that the desperado with the gun could not,
without injuring his accomplice, shoot the sapper. He, therefore,
beat Windsor with the butt-end of his piece. Several minutes the
struggle was maintained strangely enough in the presence of a
large number of stewards and labourers; and had he met with
the slightest assistance from any of them, would have captured
both the offenders; but incredulous as it may appear, it must be
added to the disgrace of Irishmen that, just as he had
overpowered the ruffian with the pistol, a man named Joseph
Lindsay[498]—brother to the check clerk—came forward, and
dislodging Windsor’s grasp, aided the parties to decamp! For his
spirited and manly conduct in the attack, private Windsor was
promoted to be second-corporal.
Private Edward West received three threatening notices
through the post-office warning him not to appear at work again
on pain of death, adding that, if he did, he should “drop into a
bit of a hole already dug for his carcase.” Unmoved by these
missives, the private was always the first on the line; and when
the labourers were collected, he told them he had received the
notices, and then burning them in their presence, observed in a
loud voice, “that would be the way his intended murderers would
be served at another time.” Once he was attacked by a party
from behind a hedge with stones. Struck on the head, he was
stunned for a few moments, and nearly fell. On recovering, he
boldly dashed over the hedge to meet his assailants, but the
cowards made a precipitate retreat. Thirty men suspected of
being concerned in the assault were at once dismissed from
employment.
Six other men were promoted for their coolness, as well as
tact and fidelity, in carrying on their appointed services. Of these
private William Baker was perhaps the most conspicuous. A brief
detail of his services will show the nature of his duties and the
difficulties he had to contend with. Detached to Shonkeragh,
eight Irish miles from Roscommon, he was placed over a number
of labourers who were in the last stage of insubordination. At
first they took their own time of going to work and quitting it,
although the regulations required them to be present from 7 A.M.
till 5 P.M. To train them to punctuality was not an easy matter, but
by checking them and carrying out a firm discipline he soon
gained his point. That there should be no excuse for absence, he
employed a strong boy to blow a tin horn on the top of the
highest hill, central among the cabins of the workmen, to call
them to work, and at its sound the rapid gathering of the poor at
the rendezvous, on all occasions, showed their willingness to be
guided by any useful reform.
This command over a half-civilized class of men made his
services very desirable in irregular districts; and among several
places where he was beneficially employed was Drumshanaugh
—a desolate spot where a knot of Molly Maguires held sway, and
obtained payment without work, by intimidating the civil
overseers, who feared the consequences of not yielding to their
exactions. The farmers' sons and others who had plenty of cattle
were receiving 4d. a day more than the people who really did
work, and 300l. in this way were paid for bad labour not worth
50l. With these labourers he had a trying duty to perform; but,
amid threats and insubordination, he calmly effected his
purpose, and suppressed both the spirit of turbulence and the
practice of fraud.
The labourers received from 4d. to 8d. and 9d. a day, and the
rough wall builders 1s. 6d., in strict proportion to the work
executed. When task-work was introduced, it was difficult to
remove the prejudices which set in against the change, and
quicken into zeal the indolence which followed. To carry out the
instructions of the Board of Works, private Baker selected some
of the mildest men of his party to work at easy tasks, by which
they earned 11d. a day—3d. more than formerly. At the end of
the week the overseer made a point of this, and paying his
choice men first, made suitable remarks as they received their
money. Next came the day-men, who being checked for wet
days and lost time, only averaged about 3s. 2d. a week. The
disparity of the payments had a wonderful effect, and ever
afterwards the system of task labour was eagerly preferred by
the peasantry.
Deception, however, soon crept into the tasks, which it
required some tact and alertness to detect. In excavations, the
labourers frequently came in contact with stone, and for such
