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Thomas Schäpers
Semiconductor Spintronics
Also of Interest
Spintronics
Tomasz Blachowicz, Andrea Ehrmann, 2019
ISBN 978-3-11-049062-6, e-ISBN 978-3-11-049063-3
Electrons in Solids
Mesoscopics, Photonics, Quantum Computing, Correlations, Topology
Hendrik Bluhm, Thomas Brückel, Markus Morgenstern,
Gero von Plessen, Christoph Stampfer, 2019
ISBN 978-3-11-043831-4, e-ISBN 978-3-11-043832-1
Optical Electronics
An Introduction
Jixiang Yan, 2019
ISBN 978-3-11-050049-3, e-ISBN 978-3-11-050060-8
Thomas Schäpers
Semiconductor
Spintronics
|
2nd edition
Physics and Astronomy Classification Scheme 2010
Primary: 85.75.-d, 85.35.-p, 73.63.-b, 73.43.-f, 75.20.-g; Secondary: 85.75.Hh, 85.35.Be, 85.35.Ds,
85.35.Gv, 73.63.Hs, 73.63.Kv, 73.63.Nm
Author
Thomas Schäpers
Forschungszentrum Jülich
Peter Grünberg Institut 9
52425 Jülich
Germany
[email protected]
ISBN 978-3-11-063887-5
e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-063900-1
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-063932-2
www.degruyter.com
|
To Gitta, Antonia, and Paul
Preface to the second edition
In recent years, it has become apparent that topological states in solid-state materials
are becoming increasingly important for spinelectronic applications. Already in the
first edition this was taken into account by discussing in detail the physical properties
of topological insulators. In the new issue, this part has now been extended to include
Landau quantization at high magnetic fields. The possibilities to include topological
properties go even further. Combining low-dimensional materials with strong spin-
orbit interaction with superconductors, so-called Majorana states can be generated
under certain circumstances. These states emerge in pairs that are usually widely sep-
arated from each other. The exchange of these Majorana states follows special rules
which differ from those of normal fermions or bosons. These are the so-called non-
abelian anyons. This special property makes Majorana states very interesting for a
new kind of quantum computing, the topological quantum computing. In order to
take this recent development into account, the second edition now contains a new
chapter which deals with the topic of Majorana states in detail.
Besides the electrical characterization of materials relevant for spin electronics,
optical investigations play an equally important role. In order to better take this into
account, the corresponding part has been significantly expanded in the new edition.
The physical principles of the Faraday effect and the various spin dephasing processes
are now explained in detail. In addition, resonant spin amplification is discussed,
which is exploited in particular for long spin dephasing times.
Especially concerning the extension of the latter part, I am indebted to Bernd
Beschoten, who provided me with appropriate material and was available for inten-
sive discussions around the optical experiments. Furthermore, I thank Hans Lüth as a
discussion partner around the topic of Majorana fermions. Last but not least, I would
like to thank Dr. Vivien Schubert of de Gruyter for her very competent coordination of
the second edition.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110639001-201
Preface to the first edition
In the past decades we observed a continuous increase of performance and complex-
ity of electronic circuits. This progress is quantified by Moore’s law [1], which pre-
dicts a doubling of the number of transistors in an integrated circuit every two years.
Although it is not a law in a strict sense, it proved to be valid over more than four
decades. The tremendous number of transistor in state-of-the-art integrated circuits
comes along with a corresponding shrinkage of device dimensions, which nowadays
have feature sizes in the order of a few tens of nanometers. It is foreseeable that this
development cannot continue forever. In the International Technology Roadmap for
Semiconductors [2] these future challenges are addressed and possible solutions are
proposed. In this context, spin electronic devices, i. e. devices which make use of the
electron spin, are mentioned as a possible alternative to solely charge-based devices.
