Experiment 1:

Aim: To study the system of colour coding which is used to indicate the resistance value of
carbon resistors.

Apparatus :-Carbon resistors, multi-meter and Resistance color code table.

Description :- Fixed carbon composition resistors are small in size, making it dif cult to print their
resistance values directly on them. To address
this, a color-coding system is used to indicate
their resistance values in ohms. The system
consists of colored bands, each representing
a speci c digit, multiplier, or tolerance level
as per the standard color code chart.
• The rst two bands represent the
signi cant digits of the resistance value.
• The third band indicates the
multiplier (power of ten).
• The fourth band (if present)
speci es the tolerance, which is the
permissible variation in the resistance value.

This color-coding method provides a

convenient and reliable way to identify the
resistance of a carbon resistor without
requiring additional equipment.

Theory:

M-1: The body colour of resistor indicates the rst digit of resistance, one end or tip indicates the
second digit and the dot colour near the centre of the resistor represents the number of zeros
following the rst two digits.

M-2: The colour bands painted on the body of the resistors indicate the values. The colour bands
are read from left to right from one end, which has the band closure to it.
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 The rst three bands give the resistance value. The rst and second bands indicate the rst and
second signi cant digits while the third band gives the number of zeros , which follows the rst
two digits. In case the third band is gold or silver, it represents a multiplying factor of 0.1 or 0.01
respectively. If however the third band is black, it means, do not add zeros to the rst two digits.
The resulting number is the resistance in ohms.

The fourth band represents the error in value called tolerance. If the fourth band is gold, it means a
tolerance of ± 5%, where as fourth band is silver means a resistance of tolerance of ± 10% .
Absence of fourth band means a resistance of tolerance of ± 20%.

For ve bands :- The rst three bands represent the usual resistance of the resistor. The rst and
second bands indicate the digits and the third band indicates the number of zeros following the two
digits. The fourth band gives tolerance. The fth band gives reliability level. The colour code for
reliability is, Brown – 1%, Red – 0.1%, Orange – 0.01%, Yellow – 0.001% and so on.

The rst band close to one edge indicates the rst digit in the numerical value of the resistor.

Procedure :- First the resistance of the given resistor is measured according to the colour code
system, including tolerance and this is veri ed with the value measured by digital multi-meter by
keeping its band switch in proper resistance range. The values are to be noted in the in the table-2.

Precautions : -
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1) Care should be taken in deciding the rst edge.
2) Tolerance can also be taken into consideration while measuring resistance as per colour code.

Sl.No. 1st Band 2nd Band 3rd Band 4th Band Value of Resistance( Ω )

1 Yellow Red Red Gold 4.2K±5% Ω

2 Yellow Violet Orange Gold 47K ± 5% Ω

3 Green Red Gold Silver 5.2±10% Ω

4 Brown Green Grey Silver 1500M ± 10% Ω

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Experiment 2:
Aim:To test a Diode and Transistor using a Multimeter.

Apparatus used:
1) A Multimeter
2) Transistors
3) Diode

Testing of a Diode :

Theory: A diode is a two terminal device and conducts only in one direction i.e. they conducts only
in forward bias; in reverse biasing there is no ow of current. The basic symbol of a diode is as
shown in the following gure

Procedure:
1. Set the selector switch of the multimeter to position R.
2. 2. Insert the probe metal ends in terminals marked on the multimeter as common and V(Ω)
(+ve) such that the black one is in common and red probe is in V(Ω) of the digital Multimeter.
3. Connect the two metal ends of the probes to the two terminals of the diode, observe the
multimeter reading and then reverse the connection of the leads.
4. If it conducts in one direction only then the diode is in working order.
5. If it conducts in both cases or does not conduct in both cases, then it is damaged.
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 Testing of a Transistor :

