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Advances in Food Bioproducts
and Bioprocessing
Technologies
Contemporary Food Engineering
Series Editor Professor Da-Wen Sun, Director
Food Refrigeration and Computerized Food Technology, National University of
Ireland, Dublin, (University College Dublin), Dublin, Ireland
http://www.ucd.ie/sun/

Trends in Fish Processing Technologies,

edited by Daniela Borda, Anca I. Nicolau, and Peter Raspor

Food Biofortification Technologies, edited by Agnieszka Saeid

Advances in Postharvest Fruit and Vegetable Technology,

edited by Ron B.H. Wills and John Golding

Computational Fluid Dynamics in Food Processing, Second Edition,

edited by Da-Wen Sun

Food Nanotechnology: Principles and Applications,

edited by C. Anandharamakrishnan and S. Parthasarathi

Ultraviolet Light in Food Technology: Principles and Applications,

edited by Tatiana Koutchma

Advances in Processing Technologies for Bio-based Nanosystems in Food,

edited by Oscar Leandro da Silva Ramos, Ricardo Nuna Correia Pereira, Miguel
Angelo Parente Ribeiro Cerqueria, Jose Antonio Couto Teixeira, and Antonio
Augusto Vicente

Advances in Vinegar Production,

edited by Argyro Bekatorou

Innovative Technologies in Seafood Processing, edited by Yesim Ozogul

Advances in Food Bioproducts and Bioprocessing Technologies, edited by

Mónica Lizeth Chavez Gonzalez, Nagamani Balagurusamy, Cristóbal N. Aguilar

For more information about this series, please visit: https://www.crcpress.com/

Contemporary-Food-Engineering/book-series/CRCCONFOOENG
Advances in Food Bioproducts
and Bioprocessing
Technologies

Edited by
Mónica Lizeth Chávez-González, Nagamani Balagurusamy,
and Cristóbal N. Aguilar
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2020 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed on acid-free paper
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Chávez-González, Mónica Lizeth, 1987- editor.

Title: Advances in food bioproducts and bioprocessing technologies / edited by Monica Lizeth
Chavez Gonzalez, Nagamani Balagurusamy & Cristóbal N. Aguilar.
Description: Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, [2020] |
Series: Contemporary food engineering | Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Summary: “The book explores and exploits the synergy and boundary between biotechnology,
bioprocessing and food engineering. Divided into three parts, Advances in Food Bioproducts,
Fermentation Engineering and Bioprocessing Technologies includes contributions that deal
with new developments in procedures, bioproducts, and bioprocesses that can be given
quantitative expression. Its 40 chapters will describe how research results can be used in
engineering design, include procedures to produce food additives and ingredients, and discuss
accounts of experimental or theoretical research and recent advances in food bioproducts and
bioprocessing technologies”— Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019023870 (print) | LCCN 2019023871 (ebook) | ISBN 9781138544222
(hardback) | ISBN 9780429331817 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Food--Biotechnology.
Classification: LCC TP248.65.F66 A358 2020 (print) | LCC TP248.65.F66 (ebook) | DDC
664/.024—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019023870
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019023871

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
Contents
Series Preface.............................................................................................................ix
Series Editor...............................................................................................................xi
Preface.................................................................................................................... xiii
Editors....................................................................................................................... xv
Contributors............................................................................................................xvii

PART I Bioprocessing Technologies

Chapter 1 Microbial Technology: Advances and Challenges................................3

Cristóbal N. Aguilar, Ayerim Hernández-Almanza,
Abdulhameed Sabu, Araceli Loredo, Sudheesh Sudhakaran,
Desiree Davila-Medina, Thelma K. Morales-Martínez,
Leonardo Sepúlveda-Torre, Shiburaj Sugathan, and
José A. Teixeira

Chapter 2 Microbial Technology: Yeasts.............................................................25

Ayerim Hernández-Almanza, Gloria A. Martínez-Medina,
and Cristóbal N. Aguilar

Chapter 3 Lytic Enzymes Production by Trichoderma asperellum: Dry

Air Impact on the Solid-State Fermentation Process.......................... 47
Reynaldo De la Cruz-Quiroz, Roberto de la Parra-Saldívar,
Cristóbal N. Aguilar, and Sevastianos Roussos

Chapter 4 Microbial Technology: Microalgae..................................................... 57

Juan Roberto Benavente-Valdés, María Elena Velázquez-
Arellano, Israel Hernández-López, Diederich Enrique
Aguilar-Machado, Lourdes Morales-Oyervides, José Eduardo
García-Martínez, and Julio César Montañez-Saénz

Chapter 5 Biological Catalyzers of Brown Seaweed: Biochemical

Properties, Production, and Applications............................................ 81
Alejandra Cabello-Galindo, Héctor A. Ruiz, Clarisse Nobre,
Lilia Arely Prado-Barragán, Raúl Rodríguez-Herrera,
Cristóbal N. Aguilar, and Rosa M. Rodríguez-Jasso

v
vi Contents

Chapter 6 Enzyme Technologies.........................................................................97

Luciana Pellegrini Malpiedi, Antonela Taddia,
Carla Nahir Haidar, and Gisela Tubio

Chapter 7 Plant Tissue Culture and Its Biotechnological Applications............. 109

Martha Gómez-Martínez, T. S. Swapna, Francisco Castillo-
Reyes, Lluvia de Abril Alexandra Soriano-Melgar, Francisca
Ramírez-Godina, Hermila Trinidad García-Osuna, Ileana
Vera-Reyes, Adriana Carolina Flores-Gallegos, and
Raúl Rodríguez-Herrera

Chapter 8 Biochemical and Thermochemical Platforms for Bioproducts

and Biofuels in Terms of Biorefinery................................................ 145
Arelí Aguirre-Fierro, Marcela Sofía Pino, Elisa Zanuso,
Liliana Londoño-Hernández, Anahí Nájera, Alejandro Y.
Torres, Cristóbal N. Aguilar, Rosa M. Rodríguez-Jasso,
Armando Robledo-Olivo, and Héctor A. Ruiz

Chapter 9 Metabolic Engineering and Omics Technologies............................. 193

T. Uma Maheswari, K. G. Anitha, S. S. Rakesh,
and P. B. Kamaludeen Sara

PART II Fermentation Engineering

Chapter 10 Perspectives and Prospects of Fermentation Technology................. 217
Iniya Kumar Muniraj, Ramesh Desikan, and Karthikeyan
Subburamu

Chapter 11 Challenges of Fermentation Engineering.......................................... 233

Norma Margarita De la Fuente Salcido and Axel Misael
Alejo Andrade

Chapter 12 Alcoholic Fermentation..................................................................... 265

Nicolás O. Soto-Cruz, Adanely Paredes-Ortíz, and
Jesús B. Páez-Lerma

Chapter 13 The Use of Starter Cultures in Food Processing............................... 281

Dão Pedro de Carvalho Neto, Gilberto Vinícius de Melo
Pereira, Susan Grace Karp, and Carlos Ricardo Soccol
Contents vii

Chapter 14 Scale-Down Effect on Hydrodynamics, Mass Transfer, and

Bioconversion in a Multiphase Partitioning Bioreactor.................... 301
Rodrigo Melgarejo-Torres, Carlos O. Castillo-Araiza, Dulce M.
Palmerín-Carreño, Bart Van Gansbeke, and Sergio Huerta-Ochoa

Chapter 15 Predictive Microbiology: A Tool to Evaluate the Effectiveness

of Natural Antimicrobials................................................................. 319
Anahí Levario-Gómez, Raúl Avila-Sosa, Néstor Gutiérrez-
Méndez, Aurelio López-Malo, and Guadalupe Virginia
Nevárez-Moorillón

Chapter 16 Gallic Acid Production by Aspergillus niger Is Strongly

Influenced by Substrate Concentration............................................. 331
Adrián García-Nájera, Lilia Arely Prado-Barragán, Juan C.
Contreras-Esquivel, Raúl Rodríguez-Herrera, Pedro Aguilar-
Zárate, Shiburaj Sugathan, Abdulhameed Sabu, and Cristóbal
N. Aguilar

PART III Food Bioproducts

Chapter 17 Advances and Perspectives in Food Pigments Production................ 347
Mónica L. Chávez-González, Karla Aguilar-Herrera,
Nagamani Balagurusamy, and Ayerim Hernández-Almanza