The aim of this textbook is to introduce the various materials, mechanisms, and
concepts of spintronic devices. We restrict ourself to semiconductor-based structures
and leave out pure metal-based devices, which have an older history and are already
used in various applications. The development of semiconductor spintronic devices is
still in its infant stage. Different device concepts are proposed, but they have not yet
found their way into the production of integrated circuits. Since the development of
spintronics is still on a conceptual level, the emphasis of this textbook is on the un-
derlying physical phenomena. The book should put students and researchers into a
position to understand the basic concepts of spin electronic devices. For many of the
discussed effects a profound knowledge of low-dimensional semiconductor structures
is mandatory. Therefore, an introduction to these systems is provided which serves as
a basis for the different phenomena discussed in the subsequent chapters. In addition
to subjects which have in the meantime become well established, such as spin injec-
tion or spin manipulation, we also include recent developments. Especially for the
new field of topological insulators it cannot even be foreseen what impact these ma-
terials will have on future spinelectronic devices. In any case, these materials, which
distinguish themselves from other materials by their strict spin momentum locking,
bring a new twist into the research on spintronic devices. Last but not least, in recent
years a new computation paradigm has emerged which is based on quantum mechan-
ical states. In the field of quantum computation, two-level systems, so-called quantum
bits, are used as basic elements. Here, semiconductor spintronics is a very interesting
candidate for realizing these systems, since the electron with its two spin states is a
natural candidate for a quantum bit. Moreover, the mature semiconductor nanofabri-
cation technology helps to scale up these systems.
The current textbook is based on lecture notes of the spintronics course for mas-
ters students held at RWTH Aachen University. It was a great pleasure for me to give
these lectures together with Bernd Beschoten from RWTH Aachen. As one of the real
experts in optical methods, he especially contributed to my understanding of the var-
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110639001-202
X | Preface to the first edition
ious optical phenomena in spintronics. I am very grateful for the many stimulating
discussions with colleagues and students in Jülich and Aachen. In particular, I en-
joyed the lively and inspiring discussions with Hans Lüth and Andreas Bringer about
various aspects on quantum and spin transport in nanostructures. During these dis-
cussions I was reminded as to why I studied physics in the first place, and how much
fun it is. Especially Andreas Bringer helped a great deal in figuring out the sometimes
intricate theoretical concepts around spin-orbit coupling. I acknowledge the support
and encouragement from colleagues in Jülich and Aachen: Gustav Bihlmayer, Stefan
Blügel, Hendrik Bluhm, Nataliya Demarina, David DiVincenzo, Detlev Grützmacher,
Gernot Güntherodt, Hilde Hardtdegen, Fabian Hassler, Mihail (Mike) Lepsa, Beata
Kardynal, Gregor Mussler, Claus Schneider, and Christoph Stampfer. During various
conferences, workshops, collaborations, and visits I enjoyed having discussions on
various hot topics in spintronics and quantum transport, namely with Carlos Egues,
Sigurður Erlingsson, Michele Governale, Ewelina Hankiewicz, Stefan Kettemann, Jia
Grace Lu, Andrei Manolescu, Junsaku Nitta, Angela Rizzi, Björn Trauzettel, Paul Wenk,
Roland Winkler, and Ulrich Zülicke. Many colleagues provided figures for this book:
Irene Aguilera, Yulieth Arango, Bernd Beschoten, Gustav Bihlmayer, Hartmut Buh-
mann, Hilde Hardtdegen, Sebastian Heedt, Takaaki Koga, Jia Grace Lu, Martina Luys-
berg, Gregor Mussler, Junsaku Nitta, Lukasz Plucinski, and Lieven Vandersypen. Their
experimental and theoretical results helped greatly to better illustrate the physical ef-
fects discussed in the book. The cover picture is based on a graphics by Sebastian
Heedt. I thank my students for critical reading of the manuscript and many useful
comments to improve and clarify explanations and derivation. I am also very grateful
for the very professional support and patience of Silke Hutt and Dr. Konrad Kieling
from De Gruyter. I was aware that transferring lecture notes to a textbook is quite an
effort, but, one is still surprised how much work it is in the end. Finally I thank my wife
Gitta, who accepted the extra time I needed to work on the manuscript, in addition to
the time which is required in the normal daily life of a researcher.