A transistor can be regarded as a combination of two junction diodes connected in opposite manner
such that the middle part is common to both. When “n” is common to both, the transistor is p-n-p
type. When p is common to both, it is n-p-n transistor. Typically there are three parts and hence
three connecting leads or legs in a transistor; called the emitter, the collector, and the base—or, in
modern switching applications, the source, the drain, and the gate. A junction diode conducts only
when it is forward biased. The basic symbol for a transistor is as shown in the following gure-

(a) Identifying the base: If one of the three terminals i.e. legs of the transistors is so chosen that
conduction takes place in both the cases when a multimeter is connected between this chosen
terminal and either of the remaining two terminals, then this chosen terminal is the base.
(b) To identify p-n-p or n-p-n: For conduction to possible in both the cases, if the common
terminal (i.e. base) has to be connected to the positive then the transistor is n-p-n type, where as
if the common terminal (i.e. base) has to be connected to negative for making the conduction
possible in both the cases then the transistor is p-n-p type.

Procedure:
a) Identifying the Base of the transistor
1. Put the multimeter in ohm range I by using the selector switch.
2. Insert the probe metal ends in terminals marked on the multimeter as common and V(Ω) such
that the black one is in common and red probe is in V(Ω).
3. Connect any one of the legs of the transistor to the common and note the resistance value of the
multimeter by connecting the other lead (V(Ω)) of the multimeter to the remaining two leads of
the transistor one by one. Note down the multimeter reading. Now take down the reading by
reversing the polarity of the common leg i.e. connecting it to lead marked V(Ω) (+ve) of the
multimeter. If in any of the above two connection; the reading of the multimeter shows low in
both the cases, then the initially chosen terminal connected to the common or V(Ω) is the base.
In the rst connection type, the transistor is p-n-p, whereas in the second connection type the
transistor is n-p-n.
4. If the reading of the multimeter doesn’t show low in any of the above cases, then repeat step 3 by
choosing any of the remaining two leads of the transistor as common.
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(b) Identifying the emitter and collector leads: We know that in a transistor, the emitter region is
heavily doped relative to the collector region. Therefore, the forward resistance of emitter-base
should be lower than that of collector-base. Using ohm-meter (multimeter set to R) the forward
resistance of the lead with the base having lower value implies that the lead is the emitter and the
other offering higher forward resistance with the base is the collector.

(c) Checking whether the transistor is in working order: Find any two terminals of the transistor
between which there is no conduction in forward or reverse bias, these will be emitter and collector.
Further, now use the third terminal as the base and check whether it conducts in the forward biasing
showing lower resistance between base-emitter and higher-resistance between base-collector. If
these conditions are not shown by the transistor, then the transistor is damaged.

Precautions:
1) always set the multimeter to R scale during this experiment.
2) While testing with multimeter, avoid touching both leads with bare hands
Experiment 3:
Aim: Using a simple pendulum, plot its L-T2 graph and use it to find the effective length of
second’s pendulum.

Apparatus:

1. A Clamp With Stand

2. Bob with Hook
3. Split Cork
4. Stop Clock/ StopWatch
5. Vernier Callipers
6. Cotton Thread
7. Half Meter Scale

Theory:

There is no ideal simple pendulum. In practice, we make a simple pendulum by tying a metallic
spherical bob to a fine cotton stitching thread.

A simple pendulum consists of a heavy metallic (brass) sphere with a hook (bob) suspended from a
rigid stand, with clamp by a weightless inextensible and perfectly flexible thread through a slit cork,
capable of oscillating in a single plane, without any friction, with a small amplitude (less than 150)
as shown in figure. There is no ideal simple pendulum. In practice, we make a simple pendulum by
tying a metallic spherical bob to a fine cotton stitching thread.

The spherical bob may be regarded as a point mass at its centre G. The distance between the point
of suspension S and the centre G of the spherical bob is to be regarded as the effective length of the
pendulum as shown in figure. The effective length of a simple pendulum, L = l + h + r. Where l is
the length of the thread, h is length of hook, r is radius of bob.

