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Advanced Structured Materials

Andrei K. Abramian
Igor V. Andrianov
Valery A. Gaiko Editors

Nonlinear
Dynamics
of Discrete and
Continuous
Systems
Advanced Structured Materials

Volume 139

Series Editors
Andreas Öchsner, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Esslingen University of
Applied Sciences, Esslingen, Germany
Lucas F. M. da Silva, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
Holm Altenbach , Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Otto von Guericke
University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Sachsen-Anhalt, Germany
Common engineering materials reach in many applications their limits and new
developments are required to fulfil increasing demands on engineering materials.
The performance of materials can be increased by combining different materials to
achieve better properties than a single constituent or by shaping the material or
constituents in a specific structure. The interaction between material and structure
may arise on different length scales, such as micro-, meso- or macroscale, and offers
possible applications in quite diverse fields.
This book series addresses the fundamental relationship between materials and their
structure on the overall properties (e.g. mechanical, thermal, chemical or magnetic
etc.) and applications.
The topics of Advanced Structured Materials include but are not limited to
• classical fibre-reinforced composites (e.g. glass, carbon or Aramid reinforced
plastics)
• metal matrix composites (MMCs)
• micro porous composites
• micro channel materials
• multilayered materials
• cellular materials (e.g., metallic or polymer foams, sponges, hollow sphere
structures)
• porous materials
• truss structures
• nanocomposite materials
• biomaterials
• nanoporous metals
• concrete
• coated materials
• smart materials
Advanced Structured Materials is indexed in Google Scholar and Scopus.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8611

Andrei K. Abramian Igor V. Andrianov
• •

Valery A. Gaiko
Editors

Nonlinear Dynamics
of Discrete and Continuous
Systems

123
Editors
Andrei K. Abramian Igor V. Andrianov
Institute of Problems in Mechanical Institute of General Mechanics
Engineering RWTH Aachen University
Russian Academy of Sciences Aachen, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany
St. Petersburg, Russia

Valery A. Gaiko
United Institute of Informatics Problems
National Academy of Sciences of Belarus
Minsk, Belarus

ISSN 1869-8433 ISSN 1869-8441 (electronic)

Advanced Structured Materials
ISBN 978-3-030-53005-1 ISBN 978-3-030-53006-8 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53006-8
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
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authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained
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to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
This book is dedicated to
Dr. Wim van Horssen
on the occasion of his 60th birthday

Dr. Wim van Horssen

Preface

This Commemorative volume is a collection of papers contributed by colleagues

and disciples in tribute to eminent scientist, Dr. Wim van Horssen on the occasion
of his 60th birthday. The researches of Dr. Van Horssen cover various fields of
applied mechanics, in particular, ordinary and partial differential equations, differ-
ence equations, delay equations, asymptotic theory, theory of dynamical systems
and bifurcation theory. Working at Delft University of Technology (The
Netherlands), he brought up many pupils and created well known and highly
branched scientific school that made a significant contribution to the aforemen-
tioned fields of science.
This book contains articles by well-known scientists who actively work in the
fields where Dr. Van Horssen was very active over 35 years. Geographically, this
volume covers researches from Belarus, P.R. China, Germany, Indonesia, The
Netherlands, Russia, Serbia, Ukraine, UK and USA. It includes 16 articles
We believe that this Commemorative volume will be of great interest to
researchers and practitioners in the fields of applied and pure mathematics.

St. Petersburg, Russia Andrei K. Abramian

Köln, Germany Igor V. Andrianov
Minsk, Belarus Valery A. Gaiko

vii
Contents

1 Localized Waves in a Damaged Film Foundation Subjected

to Periodic Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 1
Andrei K. Abramian and Sergei A. Vakulenko
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Statement of Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Periodical Impacts and Resonance Caused by Them . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.1 Resonance Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.2 Wave Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Propagation of Localized Wave Through a Zone
with Damaged Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 9
1.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 12
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 13
2 Mathematical Models in Pure and Applied Mathematics . . . ..... 15
Igor V. Andrianov
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Pure and Applied Mathematics—Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 Poincaré, Lyapunov and Lord Rayleigh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4 Mathematical Model—Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5 Simple Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.6 Problem of Truncation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.7 Navier-Stokes Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.8 Splashes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.9 Correct Nonlinear Dynamic Equations of Buckled Beam . . . . . 24
2.10 Highly Likely: Rigor of PM? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.11 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