Chapter 18 Food Enzymes................................................................................... 355

Luis Víctor Rodríguez-Durán, Mariela Michel, Fabiola Veana-
Hernández, Diana Beatriz Muñiz-Márquez, Jorge Enrique
Wong-Paz, María Luisa Carrillo-Inungaray, and Pedro
Aguilar-Zárate

Chapter 19 Advances in the Production of Foods and

Food Components by Microbial Fermentation.................................403
Johana Bolívar-Monsalve, C.F. Ceballos-González, G.A.
Bolívar, and Cristina Ramírez-Toro

Chapter 20 Food Films and Edible Coatings Added with Probiotics:

Applications and Perspective............................................................ 423
Flor G. Ramos-Hernández, Adriana C. Flores-Gallegos,
Janeth M. Ventura-Sobrevilla, Cristóbal N. Aguilar, and Raúl
Rodríguez-Herrera
viii Contents

Chapter 21 Probiotics and Prebiotics................................................................... 445

C. F. Ceballos-González, Johana Bolívar-Monsalve,
G. A. Bolívar, and Cristina Ramírez-Toro

Chapter 22 Oligosaccharides, Polyols, and Polysaccharides............................... 467

Dulce A. Flores-Maltos and José A. Teixeira

Chapter 23 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids as Nutraceuticals................................. 475

Kaavya Rathnakumar, K. Rathnakumar, R. Pandiselvam,
and Anjineyulu Kothakota

Chapter 24 Food Waste: A Potential Bioresource for Extraction

of Bioactive Compounds................................................................... 497
Francisco Castillo-Reyes, José Luis López Niño, Eduardo
Osorio Hernández, and Raúl Rodríguez-Herrera

Chapter 25 Fungal Bioproducts for Use in Food: Polysaccharides,

Organic Acids, and Mycoprotein...................................................... 511
Ioannis Giavasis, Robert J. Seviour, Paul Hudman,
and Brian McNeil
Index....................................................................................................................... 549
Series Preface
CONTEMPORARY FOOD ENGINEERING
Food engineering is a multidisciplinary field combining applied physical sciences
and the knowledge of product properties. Food engineers provide the technological
knowledge transfer essential to the cost-effective production and commercialization
of food products and services. In particular, food engineers develop and design pro-
cesses and equipment to convert raw agricultural materials and ingredients into safe,
convenient, and nutritious consumer food products. However, food engineering top-
ics are continuously undergoing changes to meet diverse consumer demands, and the
subject is developing rapidly to reflect market needs. One of the many challenges in
the development of food engineering is to employ modern tools and knowledge, such
as computational materials science and nanotechnology, to develop new products
and processes. Simultaneously, improving food quality, safety, and security continue
to be critical issues in food engineering studies. New packaging materials and tech-
niques are being developed to provide more protection to foods, and novel preserva-
tion technologies are emerging to enhance food security and defense. In addition,
process control and automation regularly appear among the top priorities identi-
fied in food engineering. Advanced monitoring and control systems are developed
to facilitate automation and flexible food manufacturing processes. Furthermore,
energy-saving and minimization of environmental problems continue to be impor-
tant food engineering issues, and significant progress is being made in waste man-
agement, efficient utilization of energy, and reduction of effluents and emissions in
food production.
The Contemporary Food Engineering series, consisting of edited books, attempts
to address some of the recent developments in food engineering. The series covers
advances in classical unit operations in engineering applied to food manufacturing
as well as topics such as progress in the transport and storage of liquid and solid
foods; heating, chilling, and freezing of foods; mass transfer in foods; chemical and
biochemical aspects of food engineering and the use of kinetic analysis; dehydra-
tion, thermal processing, nonthermal processing, extrusion, liquid food concentra-
tion, membrane processes, and applications of membranes in food processing; shelf
life and electronic indicators in inventory management; sustainable technologies in
food processing; and packaging, cleaning, and sanitation. These books are aimed
at professional food scientists, academics researching food engineering problems,
and graduate-level students. The editors of these books are leading engineers and
scientists from different parts of the world. All the editors were asked to address
the market’s needs and to pinpoint cutting-edge technologies in food engineering
in their books. All contributions are written by internationally renowned experts
who have both academic and professional credentials. All authors have attempted

ix
x Series Preface

to provide critical, comprehensive, and readily accessible information on the art and
science of a relevant topic in each chapter, with reference lists for further informa-
tion. Therefore, each book can serve as an essential reference source to students and
researchers in universities and research institutions.

Da-Wen Sun
Series Editor
Series Editor
Prof. Da-Wen Sun, born in southern China, is a global authority in food engineering
research and education; he is a member of the Royal Irish Academy (RIA), which is
the highest academic honor in Ireland; he is also a member of the Academia Europaea
and a fellow of the International Academy of Food Science and Technology. He has
contributed significantly to the field of food engineering as a researcher, academic
authority, and educator. His main research activities include cooling, drying, and
refrigeration processes and systems; quality and safety of food products; bioprocess
simulation and optimization; and computer vision/image processing and hyperspec-
tral imaging technologies. His many scholarly works have become standard reference
materials for researchers, especially in the areas of computer vision, computational
fluid dynamics modeling, vacuum cooling, and related subjects. Results of his work
have been published in over 800 papers, including more than 390 peer-reviewed
journal papers (Web of Science h-index = 62). He has also edited 14 authoritative
books.
According to Thomson Scientific’s Essential Science Indicators SM, based on
data derived over a period of 10 years from the Web of Science, about 4,500 scien-
tists are among the top 1% of the most cited scientists in the category of agriculture
sciences; for many years, Professor Sun has consistently been ranked among the top
50 scientists in the world (he was at 25th position in March 2015, and at first posi-
tion if ranking is based on “Hot Papers,” and in second position if ranking is based
on “Top Papers” or “Highly Cited Papers”). He received a first class BSc honors and
MSc in mechanical engineering, and a PhD in chemical engineering in China before
working in various universities in Europe. He became the first Chinese national to be
permanently employed in an Irish university when he was appointed college lecturer
at the National University of Ireland, Dublin (University xiv Series Editor College
Dublin, UCD), in 1995, and was then progressively promoted in the shortest possible
time to senior lecturer, associate professor, and full professor.
Dr. Sun is now a professor of food and biosystems engineering and the direc-
tor of the UCD Food Refrigeration and Computerized Food Technology Research
Group. As a leading educator in food engineering, Professor Sun has trained many
PhD students who have made their own contributions to the industry and academia.
He has also frequently delivered lectures on advances in food engineering at aca-
demic institutions worldwide and delivered keynote speeches at international con-
ferences. As a recognized authority in food engineering, he has received adjunct/
visiting/consulting professorships from ten top universities in China, including
Zhejiang University, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Harbin Institute of Technology,
China Agricultural University, South China University of Technology, and Jiangnan
University. In recognition of his significant contribution to food engineering world-
wide and for his outstanding leadership in the field, the International Commission
of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering (CIGR) awarded him the “CIGR Merit
Award” in 2000, and again in 2006; the Institution of Mechanical Engineers based
in the United Kingdom named him “Food Engineer of the Year 2004.” In 2008, he was