quantities as they dug out and heaped up, they were paid by the
cubic yard; but often these heaps were merely superficial. In
every such case private Baker had the mass pulled down and
solidly repiled. Acts of repetition were followed by the dismissal
of the delinquents, despite the danger it involved. When this
cheat failed they resorted to another, by rolling large stones into
the heaps from adjacent places; but as these always bore
unmistakeable evidence of exposure to rain and wear, the private
never omitted to reject them from the pile.
On several occasions when threatening notices of death were
posted up prohibiting the civil overseers and check-clerks from
returning to a particular line, a car was despatched, even at
midnight, to bring private Baker to the excited district. Next
morning, appearing at his dangerous post, unarmed, he would
pacify or humour the desperados into order and tranquillity.
When a pay-clerk was discharged, the regular payments were
for a time interrupted, and the labourers would clamour for a
settlement. In Baker’s district there were four lines, three of
which were superintended by civilians: the labourers on them
were about 700. These threatened daily to go in a body to Boyle,
and, should they fail to get their pay, to take the lives of the
engineer and his clerks, and burn down the town. Baker
represented the state of affairs to the authorities; and on his
own recommendation obtained permission from Boyle to give
checks for meal upon a tradesman in Carrick-on-Shannon. By
this means he fed the people, and kept their irritation in
successful check. These periods of disorder occurred two or
three times, till pay-clerks were appointed to succeed those who
were discharged or had resigned. The pay-clerks seldom paid
without the protection of a sapper, who frequently, in instances
of dispute, took the bag with its responsibilities and perils, and
served out the wages himself. So well did private Baker manage
the matter at a wild place in Cashel, that the labourers stood
round like soldiers to receive their earnings; and to prevent
litigation or seizure, the money was handed to the recipients
through an aperture in the pay-hut.[499]
Frauds were very common; and when detected, the offenders
were dismissed. Several civil overseers were, however, afraid to
place themselves in opposition to the populace; and a sapper
working on one line has in such instances been sent to another
to perform the duty. This, of course, produced much ill-feeling
against the sappers; but beyond a few threats and an occasional
attack, the sappers passed from the country without material
hurt.
The survey of Southampton was completed late this year for
the Southampton Improvement Board. A detachment of the
corps, directed by Captain Yolland, R.E., under the local
superintendence of sergeant William Campbell, executed the
work. The map, on a scale of 60 inches to a mile, occupies
thirty-five large sheets, which have been magnificently bound in
bureau folio, and placed in the municipal archives of the town.
Sergeant Campbell attended at a meeting of the Commissioners
on the 31st March, 1847, and presented the map, on the part of
the Ordnance to the Corporation. The work is one of extreme
beauty. A more artistical display of ornamental surveying does
not exist. The stonework of the pavement, the styles of the
public buildings, the masonry of the graving-dock, the undulation
of the silt on the shores, and small streams of water running into
it from the coast, the gardens of private houses, and the trees
and shrubberies of the common, are all delineated with a
minuteness of detail and beauty of colouring unexampled in any
town map in England. Even the map of Windsor, which obtained
the approbation of Her Majesty for its accuracy and exquisite
finish, is much inferior to the map of Southampton. The
draughtsmen were second-corporals Charles Holland[500] and
George Vincent, with Patrick Hogan,[500] late royal sappers and
miners, and Mr. Maclachlan.[501] The Commissioners of the town
gave a unanimous vote of thanks to Captain Yolland, the
sappers, and the assistants for the survey and map of the
borough, and also expressed “the high sense they entertained of
the great ability and unrivalled skill displayed in the execution of
the work.” A committee was formed to take steps for rewarding
Captain Yolland and sergeant Campbell “with an adequate
testimonial of the Commissioners' high approbation of the work;”
but the intended honour, on military grounds, was declined.[502]
 1847.