ix
x Contents

3 Expanding the Applicability of the Competitive Modes

Conjecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 31
Sudipto Choudhury, Huibert Reijm, and Cornelis Vuik
3.1 The Competitive Modes Conjecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2 Proper Splittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3 Example: The Wimol-Banlue Attractor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.4 Further Research: Improper Splittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4 The Construction of Stabilizing Regulators Sets for Nonlinear
Control Systems with the Help of Padé Approximations . . . . . . ... 45
Yulia Danik and Mikhail Dmitriev
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 45
4.2 Control Problems, SDRE Approach and Matrix Padé
Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 46
4.2.1 Two-Point Padé Approximation of the Riccati
Equation Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 50
4.2.2 Large Gain Systems and Weakly Controllable
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.2.3 Weakly Coupled Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5 Galerkin’s Method was not Developed by Ritz, Contrary
to the Timoshenko’s Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 63
I. Elishakoff, J. Kaplunov, and E. Kaplunov
5.1 Introduction: Origins of the Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.2 V. V. Novozhilov’s Views on the Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.3 Boris Grigorievich Galerkin and Heinrich Hencky . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.4 Interrelation Between Ritz and Galerkin Method . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.5 Relationship Between S. P. Timoshenko
and B. G. Galerkin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 71
5.6 Timoshenko’s Sensitivity to the Priority Question: His Letter
to the Editor of Philosophical Magazine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.7 Galerkin’s Letter to S. P. Timoshenko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.8 Discussion of Galerkin’s Letter to Timoshenko . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.9 Letter from Grigolyuk to Timoshenko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.10 Discussion of Grigolyuk’s Letter to Timoshenko . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.11 Letter from Timoshenko to Grigolyuk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.12 Personal Inputs of V. V. Novozhilov, V. V. Bolotin
and A. L. Goldenveiser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 77
5.13 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 78
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 79
Contents xi

6 Global Bifurcation Analysis of Polynomial Dynamical Systems ... 83

Valery A. Gaiko
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 83
6.2 Polynomial Mechanical System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 86
6.2.1 Euler–Lagrange–Liénard Type Model . . . . . . . . . . ... 86
6.2.2 Limit Cycles of the Euler–Lagrange–Liénard
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.3 Rational Endocrine System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.3.1 Topp Model of Diabetes Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.3.2 Global Bifurcation Analysis of the Topp System . . . . . 97
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
7 Topological Shooting of Solutions for Fickian Diffusion into
Core-Shell Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 103
T. G. de Jong and A. E. Sterk
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.2 Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7.3 Main Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.3.1 Reduction Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.3.2 Reduced Phase Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.3.3 Core Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
7.3.4 Shooting Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
7.4 Numerical Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
7.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
8 The Dynamic Interactions and Control of Long Slender Continua
and Discrete Inertial Components in Vertical Transportation
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 117
Stefan Kaczmarczyk
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.2 Mathematical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
8.3 Vertical Transportation System—Traction Drive Elevator . . . . . 119
8.4 The Dynamic Behaviour and Numerical Results . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8.5 Active Control Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
9 Free Generalized van der Pol Oscillators: Overview
of the Properties of Oscillatory Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 129
Ivana Kovacic
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 129
9.2 Small Values of the Damping Coefficient: Limit Cycle ....... 131
9.2.1 General Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 133
xii Contents