xi
xii Series Editor

awarded the “CIGR Recognition Award” in honor of his distinguished achieve-

ments as one of the top 1% among agricultural engineering scientists in the world.
In 2007, he was presented with the only “AFST(I) Fellow Award” given in that year
by the Association of Food Scientists and Technologists (India), and in 2010, he was
presented with the “CIGR Fellow Award” (the title of Fellow is the highest honor at
CIGR and is conferred on individuals who have made sustained, outstanding con-
tributions worldwide). In March 2013, he was presented with the “You Bring Charm
to the World” Award by Hong Kong-based Phoenix Satellite Television, and other
award recipients included the 2012 Nobel Laureate in Literature and the Chinese
Astronaut Team for Shenzhou IX Spaceship. In July 2013, he received the “Frozen
Food Foundation Freezing Research Award” from the International Association for
Food Protection (IAFP) for his significant contributions to enhancing the field of
food-freezing technologies. This was the first time this prestigious award had been
presented to a scientist outside the United States.
He is a fellow of the Institution of Agricultural Engineers and a fellow of Engineers
Ireland (the Institution of Engineers of Ireland). He is editor-in-chief of Food and
Bioprocess Technology—An International Journal (2012 Impact Factor = 4.115),
former editor of Journal of Food Engineering (Elsevier), and a member of the edi-
torial boards for a number of international journals, including the Journal of Food
Process Engineering, Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization, and the
Polish Journal of Food and Nutritional Sciences. He is also a chartered engineer. On
May 28, 2010, he was awarded membership in the RIA, the highest honor that can
be attained by scholars and scientists working in Ireland. At the 51st CIGR General
Assembly held during the CIGR World Congress in Quebec City, Canada, on June
13–17, 2010, he was elected incoming president of CIGR, became CIGR president
in 2013–2014, and is now CIGR past president. On September 20, 2011, he was
elected to the Academia Europaea, which is functioning as the European Academy
of Humanities, Letters and Sciences and is one of the most prestigious academies
in the world; election to the Academia Europaea represents the highest academic
distinction.
Preface
World population has been increasing at an annual rate of 1.1% since 2017, which
means the human population is increasing by about 82–83 million per year. This
estimated increase in population will lead to many challenges, and the important
ones are shelter, food, water, sanitation, energy, and health. It is imperative that these
challenges be met with strategies that can help us in constructing a better world.
Although current world annual average economic growth rate is about 2.9%, and
many developing countries are registering an increase in their prosperity index, still
8% of the world population lives in extreme poverty. The trend toward economic
growth and the existence of extreme poverty at the same time presents some impor-
tant challenges. First, there will be an increased demand on food production, and
second, there is a need for new food processing technologies to improve the nutrition
content of the food to minimize/eliminate malnutrition among people in impover-
ished societies and to develop innovative value-added nutritive products for the seg-
ment of society that is growing economically. In both cases, the emphasis will be on
the quality of the product, apart from improving the shelf life of the food products.
This book is designed to fulfill the quest for a textbook and a reference book
for undergraduates, postgraduate research students, professors, and professionals in
food industry. The book is divided into three units: (1) Bioprocessing Technologies,
(2) Fermentation Engineering, and (3) Food Bioproducts. A total of 25 chapters,
written by experts, are organized into these three units based on their relevance to
the theme of each unit. In the first unit, Bioprocessing Technologies, nine chapters
provide an overview of the advances and challenges of microbial technologies, with
a focus on yeast, microalgae, seaweeds, plant tissue culture, enzyme technologies,
biorefineries and metabolic engineering, and “omics” technologies for obtaining
innovative metabolites. The second unit, Fermentation Engineering, consists of
seven chapters on perspectives and prospects on fermentation, challenges of fer-
mentation technology, starter cultures, scale-down systems, predictive microbiol-
ogy, and alcohol and gallic acid production. The final nine chapters in the third unit,
Food Bioproducts, focus on the production of food pigments, food enzymes, food
and food components, functional-edible biofilms, pre- and probiotics, oligosaccha-
rides, polyols and polysaccharides, poly unsaturated fatty acids such as nutraceuti-
cals, bioactive compounds from food wastes, and mycoprotein.
All the editors thank the contributing authors for their time and for sharing
their knowledge for the benefit of students and as well as professionals. We also
thank Stephen Zollo and Laura Piedrahita of Taylor & Francis Group’s Editorial
Department for their constant support and guidance from the beginning to the com-
pletion of the book.

Mónica Lizeth Chávez-González

Cristóbal Noe Aguilar
Nagamani Balagurusamy

xiii
Editors
Mónica L. Chávez-González, MSc, PhD, has been a full
professor and researcher at the School of Chemistry of the
Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila since 2016. She is
member and leader of a research line in the Bioprocesses
and Bioproducts Research Group of the Food Research
Department.
Prof. Chávez-González’s experience is in the fermenta-
tion process, microbial biotransformation, enzyme production, valorization of food
industrial wastes, extraction of bioactive compounds, and chemical characterization.
Prof. Chávez-González earned her master’s and PhD in Food Science and
Technology with an emphasis in valorization of food industrial waste. She is a
member of Mexican Association for Food Science (AMECA), Mexican Society
for Biotechnology & Bioengineering (SMBB, and the Mexican Association for the
Protection of Food (AMEPAL) affiliate at the International Association for Food
Protection (IAFP). She has received awards for her academic excellence and techno-
logical innovation. She has been recognized as a Member (Candidate) of the National
Research Scientists System of México by the National Council of Science and
Technology of the Government of México since 2016, and she has been recognized
as a New Professor with desirable Profile by the Secretary of Education, Government
of México. Prof. Chávez-González has published seven papers in indexed journals,
15 book chapters, and three editions of international books.

Nagamani Balagurusamy,PhD, has been a professor at the

Universidad Autonoma de Coahuila, México since September
2001. Previously, he worked as an associate professor at Tamil
Nadu Agricultural University, India.
Prof. Balagurusamy has worked on the microbial and
associated biochemical changes during parboiling of rice, the
characterization of biopolymer degrading enzymes of micro-
bial origin, and their application in food and other indus-
tries. He also works on bioprospection of microorganisms in the semidesert and the
natural wetlands areas of Northeast México. Another focus area of research is on
interactions between anaerobic bacteria-archaea in relation to methane production
biodigesters, plant microbiome, and their relation to fruit development, nutrition,
and quality.
He has nearly 30 years of experience in teaching courses on biochemistry, micro-
bial biochemistry, biotechnology and environmental engineering to undergraduate
students of the Biochemical Engineering Program; and microbial physiology, biore-
mediation, and microbial molecular ecology to postgraduate students. Further, he is
involved in guiding students on microbial diversity, microbial interactions, and micro-
bial enzymes and their application in the food industry and in bioenergy production.

xv
xvi Editors

Prof. Balagurusamy is recognized as a Member (Level 1) of the National Research

Scientists System of México by the National Council of Science and Technology of
the Government of México and as a Professor with desirable Profile by the Secretary
of Education of the Government of México. He has received various awards from
peers in professional societies, such as the consortium of Universities at Laguna
region of México and the Universidad Autonoma de Coahuila, for his contributions
to education and research.

Cristóbal N. Aguilar,MSc, PhD, is vice chancellor of

Research and Postgraduate Programs at the Autonomous
University of Coahuila, México. He is a Chemist (1992) at
the same institution; his MSc program in Food Science and
Technology (1995) was held in the Autonomous University
of Chihuahua, México. His PhD program in Fermentation
Biotechnology (2000) was given by the Metropolitan
Autonomous University, México. He worked in a Postdoc stay (2001) at IRD-
Marseille, France. Dr. Aguilar has published more than 260 papers in indexed
journals, more than 50 articles in Mexican journals, 16 book chapters, eight
Mexican books, seven editions of international books, 34 proceedings, and more
than 350 contributions in scientific meetings (His h-index = 35 by Scopus and 45 by
GoogleScholar).
Dr. Aguilar has been a member at level III of the National System of Researchers
of México (S.N.I.) since 1998. He has been awarded with several prizes, including
the Outstanding Researcher Award 2019 (International Bioprocessing Association,
IBA-IFIBiop 2019); Prize of Science, Technology and Innovation Coahuila 2019;
National Prize of Research 2010 of the Mexican Academy of Sciences; the Prize-
2008 of the Mexican Society of Biotechnology and Bioengineering; National
Prize AgroBio-2005; and the Mexican Price in Food Science and Technology,
CONACYT-Coca Cola México 2003. He has been a member of the Mexican
Academy of Science since 2014. Dr. Aguilar has developed more than 25 research
projects, including six international exchange projects. He has been an adviser on 18
PhD theses, 25 MSc theses, and 50 BSc theses. He is member of the International
Bioprocessing Association, the Mexican Academy of Sciences, the Mexican Society
for Biotechnology & Bioengineering, and the Mexican Association for Food Science
and Biotechnology. His research is in the areas of the design of bioprocesses for
bioproducts production (of importance in Hort/Food/Pharma/Environ sectors) and
in fermentation and enzymatic technologies. He is associate editor of Frontiers in
Sustainable Food Systems (Section: Sustainable Food Processing) and is a member
on several editorial boards, including HELIYON (Elsevier), International Journal of
Green Technology, and Food & Drug Research, Información Tecnológica, among
others.
Contributors
Cristóbal N. Aguilar K. G. Anitha
Biorefinery Group Assistant Professor (Microbiology)
Food Research Department Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
Faculty of Chemistry Sciences Coimbatore, India
Autonomous University of Coahuila
Saltillo, Coahuila, México Raúl Avila-Sosa
Facultad de Ciencias Químicas
Karla Aguilar-Herrera Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de
Bioprocesses and Bioproducts Group Puebla
Food Research Department Ciudad University
School of Chemistry Puebla, México
Autonomous University of Coahuila
Saltillo, Coahuila, México Nagamani Balagurusamy
Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas
Diederich Enrique Aguilar-Machado Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila
Department of Chemical Torreón, Coahuila, México
Engineering
Juan Roberto Benavente-Valdés
Universidad Autónoma
Department of Chemical Engineering
de Coahuila
Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila
Saltillo, Coahuila, México
Saltillo, Coahuila, México
Pedro Aguilar-Zárate G. A. Bolívar
Department of Engineering Microbiología y Biotecnología Aplicada
Campus Ciudad Valles (MIBIA)
Tecnológico Nacional de México Departamento de Biología
San Luis Potosí, México Universidad del Valle
Cali, Colombia
Arelí Aguirre-Fierro
Biorefinery Group Johana Bolívar-Monsalve
Food Research Department Centro de Biotecnología - FEMSA
Faculty of Chemistry Sciences Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias
Autonomous University of Coahuila Tecnológico de Monterrey,
Saltillo, Coahuila, México Monterrey Nuevo León, México
Grupo de investigación en
Axel Misael Alejo Andrade Microbiología y Biotecnología
Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas Aplicada (MIBIA)
Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila Departamento de Biología
Blvd. Torreón-Matamoros Km. 7.5 Universidad del Valle
Ciudad Universitaria Cali, Colombia
Torreón, Coahuila, México