T = 2 π √ (L/g)

Where, g = value of acceleration due to gravity and L is the

effective length of the pendulum.

T2 = (4π2/g) X L or T2 = KL (K= constant)

and, g = 4π2(L/T2)

If T is plotted along the Y-axis and L along the X-axis, we

should get a parabola. If T2 is plotted along the Y- axis and L
along the X-axis, we should get a straight line passing through the origin.
Procedure:

1. Find the vernier constant and zero error of the vernier callipers.
2. Measure the radius (r) of the bob using vernier callipers.
3. Measure the length of hook (h) and note it on the table.
4. Since h and r is already known, adjust the length of the thread l to make L = l + h + r an
integer (say L = 80cm) and mark it as M1 with ink. Making L an integer will make the
drawing easier. (You can measure the distance between the point of suspension (ink mark)
and the point of contact between the hook and the bob directly. Hence you get l + h
directly).
5. Similarly mark M2, M3, M4 , M5, and M6 on the thread as distance (L) of 90 cm, 100 cm,
110cm, 120cm and 130 cm respectively.
6. Pass the thread through the two half-pieces of a split cork coming out just from the ink mark
(M1).
7. Tight the split cork between the clamp such that the line of separation of the two pieces of
the split cork is at right angles to the line along which the pendulum oscillates.
8. Fix the clamp in the stand and place it on the table such that the bob is hanging at-least 2 cm
above the base of the stand.
9. Mark a point A on the table (use a chalk) just below the position of bob at rest and draw a
straight line BC of 10 cm having a point A at its centre. Over this line bob will oscillate.
10. Find the least count and the zero error of the stop clock/watch. Bring its hands at zero
position
11. Move the bob by hand to over position B on the right of A and leave. See that the bob
returns over line BC. Make sure that bob is not spinning.
12. Now counting oscillations, the instant bob passes through its mean position L, where its
velocity is maximum. So starting from L it traverses LL2, L2L, LL1, L1L hence, one
oscillation is completed. We have to find time for 20 such oscillations.
13. Now start the stopwatch at the instant the bob passes through the mean position A. Go on
counting the number of oscillations it completes. As soon as it completes 20 oscillations,
stop the watch. Note the time t for 20 oscillations in the table.
14. Repeat the measurement at least 3 times for the same length.
15. Now increase the length of the thread by 10 cm or 15 cm (M2) and measure the time t for
this length as explained from step 6 to 14.
16. Repeat step 15 for at least 4 more different lengths.
Observations:

Vernier constant

Vernier constant of the vernier callipers, V.C. = 0.01 cm cm

Zero error, ±e = ± 0.02 cm

Diameter of the bob and length of hook

Observe diameter of the bob:= (i)2.50 cm, (ii)2.52 cm,(iii)2.51 cm

Mean diameter of bob, d0 = 2.51 cm

Mean corrected diameter of bob, d = d0 ±e =2.51 ± 0.02cm

Radius of the bob, r = d/2= 1.26 cm

Length of the hook, h= 5.00 cm

Standard value acceleration due to gravity, g1 : 980 cm s-2

Least count of stop clock = 0.01 s

Zero error of stop clock = 0.02 s

Mean = L/T2 = _______________________

Calculation:

We know, T = 2 π √ (L/g)

Experimental value, g = 4π2(L/T2) = ______________________

So, % error = (g-g1)/g *100 = ______________________

Graph:

L vs T graph

Plot the graph between L and T from the observations recorded in the table . Take L along X-axis
and T along Y-axis. The L-T curve is a parabola. As shown in the figure The origin need not be
(0,0) point.
L vs T2 Graph

Plot the graph between L and T2 from the observations recorded in the table . Take L along X-axis
and T2 along Y-axis. The L-T curve is a straight line passing through the (0, 0) point. So the origin
of the graph should be chosen (0, 0). As shown in the figure.
Precautions :