9.2.2 Special Case: c = 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 135

9.2.3 Special Case: c = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 137
9.3 Large Values of the Damping Coefficient: Relaxation
Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 138
9.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 143
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 143
10 Theoretical Determination of the Five Physical Constants
of the Toupin-Mindlin Gradient Elasticity for Polycrystalline
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 145
Victor I. Malyi
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 145
10.2 Description of the State of a Micro-Inhomogeneous Elastic
Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 146
10.3 Macroscopic Description of a Micro-Inhomogeneous
Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 147
10.4 Accounting for the Random Texture of Crystallites
Constituting a Polycrystal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 150
10.5 Gradient Modules for Micro-Inhomogeneous Media . . . . . . ... 151
10.6 Gradient Modules for Polycrystalline Materials with Cubic
Symmetry of Crystallites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 152
10.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 153
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 153
11 A Parametrically Excited Nonlinear Wave Equation . . . . . . ..... 155
Ferdinand Verhulst and Johan M. Tuwankotta
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 155
11.2 The Two-Mode 1 : 1 Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 156
11.2.1 The Invariant Normal Mode Planes . . . . . . . . . . ..... 157
11.2.2 First Order Averaging for the Orbits in General
Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
11.3 Triple Resonance for the 1 : 1 Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
11.3.1 Periodic Solutions in the Dissipative Case . . . . . . . . . . 160
11.3.2 Stability in the Dissipative Case, l [ 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
11.3.3 Stability in the Volume-Preserving Case, l ¼ 0 . . . . . . 162
11.3.4 Interaction of 1 : 1 Resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
11.4 Remarks on Accidental Resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
11.4.1 The 1 : 1 : 3 resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
11.4.2 The 1 : 1 : 1 Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
11.4.3 The 1 : 1 : 1 : 1 Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
11.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Contents xiii

12 Chaotic Dynamic of a Symmetric Tree-Shaped Wave Network ... 171

Fei Wang and Jun-Min Wang
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
12.2 Map of R0  R1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
12.3 Snapback Repellers and Chaos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
12.4 A Numerical Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
13 A New Spatial and Temporal Incremental Harmonic Balance
Method for Obtaining Steady-State Responses
of a One-Dimensional Continuous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 191
Xuefeng Wang and Weidong Zhu
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 191
13.2 Description of the STIHB Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 193
13.2.1 Basic Equations for the STIHB Method . . . . . . . . .... 193
13.2.2 Complex Version of the STIHB Method
Using the Exact Jacobian Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 199
13.2.3 Stability of Steady-State Responses . . . . . . . . . . . .... 205
13.3 Steady-State Responses of a Fixed-Fixed String
with Geometric Nonlinearity and Their Stability
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
13.4 Results and Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
13.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
14 The Stability of Non-linear Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 217
Kaihua Xi, Johan L. A. Dubbeldam, Feng Gao, Hai Xiang Lin,
and Jan H. van Schuppen
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
14.2 The Model of Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
14.3 The Synchronous State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
14.3.1 Existence of the Synchronous State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
14.3.2 Braess’ Paradox in Power Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
14.4 Stability of the Linearized System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
14.5 The Nonlinear Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
14.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
15 Geometric Series Method and Exact Solutions
of Differential-Difference Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Aleksandr I. Zemlyanukhin, Andrey V. Bochkarev, Anna A. Orlova,
and Aleksandr V. Ratushny
15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
15.2 Volterra Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
15.3 Modified Discrete Sawada-Kotera Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
xiv Contents

15.4 Fraction Term DDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

15.5 DDE with Arbitrary Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
15.6 Toda-Type DDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
15.7 Volterra-Type DDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
15.8 Ablowitz-Ladik Lattice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
15.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
16 Harmonic Balance Method for the Stationary Response of Finite
and Semi-infinite Nonlinear Dissipative Continua: Three
Canonical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Jiangyi Zhang, Enxhi Sulollari, Andrei B. Fărăgău, Federico Pisanò,
Pim van der Male, Mario Martinelli, Andrei V. Metrikine,
and Karel N. van Dalen
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
16.2 Governing Equations for the 1-D Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
16.3 HBM Applied to the 1-D Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
16.4 Governing Equations for the Cavity Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
16.5 HBM Applied to the Cavity Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
16.6 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
16.6.1 Layer Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
16.6.2 Half-Space Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
16.6.3 Cavity Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
16.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

Appendix: Biographical Sketch of Dr. Wim van Horssen . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