xvii
xviii Contributors

Alejandra Cabello-Galindo Juan C. Contreras-Esquivel

Biorefinery Group Food Research Department
Food Research Department School of Chemistry
Faculty of Chemistry Sciences Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila
Autonomous University of Coahuila Saltillo, Coahuila, México
Saltillo, Coahuila, México
Reynaldo De la Cruz-Quiroz
María Luisa Carrillo-Inungaray Tecnológico de Monterrey
Food Research Laboratory Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias
Autonomous University of San Luis Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
Potosí
Ciudad Valles, San Luis Potosí, México Desiree Davila-Medina
BBG-DIA/UAdeC
Carlos O. Castillo-Araiza Bioprocesses and Bioproducts Research
Laboratory of Reactor Engineering Group
Applied to Chemical and Biological Food Research Department
Systems School of Chemistry
Departamento de Ingeniería de Autonomous University of Coahuila
Procesos e Hidráulica Saltillo, Coahuila, México
Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana
Iztapalapa Ramesh Desikan
Ciudad de México, México Horticultural College and Research
Institute for Women
Francisco Castillo-Reyes Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
Saltillo Experimental Station, INIFAP Tamil Nadu, India
Carretera Saltillo-Zacatecas
Colonia Hacienda de Buenavista Adriana Carolina Flores-Gallegos
Saltillo, Coahuila, México School of Chemistry
Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila
C. F. Ceballos-González Boulevard Venustiano Carranza and
Centro de Biotecnología - FEMSA José Cárdenas s/n
Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias Saltillo, Coahuila, México
Tecnológico de Monterrey,
Monterrey Nuevo León, México Dulce A. Flores-Maltos
Grupo de investigación en Microbiología Institute for Biotechnology and
y Biotecnología Aplicada (MIBIA) Bioengineering
Departamento de Biología Centre of Biological Engineering
Universidad del Valle University of Minho
Calle, Cali, Colombia Braga, Portugal

Mónica L. Chávez-González Bart Van Gansbeke

Bioprocesses and Bioproducts Group Departamento de Biotecnología
Food Research Department Universidad Autónoma
School of Chemistry Metropolitana-Iztapalapa
Autonomous University of Coahuila Ciudad de México, México
Saltillo, Coahuila, México
Contributors xix

José Eduardo García-Martínez Eduardo Osorio Hernández

Department of Animal Nutrition Autonomous University of Tamaulipas
Universidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio Postgraduate Studies and Research
Narro Division
Saltillo, Coahuila School of Engineering and Sciences
Centro Universitario Adolfo López
Adrián García-Nájera Mateos, Cd. Victoria
Food Research Department Tamaulipas, México
School of Chemistry
Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila Ayerim Hernández-Almanza
Saltillo, Coahuila, México Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas
Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila
Hermila Trinidad García-Osuna Torreón, Coahuila, México
Plant Breeding Department
Universidad Autònoma Agraria Israel Hernández-López
Saltillo, Coahuila, México Department of Chemical Engineering
Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila
Ioannis Giavasis Saltillo, Coahuila, México
Assistant Professor
Department of Food Technology Paul Hudman
University of Applied Sciences of Technical Director
Thessaly 3F BIO Ltd
Karditsa, Greece Glasgow, United Kingdom

Martha Gómez-Martínez Sergio Huerta-Ochoa

School of Chemistry Departamento de Biotecnología
Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila Universidad Autónoma
Boulevard Venustiano Carranza and Metropolitana-Iztapalapa
José Cárdenas s/n, República Av. San Rafael Atlixco 186
Oriente Ciudad de México, México
Saltillo, Coahuila, México
Susan Grace Karp
Néstor Gutiérrez-Méndez Bioprocess Engineering and
Facultad de Ciencias Químicas Biotechnology Department
Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua Federal University of Paraná
Chihuahua, Chih., México (UFPR)
Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
Carla Nahir Haidar
Institute of Biotechnological and Anjineyulu Kothakota
Chemical Processes – Rosario – Department of Food and Agricultural
School of Biochemical and Engineering
Pharmaceutical Sciences Kelappaji College of Engineering &
Universidad Nacional de Rosario Technology
Argentina Kerala, India
xx Contributors

Anahí Levario-Gómez Brian McNeil

Biorefinery Group Research Professor in Microbiology
Food Research Department Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical
Faculty of Chemistry Sciences Science
Autonomous University of Coahuila University of Strathclyde
Saltillo, Coahuila, México Glasgow, United Kingdom

Liliana Londoño-Hernández Rodrigo Melgarejo-Torres

Biorefinery Group Biorefinery Group
Food Research Department Food Research Department
Faculty of Chemistry Sciences Faculty of Chemistry Sciences
Autonomous University of Coahuila Autonomous University of Coahuila
Saltillo, Coahuila, México Saltillo, Coahuila, México

Aurelio López-Malo Mariela Michel

Escuela de Ingeniería Food Research Department
Universidad De Las Américas Puebla School of Chemistry
Cholula Pue, México Autonomous University of Coahuila
Saltillo, Coahuila, México
Araceli Loredo
BBG-DIA/UAdeC Julio César Montañez-Saénz
Bioprocesses and Bioproducts Research Department of Chemical Engineering
Group Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila
Food Research Department Saltillo, Coahuila, México
School of Chemistry
Autonomous University of Coahuila Thelma K. Morales-Martínez
Saltillo, Coahuila, México BBG-DIA/UAdeC
Bioprocesses and Bioproducts Research
T. Uma Maheswari Group
Assistant Professor (Microbiology) Food Research Department
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University School of Chemistry
Coimbatore, India Autonomous University of Coahuila
Saltillo, Coahuila, México
Luciana Pellegrini Malpiedi
Institute of Biotechnological and Lourdes Morales-Oyervides
Chemical Processes – Rosario Department of Chemical Engineering
– School of Biochemical and Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila
Pharmaceutical Sciences Saltillo, Coahuila, México
Universidad Nacional de Rosario
Rosario, Argentina Iniya Kumar Muniraj
Kumaraguru Institute of Agriculture
Gloria A. Martínez-Medina Sakthinagar, Tamil Nadu, India
BBG-DIA/UAdeC
Bioprocesses and Bioproducts Group Diana Beatriz Muñiz-Márquez
Food Research Department Department of Engineering
School of Chemistry Campus Ciudad Valles
Autonomous University of Coahuila Tecnológico Nacional de México
Saltillo, Coahuila, México Ciudad Valles, San Luis Potosí, México
Contributors xxi