1. The thread should be very light and strong.

2. The point of suspension should be reasonably rigid.
3. The pendulum should oscillate in the vertical plane without any spin motion.
4. The floor of the laboratory should not have vibration, which may cause a deviation from the
regular oscillation of the pendulum.
5. The amplitude of vibration should be small (less than 15) .
6. The length of the pendulum should be as large as possible in the given situation.’
7. Determination of time for 20 or more oscillations should be carefully taken and repeated for
at least three times.
8. There must not be strong wind blowing during the experiment.
 Experiment 4:

AIM: To study the relationship between the frequency, tension, and wavelength of stationary waves
on a stretched string

Apparatus
• A sonometer or stretched string apparatus
• A set of tuning forks (known frequencies)
• Pulley and weight hanger
• Slotted weights
• Meter scale
• Paper rider
• Rubber hammer

Theory

When a string is stretched under tension and vibrated, stationary waves are formed. The frequency,
tension, and wavelength of the wave are interrelated. The stationary wave condition is characterized
by xed points called nodes and antinodes, where the displacement of the wave is minimum or
maximum, respectively.

The frequency of the stationary waves ‘f’ is related to the tension ’T’, the mass per unit length
µ of the string, and the wavelength λ by the formula:

Procedure:
Setup the Apparatus:

• Fix the string tightly between two points using a pulley system, with one end attached to a
mass hanger for varying tension.
• Ensure that the string is horizontal and in a straight line.
Determine the Linear Mass Density (μ):

• Measure the mass of the string using a balance.

• Measure the length of the string between the xed points.
• Calculate the linear mass density µ
Set the Tension:

• Start by applying a known mass to the hanging mass to set the tension in the string.
• For different readings, vary the tension by changing the mass on the pulley.
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Create Stationary Waves:

• Strike the tuning fork and place it near the string to generate vibrations, or use a frequency
generator if available.
• Adjust the frequency to achieve a standing wave with clearly de ned nodes and antinodes.
• Measure the length of the string forming the stationary wave (this will typically correspond
to half a wavelength for the fundamental frequency).
Measure the Wavelength:

• Use the ruler to measure the distance between two adjacent nodes (or antinodes) on the
string. This is half the wavelength of the wave.
• Record the wavelength λ
Vary the Frequency and Tension:

• Increase the tension by adding more weight to the mass hanger.

• For each tension, adjust the frequency to produce stationary waves and record the
corresponding wavelength and frequency.
Repeat for Different Tensions:

• Repeat the process for multiple values of tension and record the corresponding wavelengths
and frequencies.
Plot the Results:

• Plot graphs of frequency vs. tension, wavelength vs. tension, and frequency vs. wavelength
to observe the relationships.

Observations:

• The frequency increases as the tension increases for a xed wavelength.

• The wavelength decreases as the frequency increases, assuming the tension is xed.
• The relationship between tension and frequency is observed to be roughly square root, as
predicted by the theory.

Tension (T) Frequency (f) Wavelength (λ)

1N 20 Hz 0.5 m
3N 34.6 Hz 0.40 m
5N 44.7 Hz 0.32 m
7N 53.0 Hz 0.28 m

Precautions:

• Ensure the string is tensioned properly and not slack.

• Avoid touching the vibrating string to prevent damping the waves.
• Keep the string at a constant length between the two points to avoid variations in the data.
• Use a precise method to measure the length of the string and the distance between nodes.
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Experiment 5:
AIM:
To study how concentration, temperature, mass, and radius of gas particles affect the rate of
diffusion and to determine equilibrium using the Center of Mass and Particle Flow Rate
representations.

Variables:
1. Independent Variable
Concentration of gases
Temperature of the system
Mass of the gas particles
Radius of the gas particles
2. Dependent Variables
Rate of diffusion (measured by particle ow rate)
Time taken to reach equilibrium (observed via Center of Mass stability)
3. Controlled Variables
Volume of the container
Initial spatial distribution of particles

Procedure
1. Effect of Concentration:

◦ Set the temperature, mass, and radius constant.