Contributors

Andrei K. Abramian Institute of Problems in Mechanical Engineering, Russian

Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia
Igor V. Andrianov Institute of General Mechanics, RWTH Aachen University,
Aachen, Germany
Andrey V. Bochkarev Yuri Gagarin State Technical University of Saratov,
Saratov, Russia
Sudipto Choudhury University of Central Florida, Orlando, Fl, USA
Yulia Danik Federal Research Center ”Computer Science and Control” of Russian
Academy of Sciences (FRC CSC RAS), Moscow, Russia
T. G. de Jong Media Analytics and Computing Laboratory, School of
Information Science and Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
Mikhail Dmitriev Federal Research Center ”Computer Science and Control” of
Russian Academy of Sciences (FRC CSC RAS), Moscow, Russia
Johan L. A. Dubbeldam Delft Institute of Applied Mathematics, Delft University
of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
I. Elishakoff Department of Ocean and Mechanical Engineering, Florida Atlantic
University, Boca Raton, FL, USA
Andrei B. Fărăgău Faculty Civil Engineering & Geosciences, Tu Delft, Delft,
The Netherlands
Valery A. Gaiko United Institute of Informatics Problems, National Academy of
Sciences of Belarus, Minsk, Belarus
Feng Gao School of Electrical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan,
Shandong, China
Stefan Kaczmarczyk The University of Northampton, Northampton, UK

xv
xvi Contributors

E. Kaplunov Whizz-Kidz Charity, London, UK

J. Kaplunov Department of Computer Science and Mathematics, Keele
University, Keele, UK
Ivana Kovacic Faculty of Technical Sciences, Centre of Excellence for
Vibro-Acoustic Systems and Signal Processing, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad,
Serbia
Hai Xiang Lin Delft Institute of Applied Mathematics, Delft University of
Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
Victor I. Malyi HSE Tikhonov Moscow Institute of Electronics and Mathematics,
Moscow, Russia
Mario Martinelli Faculty Civil Engineering & Geosciences, Tu Delft, Delft, The
Netherlands
Andrei V. Metrikine Faculty Civil Engineering & Geosciences, Tu Delft, Delft,
The Netherlands
Anna A. Orlova Saratov Social and Economic Institute, Plekhanov Russian
University of Economics, Saratov, Russia
Federico Pisanò Faculty Civil Engineering & Geosciences, Tu Delft, Delft, The
Netherlands
Aleksandr V. Ratushny Saratov State University, Saratov, Russia
Huibert Reijm Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
A. E. Sterk Bernoulli Institute, University of Groningen, Groningen, The
Netherlands
Enxhi Sulollari Faculty Civil Engineering & Geosciences, Tu Delft, Delft, The
Netherlands
Johan M. Tuwankotta Analysis and Geometry Group, Faculty of Mathematics
and Natural Sciences, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Bandung, Indonesia
Sergei A. Vakulenko Institute of Problems in Mechanical Engineering, Russian
Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia
Karel N. van Dalen Faculty Civil Engineering & Geosciences, Tu Delft, Delft,
The Netherlands
Jan H. van Schuppen Delft Institute of Applied Mathematics, Delft University
of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
Pim van der Male Faculty Civil Engineering & Geosciences, Tu Delft, Delft,
The Netherlands
Ferdinand Verhulst Mathematisch Instituut, Utrecht, Netherlands
Contributors xvii

Cornelis Vuik Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands

Fei Wang School of Mathematics and Statistics, Beijing Institute of Technology,
Beijing, People’s Republic of China
Jun-Min Wang School of Mathematics and Statistics, Beijing Institute of
Technology, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
Xuefeng Wang University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, USA
Kaihua Xi School of Mathematics, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
Aleksandr I. Zemlyanukhin Yuri Gagarin State Technical University of Saratov,
Saratov, Russia
Jiangyi Zhang Faculty Civil Engineering & Geosciences, Tu Delft, Delft, The
Netherlands
Weidong Zhu University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD, USA
Localized Waves in a Damaged Film
Foundation Subjected to Periodic
Impacts

Andrei K. Abramian and Sergei A. Vakulenko

Abstract Asymptotic solutions for two cases of the problem on finite numbers of
impacts on a membrane are obtained: 1. the case of a small damage function values
of the membrane elastic foundation, and 2. the case of significant damage function
values of its elastic foundation. A condition of resonance initiation in the membrane
with a small damage function was obtained. A possibility that a localized wave is
a determining factor of the delaminating process was revealed. At the final stage
of the damage growth, when it reaches the critical value, no localized mode and
resonance are observed in the membrane, but only traveling waves. A solution of the
problem of initiation and propagation of localized waves through the damaged area
in the membrane was obtained. The form of the wave amplitude solution indicates
that amplitude exponential reduction depends on the difference between the value
of elastic foundation coefficient in a moment when the wave gets into the damaged
area and the initial coefficient value.