Anahí Nájera R. Pandiselvam

Biorefinery Group Physiology, Biochemistry and Post-
Food Research Department Harvest Technology Division
Faculty of Chemistry Sciences ICAR – Central Crop and Research
Autonomous University of Coahuila Institute
Saltillo, Coahuila, México Kasaragod, Kerala, India

Dão Pedro de Carvalho Neto Adanely Paredes-Ortíz

Bioprocess Engineering and Department of Chemical and
Biotechnology Department Biochemical Engineering
Federal University of Paraná (UFPR) Tecnológico Nacional de México/
Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil Instituto Tecnológico de Durango
Blvd. Felipe Pescador 1830 Ote
Guadalupe Virginia Nueva Vizcaya, Durango, México
Nevárez-Moorillón
Facultad de Ciencias Químicas Roberto de la Parra-Saldívar
Universidad Autónoma Tecnológico de Monterrey
de Chihuahua Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias
Circuito Universitario s/n. Campus Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
Universitario II
Gilberto Vinícius de Melo Pereira
Chihuahua, México
Bioprocess Engineering and
Biotechnology Department
José Luis López Niño
Federal University of Paraná (UFPR)
Independent Agricultural Producer
Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
Saltillo, Coahuila México
Marcela Sofía Pino
Clarisse Nobre Biorefinery Group
Centre of Biological Engineering Food Research Department
University of Minho Faculty of Chemistry Sciences
Campus Gualtar, Braga, Portugal Autonomous University of Coahuila
Saltillo, Coahuila, México
Jesús B. Páez-Lerma
Department of Chemical and Biochemical Lilia Arely Prado-Barragán
Engineering Biotechnology Department
Tecnológico Nacional de México/Instituto CBS Division
Tecnológico de Durango Universidad Autónoma
Blvd. Felipe Pescador 1830 Ote Metropolitana
Col. Nueva Vizcaya Unidad Iztapalapa, México
Durango, México
S. S. Rakesh
Dulce M. Palmerín-Carreño PhD Scholar (Environmental
Facultad de Ciencias Naturales Sciences)
Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
Delegación, Juriquilla, Qro., México Coimbatore, India
xxii Contributors

Francisca Ramírez-Godina Autonomous University of Tamaulipas

Plant Breeding Department Ciudad Mante, Tamaulipas, México
Universidad Autònoma Agraria Antonio
Narro Raúl Rodríguez-Herrera
Saltillo, Coahuila, México Food Research Department
Faculty of Chemistry Sciences
Cristina Ramírez-Toro Autonomous University of Coahuila
Microbiología y Biotecnología Aplicada Saltillo, Coahuila, México
(MIBIA)
Departamento de Biología Rosa M. Rodríguez-Jasso
Universidad del Valle Biorefinery Group
Calle, Cali, Colombia Food Research Department
Faculty of Chemistry Sciences
Flor G. Ramos-Hernández Autonomous University of Coahuila
Food Research Department Saltillo, Coahuila, México
School of Chemistry
Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila Sevastianos Roussos
Blvd. V. Carranza and José Cárdenas V. Aix-Marseille Université
s/n. Col. Republica Ote Institut Méditerranéen de Biodiversité
Saltillo, Coahuila, México et d’Ecologie marine et continentale
(IMBE)
K. Rathnakumar UMR CNRS/IRD/Univ. Avignon-FST
Department of Fish Process St-Jérôme, case 421
Engineering Marseille cedex, France
College of Fisheries Engineering
Tamil Nadu Fisheries University Héctor A. Ruiz
Nagapattinam, Tamil Nadu, India Biorefinery Group
Food Research Department
Kaavya Rathnakumar Faculty of Chemistry Sciences
Department of Food Engineering and Autonomous University of Coahuila
Bioprocess Technology Saltillo, Coahuila, México
Asian Institute of Technology
Khlong Luang, Bangkok, Thailand Abdulhameed Sabu
Inter University Centre for Bioscience
Armando Robledo-Olivo Department of Biotechnology and
Food Science and Technology Microbiology
Department School of Life Sciences
Universidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio Kannur University, Payyanur Campus
Narro Kerala, India
Saltillo, Coahuila, México
Norma Margarita De la Fuente
Luis Víctor Rodríguez-Durán Salcido
Department of Biochemical Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas
Engineering Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila
Unidad Académica Multidisciplinaria Ciudad Universitaria
Mante Torreón, Coahuila. México
Contributors xxiii

P. B. Kamaludeen Sara Sudheesh Sudhakaran

Professor (Environmental Sciences) School of Chemical Science
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Kannur University
Coimbatore, India Payyanur Campus
Kannur, Kerala, India
Leonardo Sepúlveda-Torre
BBG-DIA/UAdeC Shiburaj Sugathan
Bioprocesses and Bioproducts Research Division of Microbiology
Group Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic
Food Research Department Garden & Research Institute
School of Chemistry Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
Autonomous University of Coahuila
Saltillo, Coahuila, México T. S. Swapna
Department of Botany
Robert J. Seviour University of Kerala
Emeritus Professor La Trobe University Kariavattom, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Melbourne, VIC. Conjoint Professor
Antonela Taddia
University of Newcastle
Institute of Biotechnological and
New South Wales, Australia
Chemical Processes – Rosario
– School of Biochemical and
Carlos Ricardo Soccol
Pharmaceutical Sciences
Bioprocess Engineering and
Universidad Nacional de Rosario
Biotechnology Department
Rosario, Argentina
Federal University of Paraná (UFPR)
Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil José A. Teixeira
Institute for Biotechnology and
Lluvia de Abril Alexandra Bioengineering
Soriano-Melgar CEB-Centre of Biological Engineering
Department of Plastics in Agriculture School of Engineering
Centro de Investigación en Química University of Minho
Aplicada Braga, Portugal
Saltillo Coahuila, México
Alejandro Y. Torres
Nicolás O. Soto-Cruz Biorefinery Group
Department of Chemical and Food Research Department
Biochemical Engineering Faculty of Chemistry Sciences,
Tecnológico Nacional de México/ Autonomous University of Coahuila
Instituto Tecnológico de Durango Saltillo, Coahuila, México
Col. Nueva Vizcaya
Durango, México Gisela Tubio
Institute of Biotechnological and
Karthikeyan Subburamu Chemical Processes – Rosario
Agricultural Engineering College and – School of Biochemical and
Research Institute Pharmaceutical Sciences
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Universidad Nacional de Rosario
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India Rosario, Argentina
xxiv Contributors

Fabiola Veana-Hernández Jorge Enrique Wong-Paz

Department of Engineering Department of Engineering
Campus Ciudad Valles Campus Ciudad Valles
Tecnológico Nacional de México Tecnológico Nacional de México
Ciudad Valles Ciudad Valles
San Luis Potosí, México San Luis Potosí, México

María Elena Velázquez-Arellano Elisa Zanuso

Department of Animal Nutrition Biorefinery Group
Universidad Autónoma Agraria Food Research Department
Antonio Narro Faculty of Chemistry Sciences
Saltillo Coahuila, México Autonomous University of Coahuila
Saltillo, Coahuila, México
Janeth M. Ventura-Sobrevilla CEB-Centre of Biological Engineering
Food Research Department. School of University of Minho Gualtar
Chemistry Braga, Portugal
Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila
Blvd. V. Carranza and José Cárdenas V.
s/n. Col. Republica Ote
Saltillo, Coahuila, México

Ileana Vera-Reyes
Department of Plastics in Agriculture
Centro de Investigación en Química
Aplicada
Saltillo, Coahuila, México
Part I
Bioprocessing Technologies
 1 Microbial Technology:
Advances and Challenges
Cristóbal N. Aguilar,* Ayerim Hernández-Almanza,
Abdulhameed Sabu, Araceli Loredo, Sudheesh
Sudhakaran, Desiree Davila-Medina, Thelma K.
Morales-Martínez, Leonardo Sepúlveda-Torre,
Shiburaj Sugathan, and Jose A. Teixeira

CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Microbial and Biotechnological Patents.........................................................5
1.3 Advances of Fermentation Process in Agriculture......................................... 6
1.4 General Aspects in the Fermentation Process in Food................................... 9
1.5 Biopharmaceutics Production Focusing on Fermentation Technologies...... 11
1.6 Pharmaceutical Industry............................................................................... 13
1.7 Bioenergy Industry........................................................................................ 13
1.7.1 First-Generation Bioethanol.............................................................. 14
1.7.2 Second-Generation Bioethanol......................................................... 14
1.7.3 Different Process Configurations...................................................... 14
1.8 Fermentative Processes Applied to the Environment................................... 15
1.9 Contaminants................................................................................................ 16
1.10 Water Resources............................................................................................ 16
1.11 Soil Bioremediation....................................................................................... 16
1.12 Alternative Energies...................................................................................... 17
1.13 Alternative Materials..................................................................................... 17
1.14 Final Remarks............................................................................................... 17
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................. 18
References................................................................................................................. 18

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Microorganisms are the basis of life on the Earth. Fossil microorganisms 3.3 to
3.5 billion years old have been found. Like all other life forms, microbes contain
DNA and RNA; also, they can produce the required enzymes to hydrolyze poly-
saccharides, proteins, and lipids needed for recycling. The diversity of microbial
metabolism allows the use of different forms of matter and energy, including small

* Corresponding contributor: [email protected]

3
4 Advances in Food Bioproducts and Bioprocessing Technologies

inorganic molecules and organic polymeric compounds (Steinkraus, 2004; Zhang and
Huang, 2010). Microorganisms are the basic living forms of the biosphere. Millions
of years before the appearance of the first human being on Earth, the enzymatic
and chemical reactions needed for fermentation of foods were present like a part
of the reaction used by microbial organisms to use and recycle diverse components
from plants—for example, the transformation of sugars into organic acids, alcohols,
and vinegar. Also, when microorganisms produced attractive aromas and flavors
in food components, the humans learned to take advantage of and to desire such
foods. This was the beginning of fermented foods (Steinkraus, 2004). Fermentation
can be defined as a bioprocess where several biochemical reactions induced by
microorganisms and their enzymes modify the primary food products (Kohajdová,
2017). Strains such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Zymomonas mobilis have been
employed in the alcoholic beverage industry due their ability to produce alcohol;
also, Aspergillus, Rhizopus, or Mucor can ferment rice grains to produce rice wine.
Streptococcus sp. and Lactobacillus sp. are the major microorganisms employed in
fermentation of dairy products. At present, the intake of fermented food is increas-
ing due the beneficial properties that these foods have with regard to human health.
On the other hand, microorganisms have contributed to obtaining compounds
with curative and reduction properties related to human diseases. Some of these
microbial products include enzymes, antibiotics, antitumor drugs, immunosuppres-
sants, antiparasitic agents, etc. (Demain, 2014). The golden era of antibiotics dis-
covery started with Fleming’s interest in the usability of the antimicrobial property
of penicillin. Penicillin is produced by various species of Penicillium; however,
some research on secondary metabolites has focused on bacteria, especially acti-
nomycetes, as excellent producers of bioactive compounds. The majority of these
compounds originate from the Streptomyces species. Antibiotics such as erythromy-
cin, tetracycline, neomycin, vancomycin, and streptomycin have been isolated from
this group of bacteria (Bérdy, 2005; Weber et al., 2015; Bandyopadhyay, Khetan,
and Hong, 2017; Nielsen and Nielsen, 2017). Nowadays, with new techniques in
research, we know that microorganisms can involve more reactions and produce
a large array of metabolites with sensorial qualities and beneficial effects to con-
sumers’ health at a low cost (Camarasa et al., 2018). For example, some yeasts and
algae, such as Rhodotorula sp, Phaffia sp, and Chlorella sp, have turned out to be a
viable alternative to obtain natural pigments like carotenoids and chlorophyll with
anticancer, antioxidant, and other beneficial properties (Bai et al., 2011; Cheng and
Yang, 2015). Also, microorganisms are a great source of oils—mainly polyunsatu-
rated fatty acids (Bellou et al., 2016; Kot et al., 2016), fructooligosaccharides, and
functional sweeteners with low caloric values and noncariogenic effects (Mussatto
et al., 2009; Muñiz-Márquez et al., 2016). However, microbes not only have been
used in biocompound production but also in wastewater treatment, as biological con-
trol agents, and as a promising alternative for obtaining biofuel. Manipulation of cul-
ture conditions such as type and concentration of substrate, pH, temperature, aeration,
and (currently) genetic engineering, allows the microorganisms to be great alternatives
in the production of antibiotics, fermented foods, enzymes, etc., which counteracts the
increasing demand of the population for a healthy life based on natural foods without
the use of chemical preservatives or pesticides.
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
knee. His features were as composed as if he had been only asleep.
His color was as fresh, and his flesh as plump and full, as in the
perfect glow of health; the smile of infancy and innocence sat on his
lips. His shroud was not only entire, but perfectly clean, without a
particle of dust upon it. He seems to have been only a few months
old. The body of Lady Kilsyth was equally well preserved; and at a
little distance, from the feeble light of a taper, it would not have
been easy to distinguish whether she was dead or alive. The
features, nay, the very expression of her countenance, were marked
and distinct; and it was only in a certain light that you could
distinguish any thing like the agonizing traits of a violent death. Not
a single fold of her shroud was decayed, nor a single member
impaired. Neither of the bodies appear to have undergone the
slightest decomposition or disorganization. Several medical
gentlemen made incisions into the arm of the infant, and found the
substance of the body quite firm, and in its original state.”
The writer states, among other interesting points that attracted his
attention, that the bodies appeared to have been saturated in some
aromatic liquid, of the color of dark brandy, with which the coffin
had been filled, but which had nearly all evaporated.
Other instances of the artificial preservation of bodies might be
mentioned, still more remarkable, though perhaps less interesting,
than the preceding. The tomb of Edward the First, who died on the
7th of July, 1307, was opened on the 2d of January, 1770, and after
the lapse of four hundred and sixty-three years the body was found
undecayed: the flesh on the face was a little wasted, but not
decomposed. The body of Canute the Dane, who obtained
possession of England in the year 1017, was found quite fresh in the
year 1766, by the workmen repairing Winchester Cathedral. In the
year 1522, the body of William the Conqueror was found as entire as
when first buried, in the Abbey Church of St. Stephen at Caen; and
the body of Matilda his queen was found entire in 1502, in the
Abbey Church of the Holy Trinity in the same city.
No device of art, however, for the preservation of the remains of the
dead, appears equal to the simple process of plunging them into
peat-moss.
In a manuscript by one Abraham Grey, who lived about the middle
of the sixteenth century, now in the possession of his representative
Mr. Goodbehere Grey, of Old Mills, near Aberdeen, it is stated that, in
1569, three Roman soldiers, in the dress of their country, fully
equipped with warlike instruments, were dug out of a moss of great
extent, called Kazey Moss. When found, after the lapse of probably
about fifteen hundred years, they were still fresh and plump!
Modern chemistry teaches us that in these cases there is a
conversion of the tissues of the body into adipocere, a substance
closely resembling spermaceti, and composed, according to
Chevreul, of margaric and oleic acids, with a slight addition of the
alkalies. It is generally formed from bodies buried in moist earth,
and especially when they have accumulated in great numbers. On
the removal of the Cimetière des Innocens in Paris, in 1787, where
thousands of bodies had been buried annually for several centuries,
it was found that those bodies which had been placed in great
numbers in the trenches were, without having lost their shapes,
converted into this substance.
 FOLLY OF EMBALMING CORPSES.
Full many a jocund spring has passed away,
And many a flower has blossomed to decay,
And human life, still hastening to a close,
Finds in the worthless dust its last repose.—Firdousi.