1 Introduction | 1
3 Magnetism in solids | 52
3.1 Definitions and basics | 52
3.1.1 Definitions | 52
3.1.2 Magnetization | 52
3.1.3 Magnetic moments of electrons in atomic orbitals | 53
XII | Contents
5 Magnetic electrodes | 94
5.1 Overview | 94
5.2 Formation of magnetic domains | 95
5.2.1 Magnetic stray field | 95
5.2.2 Crystal anisotropy | 96
5.2.3 Form anisotropy contribution | 97
5.2.4 Exchange energy contribution | 98
5.3 Domain walls | 98
5.4 Ferromagnetic electrodes | 101
5.5 Local Hall effect measurements | 105
5.6 Micromagnetic simulations | 107
5.7 Domain wall motion | 110
5.8 Summary | 113
Das etwa aus dem Jahre 300 n. Chr. stammende schöne Mosaik in Bad Kreuznach
(Hüffelsheimerstraße 26), das uns Gladiatoren- und Tier-, besonders Bärenkämpfe
in der Arena zeigt.
⇒
GRÖSSERES BILD
Tafel 70.
Eine Ochsen- und Bärenhatz, wie sie von der Zunft der Metzger bis ins 18.
Jahrhundert hinein im Fechthause zu Nürnberg abgehalten wurde.
(Nach einem zeitgenössischen Stich.)
Englisches Derbyrennen in Epsom zu Anfang des 19. Jahrhunderts.
(Nach einer zeitgenössischen Lithographie.)
Wie Gladiatoren- und Tierkämpfe, ebenso der unfeine Mimus und
Pantomimus Ausflüsse des ungebildeten Römertums waren, so
bildeten die Griechen die nationalen Ringkämpfe und Wettrennen,
wie auch das feinere Theater aus. Hier soll nur von den
Pferderennen die Rede sein. Schon bei Homer finden wir in der Ilias
bei Gelegenheit der Leichenfeier von Achilleus’ Freund Patroklos ein
Wagenrennen für Zweispänner veranstaltet, wobei Achilleus Starter
und Richter und Phoinix Kontrolleur am Wendeposten war. Fünf
namhafte Griechen fuhren bei diesem ausgesprochenen
Herrenfahren, bei dem schon eifrig gewettet wurde. Als erster Preis
figurierte ein Weib „kundig untadeliger Arbeiten“ und ein
gehenkelter, 22 Maß fassender Dreifuß, als zweiter Preis eine
6jährige, mit einem Maultier trächtige Stute, als dritter ein neuer
viermaßiger Silberkessel, als vierter zwei Talente Gold und als fünfter
eine neue Doppelschale.
Bild 66. Griechischer Rennleiter von einer um 550 v. Chr. gemalten Vase.
Backenhörnchen, 676.
Bachforelle, 426.
Badeschwamm, 482.
Bär, brauner, 615, 731, 733.
Bärenhetze, 736.
Bärenrobbe, 686.
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Bantam-Huhn, 320.
Banteng, 54.
Barsch, 441.
Bartenwale, 703.
Bartgrundel, 443.
Barsoi, 26.
Bartrobbe, 720.
Battahund, 8.
Baumfalke, 662.
Baummarder, 682.
Bekassine, 648.
Beluga, 713.
Berberpferd, 210.
Bergamaskerschaf, 134.
Bergschaf, englisches, 134.
Bernhardinerhund, 32.
Beuten, 512.
Bezoarziege, 95.
Biber, 621, 676, 692, 753.
Bilch, 627.
Bindenschwein, 145.
Birkhuhn, 638.
Blasenrobbe, 719.
Blaufelchen, 427.
Blaufuchs, 693.
Bluthunde, 37.
Boa, 701.
Bodenrenke, 427.
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