Keywords Film delamination · Damage function · Wave localization ·

Membrane · Elastic foundation

1.1 Introduction

There have been a lot of researches into a possible waves and energy localization
in elastic bodies with heterogeneity and inclusions in the field of deformable body
mechanics in the last 30 years. Main results were obtained in [1, 2]. Those studies
considered forced oscillations and found a series of resonances in the infinite zone.
The proof of resonance frequency existence behind the first boundary frequency was
given in [2]. It is precisely those studies that impelled the authors of this article
to research possibilities of initiation of localized waves and wave localization in

A. K. Abramian (B) · S. A. Vakulenko

Institute of Problems in Mechanical Engineering, Russian Academy of Sciences,
V.O., Bol’shoy pr., 61,199178 St. Petersburg, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1

A. K. Abramian et al. (eds.), Nonlinear Dynamics of Discrete and Continuous Systems,
Advanced Structured Materials 139,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53006-8_1
2 A. K. Abramian and S. A. Vakulenko

elastic structures with non-homogeneous mass-elastic parameters and inclusions.

In particular, works [3–5] studied localized waves initiation on a foundation—film
boundary for the case of damaged material zones in the foundation adhesion layer
resulted from abrupt vibration loads and a single impact. Those works revealed that
even small varying forces can result in frequency localization in the vicinity of the
damaged material zones and be accompanied by the adhesion layer damage growth,
which leads to the partial film delaminating. A thin-film coating interlinked with a
main structure through a thin intermediate adhesive layer is used in modern structures
as protective or reinforcing elements. In the deformation process of such a multi-
layer structure significant stresses resulting in the coating damage or delamination
can occur on the foundation-coating boundary due to the difference in their physical-
mechanical properties. A vast bibliography on problems of delamination in multi-
layer structures subjected to static and dynamic loads is known. The in-depth review
of the problem can be found in [6, 7]. Static and vibration loads effect on damage
initiation and growth in an adhesive layer of a multi-layer structure are studied
rather thoroughly, but similar processes caused by non-stationary loading have been
studied less. Nevertheless, they are interesting because the small amplitude shock
impacts can lead to oscillation localizations in the vicinity of heterogeneities and
be accompanied by the growth of the adhesive layer damage,which leads to partial
delamination of the film. The present article studies two aspects that have not been
studied before. The first aspect is a possibility to initiate a membrane resonance on
a damaged foundation by a finite number of impacts at an arbitrary velocity of the
damage growth (in works [3–5] the velocity had some contingencies). The second
aspect is an assessment of amplitude of localized wave passing through the zone in
which the elastic foundation has damage function value more than 0.

1.2 Statement of Problem

A statement of the problem of a dynamic of a film-membrane with a zero dam-

age function zone that is subjected to periodical impacts is the following. Taking
into account the fact that a thickness of the film is much less than a characteristic
dimensions of the foundation, the first approximation is to replace the film fixed to
the foundation to the film on an elastic foundation. A case when the problem can
be reduced to a model of an infinite length and finite width membrane on an elastic
foundation with a coefficient depending on its adhesive layer is considered. The elas-
tic foundation substitutes the substrate and the main material effect on the film. The
membrane elastic foundation coefficient is equal to the total rigidity of sequential
rigid springs of adhesive layer and the main material. The dynamic equation of the
membrane subjected to periodic impacts has the form:

γ Δu − K (n)u − ρ0 u tt = Q(t, x, y), x ∈ Ω, t > 0 (1.1)