Professor Johnston, in alluding to the custom of converting the

human body into a frightful-looking mummy, or of attempting by
various artificial processes to arrest its natural course of
decomposition into kindred elements, remarks, as beautifully as
truly:—
Embalm the loved bodies, and swathe them, as the old Egyptians
did, in resinous cerements, and you but preserve them a little longer,
that some wretched, plundering Arab may desecrate and scatter to
the winds the residual dust. Or jealously, in regal tombs and
pyramids, preserve the forms of venerated emperors or beauteous
queens, still, some future conqueror, or more humble Belzoni, will
rifle the most secure resting-place. Or bury them in most sacred
places, beneath high altars, a new reign shall dig them up and
mingle them again with the common earth. Or, more careful still,
conceal your last resting-place where local history keeps no record
and even tradition cannot betray you: then accident shall stumble at
length upon your unknown tomb and liberate your still remaining
ashes.
How touching to behold the vain result of even the most successful
attempts at preserving apart, and in their relative places, the solid
materials of the individual form! The tomb, after a lapse of time, is
found and opened. The ghastly tenant reclines, it may be, in full
form and stature. The very features are preserved,—impressed, and
impressing the spectator, with the calm dignity of their long repose.
But some curious hand touches the seemingly solid form, or a breath
of air disturbs the sleeping air around the full-proportioned body,—
when, lo! it crumbles instantly away into an almost insensible
quantity of impalpable dust!
Who has not read with mingled wonder and awe of the opening, in
our own day, of the almost magical sepulchre of an ancient Etruscan
king? The antiquarian dilettanti, in their under-ground researches,
unexpectedly stumbled upon the unknown vault. Undisturbed
through Roman and barbaric times, accident revealed it to modern
eyes. A small aperture, made by chance in the outer wall, showed to
the astonished gazers a crowned king within, sitting on his chair of
state, with robes and sceptre all entire, and golden ornaments of
ancient device bestowed here and there around his person. Eager to
secure the precious spoil, a way is forced with hammer and mattock
into the mysterious chamber. But the long spell is now broken; the
magical image is now gone. Slowly, as the vault first shook beneath
the blows, the whole pageant crumbled away. A light, smoky dust
filled the air; and, where the image so lately sat, only the tinselled
fragments of thin gold remained, to show that the vision and the
ornaments had been real, though the entire substance of the once
noble form had utterly vanished.
For a few thousand years some apparently fortunate kings and
princes may arrest the natural circulation of a handful of dust. But in
what are they better than Cromwell, whose remains were pitilessly
disturbed,—than Wyckliffe, whose ashes were sprinkled on the sea,
—than St. Genevieve, whose remains were burned in the Place de
Grève and her ashes scattered to the wind,—than Mausolus, whose
dust was swallowed by his wife Artemisia,—than the King of Edom,
whose bones were burned for lime,—or than St. Pepin and all the
royal line of Bourbon, whose tombs were emptied by a Parisian
mob? Lamartine tells us, in his History of the Girondists, that a
decree of the Convention had commanded the destruction of the
tombs of the kings at St. Denis. The Commune changed this decree
into an attack against the dead. * * * * The axe broke the gates of
bronze presented by Charlemagne to the Basilica of St. Denis. * * *
They raised the stones, ransacked the vaults, violated the resting-
places of the departed, sought out, beneath the swathings and
shrouds, embalmed corpses, crumbled flesh, calcined bones, empty
skulls of kings, queens, princes, ministers, bishops. Pepin, the
founder of the Carlovingian dynasty and father of Charlemagne, was
now but a pinch of gray ash, which was in a moment scattered by
the wind. The mutilated heads of Turenne, Duguesclin, Louis XII.,
Francis I., were rolled on the pavement. * * * * Beneath the choir
were buried the princes and princesses of the first race, and some of
the third,—Hugh Capet, Philip the Bold, Philip the Handsome. They
rent away their rags of silk and threw them on a bed of quicklime.
* * * * They threw the carcass of Henry IV. into the common fosse.
His son and grandson, Louis XIII. and XIV., followed. Louis XIII. was
but a mummy; Louis XIV. a black, indistinguishable mass of
aromatics. Louis XV. came last out of his tomb. The vault of the
Bourbons rendered up its dead; queens, dauphinesses, princesses,
were carried away in armfuls by the workmen and cast into the
trench. A brief interval of proud separation, and they were mingled
with the common dust! Their ashes dissipated, nothing but their
empty tombs remain,—the houses of the dead, like the houses of
the living, long surviving, as melancholy mementos of the tenants
for whom they were erected.
M. de Saulcy, in his Journey Round the Dead Sea, remarks of the
rock-tombs of the valley of Hinnom, “The immense necropolis, traces
of which are to be met with at every step in the valley, dates from
the period when the Jebusites were masters of the country. After
them the Israelites deposited the remains of their fathers in the
same grottoes; and the same tombs, after having become at a still
later period those of the Christians who had obtained possession of
the Holy City, have, since the destruction of the Latin kingdoms of
Jerusalem, ceased to change both masters and occupants. Even the
scattered bones are no more found in them; and from the city of the
dead the dead alone have disappeared, while the abodes are still
entire.”
There is a barbaric philosophy, therefore, as well as an apparent
knowledge of the course of nature, in the treatment of the dead
which prevails in Thibet and on the slopes of the Himalaya. In the
former country the dead body is cut in pieces, and either thrown into
the lakes to feed the fishes, or exposed on the hill-tops to the eagles
and birds of prey. On the Himalayan slopes the Sikkim burn the body
and scatter the ashes on the ground. The end is the same among
these tribes of men as among us. They briefly anticipate the usual
course of time,—a little sooner verifying the inspired words, “Dust
thou art, and unto dust thou shalt return.”
Yet a few days, and thee
The all-beholding sun shall see no more
In all his course; nor yet in the cold ground,
Where thy pale form was laid with many tears,
Nor in the embrace of ocean, shall exist
Thy image. Earth, that nourished thee, shall claim
Thy growth, to be resolved to earth again,
And, lost each human trace, surrendering up
Thine individual being, shalt thou go
To mix forever with the elements,
To be a brother to the insensible rock
And to the sluggish clod.—Bryant.
 WHIMSICAL WILL.
By William Hunnis, Chapel-master to Queen Elizabeth:—
To God my soule I do bequeathe, because it is his owen,
My body to be layd in grave, where to my friends best knowen;
Executors I will none make, thereby great stryfe may grow,
Because the goods that I shall leave wyll not pay all I owe.
 THE TRIPOD.
According to the Babylonian Talmud, Beracoth, p. 8, and in Jalkud
Schimoni on Ps. lxviii, 20, “Nine hundred and three axe the kinds of
death made in this world.” Physiologists drop the nine hundred,
declare that life stands on a tripod, and assert that we die by the
lungs, the heart, or the brain.
 IMPRECATORY EPITAPH.
The Shakspearean imprecation, “Curst be he that moves my bones,”
is paralleled in an epitaph in Runic characters at Greniadarstad
church, in Iceland, which according to Finn Magnussen’s
interpretation, concludes thus:—
“If you willingly remove this monument, may you sink into the ground.”
 THE FLEUR-DE-LIS.
Nothing, says an old writer, could be more simple than the lily, which
was the distinctive badge of the French monarchy; nor, at the same
time, could anything be more symbolic of the state of the nobility
and gentry, exempted from the necessity of working for a livelihood
or for dress, than lilies, of which it is said: “They toil not neither do
they spin,” neque laborant neque nent,—which was the motto of the
royal arms of France.
 THE PLAGUES OF EGYPT.
The waters change to blood; next, frogs arise;
Dust turns to lice; and then come swarms of flies;
Lo! murrain strikes the beasts, but Goshen’s free!
Lo! boils beset the men, save, Israel, thee!
Then fires the thundering hail; then locusts bite;
Then comes three days of one unbroken night;
The first-born’s midnight death, from cot to throne,
Winds up ten plagues that make Egyptians moan.
 A STORY OF LONG AGO.
The long time ago of which I mean to tell, says Jean Ingelow, was a
wild night in March, during which, in a fisherman’s hut ashore, sat a
young girl at her spinning-wheel, and looked out on the dark driving
clouds, and listened, trembling, to the winds and the seas. The
morning light dawned at last. One boat that should have been riding
on the troubled waves was missing—her father’s boat! and half a
mile from the cottage her father’s body was washed upon the shore.
This happened fifty years ago, and fifty years is a long time in the
life of a human being; fifty years is a long time to go on in such a
course as the woman did of whom I am speaking. She watched her
father’s body, according to the custom of her people, till he was laid
in the grave. Then she laid down on her bed and slept, and by night
got up and set a candle in her casement, as a beacon to the
fishermen and a guide. She sat by the candle all night, and trimmed
it, and spun; then when the day dawned she went to bed and slept
in the sunshine. So many hanks as she spun before for her daily
bread, she spun still, and one over, to buy her nightly candle; and
from that time to this, for fifty years, through youth, maturity, and
old age, she turned night into day, and in the snow-storms of Winter,
through driving mists, deceptive moonlight, and solemn darkness,
that northern harbor has never once been without the light of her
candle.
How many lives she saved by this candle, or how many meals she
won for the starving families of the boatmen, it is impossible to say;
how many a dark night the fishermen, depending on it, went
fearlessly forth, cannot now be told. There it stood, regular as a
light-house, and steady as constant care could make it. Always
brighter when daylight waned, they had only to keep it constantly in
view and they were safe; there was but one thing that could
intercept it, and that was the rock. However far they might have
stretched out to sea, they had only to bear down straight for that
lighted window, and they were sure of a safe entrance into the
harbor.
Fifty years of life and labor—fifty years of sleeping in the sunshine—
fifty years of watching and self-denial, and all to feed the flame and
trim the wick of that one candle! But if we look upon the recorded
lives of great men and just men and wise men, few of them can
show fifty years of worthier, certainly not of more successful labor.
Little, indeed, of the “midnight oil” consumed during the last half
century so worthily deserved trimming. Happy woman—and but for
the dreaded rock her great charity might never have been called into
exercise.
But what do the boatmen and the boatmen’s wives think of this? Do
they pay the woman? No, they are very poor; but poor or rich they
know better than that. Do they thank her? No. Perhaps they feel that
thanks of theirs would be inadequate to express their obligations, or,
perhaps long years have made the lighted casement so familiar that
it is looked upon as a matter of course. Sometimes the fishermen lay
fish on her threshold, and set a child to watch it for her till she
wakes; sometimes their wives steal into her cottage, now she is
getting old, and spin a hank or two of thread for her while she
slumbers; and they teach their children to pass her hut quietly, and
not to sing and shout before her door, lest they should disturb her.
That is all. Their thanks are not looked for—scarcely supposed to be
due. Their grateful deeds are more than she expects and much as
she desires.
How often in the far distance of my English home, I have awoke in a
wild Winter night, and while the wind and storm were arising, have
thought of that northern bay, with the waves dashing against the
rock, and have pictured to myself the casement, and the candle
nursed by that bending, aged figure! How delighted to know that
through her untiring charity the rock has long since lost more than
half its terror, and to consider that, curse though it may be to all
besides, it has most surely proved a blessing to her.
You, too, may perhaps think with advantage on the character of this
woman, and contrast it with the mission of the rock. There are many
degrees between them. Few, like the rock, stand up wholly to work
ruin and destruction; few, like the woman, “let their light shine” so
brightly for good. But to one of the many degrees between them we
must all most certainly belong—we all lean towards the woman or
the rock. On such characters you do well to speculate with me, for
you have not been cheated into sympathy with ideal shipwreck or
imaginary kindness. There is many a rock elsewhere as perilous as
the one I told you of—perhaps there are many such women; but for
this one, whose story is before you, pray that her candle may burn a
little longer, since this record of her charity is true.
 THIS IS NOT OUR HOME.
Among the beautiful thoughts which dropped like pearls from the
pen of that brilliant and talented journalist, George D. Prentice, the
following sublime extract upon man’s higher destiny is perhaps the
best known and most universally admitted. Coming from such a
source we can well appreciate it, for that distinguished man had
attained a position among his fellows which would have satisfied
almost any earthly ambition. Yet all this could not recompense him
for the toils and ills of life, and in the eloquent passage subjoined he
portrays, most beautifully, the restless longings of the human heart
for something higher and nobler than earth can afford.
“It cannot be that earth is man’s only abiding place. It cannot be
that our life is a bubble cast up by the ocean of eternity to float a
moment upon its waves and sink into nothingness. Else, why these
high and glorious aspirations which leap like angels from the temple
of our hearts, forever wandering unsatisfied? Why is it that the
rainbow and cloud come over us with a beauty that is not of earth,
and then pass off to leave us to muse on their loveliness? Why is it
the stars which hold their festival around the midnight throne, are
set above the grasp of our limited faculties, forever mocking us with
their unapproachable glory? And, finally, why is it that the bright
forms of human beauty are presented to our view and taken from
us, leaving the thousand streams of our affections to flow back in
Alpine torrents upon our hearts? We were born for a higher destiny
than earth. There is a realm where the rainbow never fades, where
the stars will be spread out before us like the islands that slumber
on the ocean, and where the beautiful beings that pass before us
like shadows, will stay forever in our presence.”
 ILL SUCCESS IN LIFE.
One of our best American writers, Geo. S. Hillard, forcibly and truly
says:—
I confess that increasing years bring with them an increasing respect
for men who do not succeed in life, as those words are commonly
used. Heaven is said to be a place for those who have not
succeeded on earth; and it is sure that celestial grace does not
thrive and bloom in the hot blaze of worldly prosperity. Ill success
sometimes arises from a superabundance of qualities in themselves
good—from a conscience too sensitive, a taste too fastidious, a self-
forgetfulness too romantic, and modesty too retiring. I will not go so
far as to say, with a living poet, “that the world knows nothing of its
great men,” but there are forms of greatness, or at least excellence,
which “die and make no sign;” there are martyrs that miss the palm
but not the stake, heroes without the laurel, and conquerors without
the triumph.
 FUTURITY.
“Life is sweet,” said Sir Anthony Kingston to Bishop Hooper at the
stake, “and death bitter.” “True, friend,” he replied, “but consider that
the death to come is more bitter, and the life to come is more
sweet.”
 THE HEART.
In his charming Hyperion, Mr. Longfellow says:—
The little I have seen of the world, and know of the history of
mankind, teaches me to look upon the errors of others in sorrow,
not in anger. When I take the history of one poor heart that has
sinned and suffered, and represent to myself the struggles and
temptations it has passed,—the brief pulsations of joy,—the feverish
inquietude of hope and fear,—the tears of regret,—the feebleness of
purpose,—the pressure of want,—the desertion of friends,—the
scorn of a world that has little charity,—the desolation of the soul’s
sanctuary,—threatening voices within,—health gone,—happiness
gone,—even hope, that remains the longest, gone,—I would fain
leave the erring soul of my fellow-man with Him from whose hands
it came,
Even as a little girl,
Weeping and laughing in her childish sport.
 EVENING PRAYER.
The day is ended. Ere I sink to sleep,
My weary spirit seeks repose in Thine.
Father, forgive my trespasses, and keep
This little life of mine.