◦ Vary the concentration of gases (e.g., low, medium, high concentrations).
◦ Observe and record the rate of diffusion and time taken to reach equilibrium.
2. Effect of Temperature:

◦ Set the concentration, mass, and radius constant.

◦ Increase the temperature incrementally (e.g., low, medium, high).
◦ Record changes in particle speed, ow rate, and time taken to reach equilibrium.
3. Effect of Mass:

◦ Keep concentration, temperature, and radius constant.

◦ Change the mass of particles for one gas (e.g., light vs. heavy particles).
◦ Observe changes in the rate of diffusion and equilibrium dynamics.
4. Effect of Radius:

◦ Hold other variables constant.

◦ Alter the particle radius for one gas (e.g., small vs. large radii).
◦ Record the effects on the diffusion rate and equilibrium.
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 Data Analysis:

1. Center of Mass (COM):

◦ Monitor the COM's movement until it stabilizes, indicating that particle distribution
is uniform (equilibrium reached).
◦ Record the time taken for stabilization under each condition.
2. Particle Flow Rate:

◦ Plot ow rate vs. time to observe the initial rapid diffusion followed by a gradual
decline as equilibrium approaches.

Observation:

Variable Observation
Concentration Higher concentration gradients result in faster diffusion.
Temperature Higher temperatures increase particle speed, leading to faster diffusion.
Mass Lighter particles diffuse faster than heavier particles.
Radius Smaller radii allow for faster movement and quicker diffusion.

Conclusion:

• Concentration: A higher gradient enhances diffusion.

• Temperature: Increases particle motion and diffusion speed.
• Mass: Heavier particles move slower, reducing diffusion rates.
• Radius: Smaller radii promote faster mixing due to reduced resistance.
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Experiment 6:
Aim:

To study wave properties and interference patterns by observing ripples created by a dripping faucet
and exploring the effects of varying frequency and amplitude.

Theory:

1. Wave Formation:
◦ When a drop of water falls into a basin, it generates circular ripples that propagate
outward.
◦ The frequency of drops determines the wavelength (λ)as related by the wave
equation: v=fλ
2. Amplitude:

• Amplitude corresponds to the size of the ripples and is directly proportional to the energy of
the wave.
3. Wave Interference:

• When two waves overlap, they interfere:

• Constructive Interference: Crest meets crest, producing larger ripples.
• Destructive Interference: Crest meets trough, resulting in cancellation.

Procedure:

Part 1: Single Wave Source

1.Set Up the Apparatus:

◦Fill a shallow basin with water and position the faucet above it.
◦Adjust the faucet to produce a steady drip rate.
2.Vary the Frequency:
◦Begin with a slow drip rate and observe the spacing of ripples.
◦ Gradually increase the drip rate to study the relationship between frequency and
wavelength.
3. Vary the Amplitude:

◦ Adjust the height of the faucet to change the size of the drops.
◦ Observe the effect on the size and energy of the ripples.

Part 2: Two Wave Sources

1. Introduce a Second Faucet:

◦ Position a second dripping faucet or splitter to create two sources of waves in the
same basin.
 ◦ Ensure both faucets drip at the same rate initially.
2. Observe Interference Patterns:
◦ Note the points where crests meet crests (bright spots) and where crests meet troughs
(darker or calm spots).
◦ Adjust the drip rate of one faucet to study how phase differences affect the pattern.

Observations and Data:

Frequency (f) Wavelength (λ) Amplitude

1 drop/s 10 cm Low (5 cm)
2 drops/s 5 cm Medium (10 cm)
3 drops/s 3.3 cm High (15 cm)

Precautions:

1. Ensure the water level in the basin is consistent to avoid uneven wave propagation.
2. Avoid external vibrations or disturbances that could alter wave patterns.
3. Use steady lighting for clear observation of interference patterns.
4. Position the faucets accurately to ensure proper overlapping of ripples.