Detachments in South Australia—Corporal W. Forrest—Augmentation to the

corps—Destruction of the Bogue and other forts—Services of the
detachment at Canton—First detachment to New Zealand—Survey of Dover
and Winchelsea—Also of Pembroke—Flattering allusion to the corps—Sir
John Richardson’s expedition to the Arctic regions—Cedar Lake—Private
Geddes’s encounter with the bear—Winter quarters at Cumberland House—
Roadmaking in Zetland—Active services at the Cape—Company to
Portsmouth.

The detachment in South Australia was in July, 1845, on the

representation of his Excellency Lieutenant-Governor Grey,
ordered to be reduced, its employment being considered no
longer necessary or advantageous to the province. Scarcely had
steps been taken to effect its disbandment, when Governor Grey,
removed to another settlement, was succeeded by Colonel Robe,
who, taking a different view of the services of the party,
submitted the desirableness of its immediate completion to the
authorized establishment. In this suggestion Earl Grey
concurred, regarding it of the greatest importance that the
survey department in the province should not be permitted to
fall into arrear in its work; and under authority, dated 22nd
October, 1846, a party of seven mechanics, who were also
surveyors and draughtsmen, sailed for Port Adelaide in February
and landed there the 30th June.[503]
The corps was increased by 200 men this year, on account of
the formation of a company on the 1st April, and another on the
1st December. These companies were numbered the
seventeenth and eighteenth; and the establishment now reached
a total of 1,800 officers and soldiers. When the estimates for the
year were under consideration in the House of Commons,
Colonel Anson, the surveyor-general of the Ordnance, in claiming
an increased amount to cover the augmentation, passed a high
eulogium on the corps. After speaking in flattering terms of the
royal engineers, the Colonel added, “He might say as much for
the sappers and miners. This body was composed of most
intelligent men, who applied themselves most assiduously to the
discharge of their duties, and were equal to any services which
they might be called upon to perform.”[504]
Thirty-five non-commissioned officers and men accompanied
the expedition from Hong Kong to Canton, under Captain
Durnford and Lieutenant Da Costa, R.E., and were present at the
capture of the Bogue and other forts in the Canton river on the
2nd and 3rd April. The forts taken were fourteen in number, and
865 heavy guns were rendered useless by spiking, while a
number of barbaric weapons were captured.[505]
The sappers were in advance, and opened the gates of the
forts for the assaults, and afterwards destroyed the magazines
and assisted to spike the guns. Privates James Cummins and
James Smith placed the powder-bags on the gates.[506] Corporal
Hugh Smith[507] laid the trains to two forts, and was favourably
mentioned by Major Aldrich, R.E., to Sir John Davis, the
Governor, and Major-General D’Aguilar. Sergeants Joseph
Blaik[508] and Benjamin Darley[509] conspicuously distinguished
themselves: the former blew in the gate of Zigzag Fort, and the
latter blew up the magazine at Napier’s Fort.
At Canton the sappers were employed in barricading streets,
making scaling-ladders, &c., and pulling down houses, walls, and
other obstructions required to be removed. “My own
observations,” wrote Colonel Phillpotts, the commanding royal
engineer in China, “of the cheerful and ready manner in which
they at all times performed their various and arduous duties by
day, and often by night, demands my most marked approbation.”
The gallant conduct of sergeant Blaik attracted the notice of
Major-General D’Aguilar, for which he was promoted to the rank
of colour-sergeant. The whole detachment remained at Canton
until the 8th April; but on the troops quitting for Hong Kong four
of the sappers were left behind, and assisted Lieutenant Da
Costa, R.E., in making a survey of the European factories at that
commercial emporium, until the 14th May, 1847, when they
rejoined the detachment at Victoria.
On the 10th April one sergeant and twelve rank and file
embarked at Deptford on board the ‘Ramilies,’ and landed at
Auckland, New Zealand, on the 9th August. This was the first
party of the corps detached to that remote settlement.
From April to June one sergeant and twelve rank and file from
Chatham, under Captain McKerlie, R.E., assisted in the survey
and contouring of Dover, within a range of a thousand yards
from the fortifications. Early in the previous year five non-
commissioned officers and men were employed in a military
survey of portions of Winchelsea.
Pembroke was also surveyed by a party of one sergeant and
eight men from the survey companies, between April and
December, under Captain Chaytor, R.E. This survey included the
docks, dockyard, and property in its immediate vicinity, to enable
measures to be taken for raising essential defensive works to
protect the place. The survey was well executed; and private
John Wall,[510] who remained at the duty until March 1848,
executed with neatness and accuracy, the required plans.
About this period the survey operations of the corps, both in
the triangulation and the detail duty, were very conspicuous, and
drew from the greatest of the daily London journals, in a leader,
a high commendation for its services and trials. The language of
the article is too forcible and brilliant to justify abridgment, and
the complimentary passage is therefore given entire.—“An
Englishman has a constitutional repugnance to the intrusion of
soldiers into civil duties; he would rather pay them to walk about
than to work, and he chooses to make a separate and private
hiring of his own police. Ordinarily, soldiers are unwelcome
visitors to him, seldom appearing but at the beck of some scared
sheriff or meddling mayor, to correct his refractory disposition.
But there is a corps which is often about him, unseen and
unsuspected, and which is labouring as hard for him in peace as
others do in war. If he lives near a cathedral city, he may
perhaps have occasionally observed a small wooden cradle
perched on the very summit of the spire or tower, and he may
have pitied, perhaps, the adventurous mason who had
undertaken the job. That cradle contained three sappers and
miners, stationed there for five or six weeks to make surveys,