With loving kindness curtain thou my bed,

And cool, in rest, my burning pilgrim feet;
Thy pardon be the pillow for my head;
So shall my sleep be sweet.

At peace with all the world, dear Lord, and thee,

No fears my soul’s unwavering faith can shake;
All’s well! whichever side the grave for me
The morning light may break.
 BEAUTIFUL THOUGHT.
On the shores of the Adriatic sea the wives of the fishermen, whose
husbands have gone far off upon the deep, are in the habit, at even-
tide, of going down to the sea-shore, and singing, as female voices
only can, the first stanza of a beautiful hymn; after they have sung it
they will listen till they hear, borne by the wind across the desert
sea, the second stanza sung by their gallant husbands, as they are
tossed by the gale upon the waves, and both are happy. Perhaps, if
we listen, we, too, might hear on this desert world of ours some
whisper borne from afar to remind us that there is a heaven and a
home; and when we sing the hymn upon earth, perhaps we shall
hear its echo breaking in the music upon the sands of time, and
cheering the hearts of those that are pilgrims and strangers, and
look for a city that hath foundation.
 LIFE’S PARTING.
Wordsworth read less and praised less the writings of other poets,
than any one of his contemporaries. This gives an especial interest
to the following stanza by Mrs. Barbauld, which he learned by heart,
and which he used to ask his sister to repeat to him. Once, while
walking in his sitting-room at Rydal, with his hands behind him, his
friend, Henry Crabb Robinson heard him say: “I am not in the habit
of grudging people their good things; but I wish I had written those
lines:—
Life! we’ve been long together,
Through pleasant and through cloudy weather;
’Tis hard to part when friends are dear,
Perhaps ’twill cost a sigh, a tear;
Then steal away, give little warning,
Choose thine own time;
Say not good night, but in some brighter clime
Bid me good-morning.”
 DESTINY.
Three roses, wan as moonlight, and weighed down
Each with its loveliness as with a crown,
Drooped in a florist’s window in a town.

The first a lover bought. It lay at rest,

Like snow on snow, that night, on beauty’s breast.

The second rose, as virginal and fair,

Shrunk in the tangles of a harlot’s hair.

The third, a widow, with new grief made wild,

Shut in the icy palm of her dead child.
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