Localized Waves in a Damaged Film Foundation Subjected to Periodic Impacts 3


M
Q(x, y, t, ) = δ (x − x0 )δ (y − y0 ) δ(t − jΔt), (x, y) ∈ Ω, t > 0.
j=0
(1.2)
In the Eq. (1.1) u = u(x, y, t) is a membrane displacement (spatial variables x, y
are in the Ω area, and width zone h: Ω = (−∞, ∞) × [0, h], x0 , y0 -force point), t
is time, M is a number of impacts, δ is a smoothed delta function, δ is the Dirac
delta function, Q is an external force, γ is a membrane uniform tension force, ρ0 is
a membrane material density, Δt is a time between two subsequent impacts, K (n) is
an elastic foundation rigidity depending on adhesive layer damage function n, initial
rigidity of the layer G 0 , and the main material rigidity k0 . The K value is found from
the relation:
k0
K = μ(n)G(n), μ(n) =
k0 + G(n)

here k0 > 0 is a constant,

G(n) = G 0 (1 − n), 0 ≤ n ≤ 1,

G(n) = 0, n > 1.

The kinetic equation for the damage function has the form:

∂n
= β H (μ(n)|u| − Δ)(1 − n), (1.3)
∂t
where Δ is a critical deformation value when the damage function starts growing,
β is a velocity of the damage function growth (β, Δ > 0), and H is the Heaviside
function, δ is a smooth delta function:

x2
δ (x) =  −1 (2π )−1/2 exp(− ). (1.4)
2 2
The boundary and initial conditions are the following:

u(x, y, t) → 0 (|x| → ∞) (1.5)

u(x, y, 0) = 0, u t (x, y, 0) = 0, (x, y) ∈ Ω (1.6)

u(x, 0, t) = u(x, h, t) = 0, ∀x ∈ (−∞, +∞), t > 0 (1.7)

n(x, y, 0) = n 0 (x, y), (x, y) ∈ Ω. (1.8)

It is assumed that full destruction of the adhesive layer material resulting in delam-
ination of some film area occurs in those x points and in that t moment when the
4 A. K. Abramian and S. A. Vakulenko

damage function n reaches some critical value n ∗ . That critical value can be deter-
mined with the help of incubation time criterion proposed for a material dynamic
loading [8].

1.3 Periodical Impacts and Resonance Caused by Them

1.3.1 Resonance Conditions

It is considered a case when a membrane on an elastic foundation with a damage

function zone is subjected to external forces in the form of finite number of periodical
localized impacts. The problem in this case is described by Eqs. (1.1–1.8) and their
solutions depend on  parameter characterizing localization of the load applied and
the number of impacts M. Let us find a particular solution of equation (1.1) for which
the resonance can occur. A limiting case when  → 0 and M >> 1 is considered.
The Fourier transformation is used for finding solution of this initial value problem:
 ∞
u(x, y, t, ) = 2π −1/2 exp(iωt)û(x, y, ω, )dω,
−∞

 ∞ √
Q(x, t) = 2π −1/2 exp(iωt) Q̂(x, y, ω)dω, i = −1.
−∞

The Fourier coefficients Q̂(x, y, ω) are found and they have the form:

Q̂(x, y, ω) = δ (x − x0 )δ (y − y0 )2π −1/2 Ŝ(ω),


M
Ŝ(ω) = 2π −1/2 exp(−i jωΔt).
j=0

It should be noted that for large M values Q̂(x, y, ω) has the M order only if Δtω ≈
2m 0 π , where m 0 is a positive integer number. If|Δtω − 2m 0 π | >> M −1 , then Ŝ(ω)
is limited for large M:


M
1 − exp(−(M + 1)iωΔt)
exp(−i jΔtω) = = O(1),
j=0
1 − exp(iωΔt)

and it is larger if |ωΔt − 2m 0 π | = 0 for some integer m 0 . Then


M
exp(− jiωΔt) = M.
j=0
Localized Waves in a Damaged Film Foundation Subjected to Periodic Impacts 5

It follows that the resonance condition is met for ω close to ω(m 0 ) = 2m 0 π(Δt)−1 .
For û(x, y, ω, ) the following equation is obtained

γ Δû(x, y, ω, ) − K (n)û(x, y, ω, ) + ρ0 ω2 û(x, y, ω, ) = F (x, y), (1.9)

where √ −1/2
F (x, y) = δ (x − x0 )δ (y − y0 ) 2π Ŝ(ω).