and who only quitted their abode for another equally isolated
and airy. Within these last five years, a handful of these men,
with an engineer officer, have been frozen upon the peak of a
Welsh mountain, on an allowance of provisions fit for the sixth
month of a siege, and with no more possibility of communicating
with the scanty natives of the place, than if they had been
shipwrecked on the Sandwich Islands.”[511]
A party of fifteen men, selected from a number of volunteers
by Sir John Richardson, joined the expedition under his orders to
the Arctic seas in June. The object of the mission was to search
for Sir John Franklin and his crews, by tracing the coast between
the Mackenzie and Coppermine Rivers, and the shores also of
Victoria and Wollaston lands, lying opposite to Cape Krusenstern.
All the men were intelligent artizans, accustomed to boat service
and laborious employment. They were, moreover, strongly built,
of good physical powers, and, with one exception, bore excellent
characters. The defaulter was addicted to drinking, but in other
respects he was a good and active workman. Knowing that there
would be no means of obtaining intoxicating drinks in Rupert’s
Land, Sir John Richardson accepted his services, and he turned
out an invaluable man. Seven of the party were carpenters,
joiners, and sawyers, one was a miner, one a painter, and six
were blacksmiths, armourers, and engineers, who were found
useful in repairing the boats, working up iron, constructing the
domicile for the winter residence of the expedition, and making
the furniture required for its few and simple wants.[512] To suit
the hard climate of the Arctic zone, each man was provided with
a flannel jacket and trousers, a stout blue Guernsey frock, a
waterproof overcoat and cap, and a pair of leggings. They also
wore mocassins and leather coats, when the nature of the
season and their employment rendered it necessary.[513]
On the 4th June the men were discharged from the corps, and
sailed on the 15th from the Thames in the ‘Prince of Wales,’ and
the ‘Westminster.’ Delayed much by ice in Hudson’s Straits, they
had a long passage, and it was not until about the middle of
September that the stores for the journey were wholly landed.
[514]
As soon as this service was effected, the expedition, with a
number of hired men, quitted Norway House in five boats,
which, from being “often stranded and broken in the shallow
waters, caused frequent detention for repairs.” Overtaken by
winter in Cedar Lake, Mr. Bell, who had charge of the expedition
until Sir John Richardson arrived, made this a depôt, where he
stored the boats and goods in a suitable house constructed by
the sappers. Several of the party were left here to take care of
the matériel, and also the women and children, who were
unequal to a long journey over the snow.
In October the bulk of the expedition started for Cumberland
House, and reached it on the eighth day after leaving Cedar
Lake. On the first day’s journey private Hugh Geddes and a half-
caste Indian were attacked by a bear on Muddy Lake. The latter
fired three times at the beast without bringing him down.
Neither of them now had any ammunition; but Geddes, who was
incapable of much exertion from an axe wound in the foot,
anticipating the peril, forgot his pains and felled two young birch
trees, one of which he handed to his companion: with these
formidable defensors both made a desperate onslaught on the
raging bear, but it was not until after much labour and hazard
that they succeeded in slaying it. In due time they sleighed his
huge carcase to the rendezvous at Cedar Lake.
At Cumberland House one of the divisions passed the winter,
and was kept in constant employment by attending to several
seasonable occupations, such as cutting firewood, driving
sledges with meat or fish, and fulfilling a round of services no
less laborious than necessary. They also established a fishery on
the Beaver Lake, two days' march north of the depôt.[515]
From July to December three rank and file were employed
under Captain T. Webb, R.E., in surveying and laying out roads in
Zetland, in connection with the Central Board for the Relief of
Destitution in the Islands of Scotland. This service was ordered
by the Home Government, and the party returned to Woolwich
when the winter had fairly set in. Second-corporal Harnett was
well reported of for his intelligence and capabilities, and the two
privates for their industry and exertions.
At the Cape of Good Hope the two companies were distributed
to fifteen posts and forts on the frontier. On the 2nd May the
sapper force there was increased to 198 of all ranks by the
arrival of thirty-five men, under Lieutenant Jesse, R.E. Between
the 14th September and 23rd December one sergeant and
sixteen rank and file were in the field, under Captain Walpole,
R.E. They had with them an assortment of carpenters' and
smiths' tools, engineer stores, and a quantity of intrenching
tools, besides a large five-oared cutter, and the materials and
gear to form a raft of casks. From the 1st to 6th December,
eleven of these men were actively employed in transporting men
and provisions to a large portion of the division on the left bank
of the Kei, under Lieutenant Jervois, R.E., at a time when the
rise of the river prevented any intercourse by waggons. During
the six days, the party exerted themselves in a most
praiseworthy manner, and sergeant Alexander McLeod was
particularly active and zealous. Between the 21st November and
1st December, three sappers, with a party of the line, under
Lieutenant Stokes, R.E., opened a road for waggons in the
Amatola mountains, and constructed a temporary bridge across
the Keiskama. Before the execution of this service provisions
were conveyed to the camp in the mountains on mules, and
hence the transit was slow and uncertain.
On the representation of Colonel Lewis, R.E., a company of full
strength was removed from Chatham to Portsmouth, on the
22nd December. Its employment was confined to the erection
and repair of such works as could not be undertaken by contract,
such as strengthening the fortifications, repairing gates, laying
platforms, curbs, &c. It was also considered indispensable to
retain a company in that command, to execute, in the event of a
war suddenly breaking out, the numerous wants likely to occur
in such an emergency.
 INDEX TO VOL. I.

Aboukir, 136
Acre, 364
Acting adjutants, 297
Adam, Sub-Lieutenant, 221, 229, 231, 238, 241
Adamson, Sub-Lieutenant, 216, 219
Addiscombe, 301
Addison, sergeant, 267
Adour, bridge of the, 213–215
Africa, 267, 285
Airy, Professor, 391, 425
Alba, 195
Albert, Prince, 445, 446, 470
Alderney, 173
Aldrich, Lieutenant, 364, 365;
Major, 442, 480
Allan, quartermaster, 416
——, Walter, 127
Allen, Francis, quartermaster-sergeant, 290
Alexander, Andrew, private, 195
——, quartermaster, R.H.A., 106
——, Emperor of Russia, 221
Alexandria, 136
Algiers, 243
Allowances to officers commanding companies, 43, 66
America, disputed territory in, 347, 357, 378
——, tracing and surveying boundary line in, 415, 448–454
——, exploration survey in, for a railway, 465–469
Anderson, Andrew, 361
——, James, private, 373
Andrews, James, private, 257, 285
Anglesey, Marquis of, 470
Anholt, 181
Aniers, bridge over the Seine at, 238
Anniversary of siege of Gibraltar, 42
Antigua, 82, 255, 270
Antwerp, 218, 221
Arctic expedition, 481–483
Arethusa, 284
Argenteuil, bridge over the Seine at, 238
Arms and accoutrements, 198, 244, 310, 428–430
Armstrong, Sub-Lieutenant, 231
Arnold, Lieutenant, 145
Arthur, Major-General, 324
Artificers, formation of corps of, 53–55, 58–64
Artillery, transfers to, 105;
mutiny in the, 112,
Ascension, island of, 279, 282
Ashplant, John, private, 465
Auger, Richard, 310–321, 328–340
Augmentations, 6, 8, 17, 88, 45, 157, 182, 265, 266, 267, 271,
273, 342, 344, 356, 368, 379, 469, 479
Australia, 310–321, 328–340, 342, 478

Badajoz, 179, 191–193

Bagshot camp, 78
Bailey, bugle-major, 247
——, Edward, private, 442
Bain, corporal, 117
Baker, William, second-corporal, 473–475
Ballingall, private, 250
Baltimore, 223
Barbadoes, 248, 254, 256, 258, 283, 284, 291
Barbara and St. Felipe, forts of, 177
Barber, John, private, 177
Barlow, Lieutenant, 435
Barnecoat, Edward, private, 393;
corporal, 458
Barns, Joseph, sergeant, 458
Barrosa, 181
Barry, Colonel, 441
Bastard, corporal, 451
Baston, sergeant, 471
Bay of Biscay O!, 77
Bayonne, 215
Beal, corporal, 279, 282
Beatty, Captain, 461
Beauharnois, 325
Beer, William, corporal, 111
Bennett, Captain, 157
——, quartermaster-sergeant, 257
Bennie, William, private, 409
Berbice, 143, 270
Bergenopzoom, 219
Bermuda, 196, 199, 254, 255, 256, 271, 291, 379, 426, 434,
440, 441, 470
Berry, William, private, 267
Berryhead, 105
Bethell, private, 36
Biggs, private, 415
Binney, Lieutenant, 434
Birch, Captain, 152, 180
Black, William, sergeant, 299, 300, 301, 364, 365, 367
Blackadder, corporal, 193
Bladensburg, 223
Blaik, Joseph, sergeant, 399, 428, 480
Blair, corporal, 5
Blanshard, Captain, 215, 223;
Major, 266, 289, 303
Blyth, sergeant, 18
——, Sand, submarine demolitions at, 399
Board of Works, Ireland, 471–476
Bogue forts, 479
Bombarde, 103
Bonavia, Sub-Lieutenant, 155
Bond, William, private, 193
Booth, Sub-Lieutenant, 194, 196
Booth, Ensign, 6
Boothby, Captain, 170
Borland, private, 204
Borthwick, corporal, 182
Boteler, Captain, 207, 267
Boundary survey. See “America”
Bourchier, Lieutenant, 399, 456–458
Bows, private, 93
Boyer, fort, 225
Brabant, private, 351
Braid, private, 207
Brand, corporal, 5;
sergeant, 20, 34;
Lieutenant, 33–36
Brandreth, Lieutenant, 270, 279, 282
Brennan, John, private, 218, 219
Bridges, Lieutenant, 84;
Lieutenant-Colonel, 141
——, sergeant-major, 3, 5
Brighton, 84
Bristo, private, 94, 95
Broughton, Captain, 356, 378, 449
Brown, Captain, 227
——, Daniel, corporal, 149, 275
——, George, private, 17, 28
——, quartermaster-sergeant, 364, 367
——, John, sergeant, 6
——, Thomas, sergeant, 254
——, widow, Sultana of Morocco, 7
Browne, sergeant-major, 111, 132
Browning, private, 393
Brownrigg, Lieutenant, 117, 118
Bruges, 117
Brussels, 230, 234
Bruyeres, Captain, 105
Bryce, Captain, 129, 132, 137;
Lieutenant-Colonel, 171
Buchanan, Captain, 173, 189
Buenos Ayres, 153, 162
Bugles adopted, 247
Bull-fight, 415
Bunn, private, 214
Burgess, sergeant, 111
Burgos, 194
Burgoyne, Captain, 162, 166;
 Lieutenant-Colonel, 194
Burke, Patrick, private, 192, 195
Burmester, Lieutenant, 306
Burrell, William, private, 92
Burridge, private, 385–387
By, Lieutenant-Colonel, 285
Byham, R., secretary to Board of Ordnance, 68

Cadiz, 129–130, 165, 176, 181, 184, 193, 195

Calder, Sub-Lieutenant, 181, 200, 211, 223, 243
——, sergeant, 465–469
Calshot castle, 104
Calvi, 93
Cameron, John, private, 107
——, John, sergeant, 181
——, John, sergeant, 380
——, Roderick, private, 373, 377, 393, 396
Campbell, David, private, 243
——, John, sergeant, 362, 457
——, Malcolm, private, 392
——, William, sergeant, 476
Cambo, 206
Camps, 78, 84
Canada, 88, 199, 222, 226, 254, 257, 272, 285–287, 324, 401
Canton, 479, 480
Cape Breton, 167, 174, 177, 185
Cape of Good Hope, 153, 167, 174, 185, 254, 259, 272, 291,
293, 362, 384–388, 431–433, 444, 454–459, 483
Carey, James, corporal, 20
Caribbee islands, 101, 109, 118
Carlin, sergeant, 379, 380
Carlisle, Lord, speech against formation of corps, 62
Carthagena, 195
Castelcicala, Prince di, 68
Castledine, corporal, 455
Catalonia, 200
Cathcart, Lord, 63
Catto, sergeant, 132
Cave at Gibraltar, 51
Ceuta, 177
Ceylon, 141, 185
Chambers, sergeant-major, 20
Chatham, 65, 73, 132, 157, 184, 248, 254, 255, 256, 283, 289,
291, 292, 308, 441
Chatou, 238
Chaytor, Captain, 480
Chelmsford, 121, 149
Chesney, Colonel, 297
Chilcot, Captain, 93
China, 427, 442, 470, 479
Cholera, 292
Christie, Sir Archibald, 283
Clarence, Duke of, 255, 256
Clark, George, private, 107
——, John, private, 92
——, Philip, sergeant, 460–464
Clarke, Samuel, private, 204
Cleghorn, Alexander, private, 393, 396, 420, 424, 440
Clinton, Lieutenant-General, 221
Colby, Major, 257;
Colonel, 264, 273, 403, 408, 470
Cole, Lieutenant, 221
Coles, John, 310–321, 328–340
Colleton, Sir James, 261, 266, 278
Collinson, Captain, 427
Colquhoun, Colonel, R.A., 306, 322
Colville, Sir Charles, 243
Comfort, private, 122
Commissions from the ranks into the Engineers, 35, 85
Congella, action at, 385
Connolly, James, private, 145
Connor, Owen, private, 204, 206
Contract, works to be executed by, 278
Cook, Joshua, private, 87
——, Thomas P., sergeant, 359, 361, 457
Coombs, corporal, 239
Copenhagen, 163
Corfu, 222, 249, 254, 255, 259, 265, 291
Cormack, William, private, 204
Corsica, 93
Coruña, 168
Cottey, corporal, 111
Cottingham, sergeant, 355
Councill, corporal, 206, 238
Courtenay, Mr., opposition of, to formation of corps, 63
Cowan, Adam, private, 119;
sergeant, 164
Cowes, 96
Craig, John, private, 369, 370
Crawford, William, private, 362
Creighton, corporal, 220
Crockett, private, 410
Crowdy, private, 393, 396
Crozier, Lieutenant, 101, 102
Cuidad Rodrigo, 190
Cummins, James, private, 479

Dacosta, Lieutenant, 479, 480

D’Aguilar, Major-General, 442
Daniel, sergeant, 20
Danish islands, 133, 164, 169, 175
D’Arcy, Captain, 120, 132;
Major, 157;
Lieutenant-Colonel, 163, 171
Darley, Benjamin, sergeant, 480
Dalhousie, Lord, 275
Darbyshire, sergeant, 291, 293
Dashwood, Lieutenant, 297
Davie, Sub-Lieutenant, 176, 180
Davis, John, sergeant, 203
Dawson, Mr. James, 426
Deane, corporal, 285
Deary, Noah, 295, 387
Debbieg, Colonel, 53, 57
De Butts, Lieutenant, 87
Delabeche, Sir Henry, 445, 446
Delacourt, private, 170
Demerara, 143, 255
Demolitions, submarine, 325, 348–353, 358–362, 372–378, 392–
399, 419–424, 435–440, 441
De Salaberry, Lieutenant, 180
Desertion, efforts to prevent, 111
Designation of corps, 3, 189, 197
Detachments for service, 120, 124
Develin, corporal, 194
Dickens, Lieutenant, 50;
Colonel, 154
——, Captain, 206
Disaffection of corps, 81
Discipline of corps, 51, 245, 251
Diving. See “Demolitions”
Dodds, private, 204
Donnelly, Henry, corporal, 235
Doran, private, 193
Douglas, Archibald, private, 94
——, James, private, 117, 175
corporal, 191
Doull, Alexander, Mr., 345, 405
Douro, 201
Dover, 105, 132, 149, 157, 184, 248, 480
——, Round Down Cliff at, 415
Dowling, William, private, 207
Down, John, corporal, 322
Dowse, Lieutenant, 92, 93
Dress, 47–50, 69–71, 79, 90, 99, 114, 133, 140, 197, 247, 249,
258, 262, 263, 279–281, 287, 292, 305, 371, 459
Drew, Lieutenant, 68
——, Major, R.A., 68
Drummond, William, private, 86
——, Captain, 268
Drums abolished, 247
Drunkenness, 96
Dublin, 425, 471
Duncan, Andrew, private, 359;
corporal, 408
Dundas’s drill, 84
Dunkirk, siege of, 85
Dunn, James, private, 204
Dunnett, sergeant, 272, 276, 277
Duplat, Captain, 303
Duport, Captain, R.A., 248
Durant, private, 194
Durham, Lord, 324
Durnford, Elias, Colonel, 86, 90, 93
——, Lieutenant, 91, 92; Colonel, 276, 278
——, E. W., Colonel, 73
——, E. W., Lieutenant, 261
——, Captain, 479
Dyson, corporal, 143

Eastbourne, 149, 174, 185

East India Company, 322, 393, 394, 396, 419, 428, 435–440,
442
Eaves, Sub-Lieutenant, 132, 166
Edgar, wreck of, 422, 435
Edmonds, corporal, 369–371
Edrington, private, 300, 301
Egypt, 132, 135–138, 162
Elba, 94
Ellis, Mr. George, 329
Elphinstone, Captain, 165
Emmett, Captain, 223;
Major, 242
Engineer establishment in France and Netherlands, 236, 239
Enlistment into corps, opposition to, 73
Entwistle, sergeant, 379
Epidemics, 109, 146, 199, 255, 279, 426
Equilateral pontoons, 416
Erie, fort, 222
Esla, bridge, 201
Essequibo, 143
Estcourt, Colonel, 415, 449, 453
Establishment for field instruction, Chatham, 188
Euphrates expedition, 297–301
Evans, Thomas, corporal, 204
——, James, draughtsman, 50
Evatt, Lieutenant, 93, 104;
Captain, 154, 157;
Colonel, 177
Evelegh, Lieutenant, 4, 6;
Captain, 44;
Colonel, 99, 132
Evelin, John, corporal, 111
Exmouth, Lord, 19
Exploration survey for a railway in America, 465–469
Eyre, Lieutenant, 217

Fairbairn, John, private, 86

Falconer, Sub-Lieutenant, 185
Falkland islands, 388–391, 412–415, 434, 446
Falmouth, 121
Faris, Lieutenant, 232
Faro, 222, 228
Farrington, Colonel, R.A., 112
Featherstone, Joseph, private, 107
Featherstonhaugh, Mr., 347, 356, 378
Fenwick, Captain, 132
——, Robert, Captain, 426
Fevers, 82, 93, 103, 109, 118, 127, 146, 173, 255, 256, 279,
367, 426
Feversham, 258
Fez, 7
Finch, Thomas, sergeant, 20
Fires, 37, 246, 392
Fisher, Benjamin, corporal, 299, 300, 301
——, Lieutenant-Colonel, 132
Fitzgerald, Lieutenant-Colonel, 275
Fitzherbert, Mrs., 85
Flanders, 83, 85, 88, 94, 117
Flannagan, John, private, 204
Fleming, William, private, 92
Fletcher, Lieutenant, 91, 102, 128;
Captain, 157, 163;
Lieutenant-Colonel, 169
Flushing, 171
Forbes, Joseph, sergeant-major, 171
——, James, corporal, 278, 279;
 sergeant-major, 296, 297, 416–419
——, Thomas, corporal, 451
Ford, Lieutenant, 107;
Captain, 137, 157
——, Charles, corporal, 204
Foremen of works, 294
Forrest, William, corporal, 478
Fortifications, Duke of Richmond’s plan for the, 55–57
Fortune, sergeant-major, 117
Frame, William, private, 438
France, 237–242, 243, 245–247, 249–252
Francia, Antonio, corporal, 21
——, Francis, consul at San Roque, 21
Fraser, John, 21
——, Peter, corporal, 5
——, quartermaster-sergeant, 379
——, Samuel, private, 185
Frederic fort, Holland, 217
French, Henry, Mr., 294
Fyers, William, Colonel, 132
——, T., Captain, 157;
Colonel, 171, 288

Galloway, quartermaster, 210, 296

Garrison duty, corps excused from, 41, 68
Garnham, Alfred, 448, 449
Geddes, Hugh, 483