The left part of Eq. (1.9) is a Schrödinger operator that has a localized eigenfunctions
j (x, y) with E j eigenvalues, and non-localized eigenfunctions (x, y, k) corre-
sponding to eigenvalues E(k), where k is a wave number. The localized functions
have square integrability, i.e they are in the space L 2 (Ω), and are corresponding to
the discrete spectrum, while non-localized functions do not get in that L 2 (Ω) space
and correspond to the continuous spectrum. The Schrödinger general theorems leads
to an interesting corollary: if a damage continuous function n is positive at least in
some points of the zone, then the localized eigenfunctions always exit. To obtain an
analytical solution, the case when n depends only on x is considered in what fol-
lows. When such a solution for the two-dimensional case is obtained, an assessment
of the qualitative membrane behavior is proposed. When n depends only on x, the
separation of variables can be used and Eq. (1.9) is considerably simplified.

1.3.1.1 Asymptotic Describing Resonance

Let us consider the following cases: (a) the initial stage of the damage process, the
damage function n is small; (b) the final stage, the damage function n ≈ 1. At first,
the one-dimensional case ( the initial damage function n 0 and all initial data φi for the
displacement depend only on x) is considered. Let us remind some results relating
to the Schrödinger operator on the axis (−∞, +∞) with a shallow potential well.
Such an operator appears after the aforementioned variable separation and has the
form:
H = (−Δ + ρ(x))

in R1 , where (x) is a smooth function rapidly diminishing at |x| → ∞. Then, at

the conditions
 +∞
I = (x)d x < 0. (1.10)
−∞

For rather small ρ > 0 only one eigenfunction 1 (x) exists , and it corresponds to
eigenvalue E 1 (ρ), dependent on

ρ I
E 1 = −η2 , η = . (1.11)
2
6 A. K. Abramian and S. A. Vakulenko

There are no eigenvalues for the case when I > 0. For 1 following asymptotic
exists:
 +∞ ˜ p)
(
1 = η3/2 exp(i px)a( p)( p 2 + η2 )dp, a( p) = , (1.12)
−∞ ˜
(0)

where  +∞
˜ p) = (2π )−1/2
( (x) exp(−i px)d x
−∞

is the Fourier potential form .

Let us study the obtained results for the following cases. When n << 1, the
K (n) expression has the form a02 − b0 n + O(n 2 ), where a02 = k0 G 0 /(k0 + G 0 ) b0 =
k0 /(k0 + G 0 ) > 0. For this case we get a Schrödinger operator for shallow potential
well. Condition (1.10) is met and the only localized mode exists. The corresponding
to it E 1 energy allows the following assessment E 1 = −a02 + O(n). For n << 1 the
resonance condition has the form

k0 G 0 /(k0 + G 0 ) + O(||n||) = ρ0 (ω(m 0 ))2 (1.13)

for some m 0 integer values. To obtain this condition in a concrete form, let us consider
a case when potential  has a form of a well of rectangular shape. Introduce detuning
parameter κ

κ 2 = γ −1 (a 2 − ρ0 (ω(m 0 ))2 ), a 2 = k0 G 0 /(k0 + G 0 ). (1.14)

Consider the resonance effect more detailed. Assume that n << 1, then the following
asymptotic form can be used

k0 G 0
K (n) = a 2 − n(x) + O(n 2 ).
(k0 + G 0 )2

For potential (x) with a rectangular well

(x) = − Ē, |x| < l,  = 0, |x| > l. (1.15)

The equation (1.9) for a one-dimensional case has the form

√ −1/2
û(x, ω)x x − k̄0 û(x, ω) − (x)û(x, ω) = γ −1 δ (x − x0 ) 2π Ŝ(ω). (1.16)

Here k̄0 = Kγ(n) . In compliance with the aforementioned a Schrödinger operator fea-
tures, the localized function exists if

Ē − κ 2 = β 2 > 0, κ > 0.
Localized Waves in a Damaged Film Foundation Subjected to Periodic Impacts 7

Assume that all these conditions are met. In the case when condition (1.15) is
fulfilled and  → 0, the solution of equation (1.16) can be found. Solution U =
lim→0 û(x, ω, ) has the following form for the case when x < x0 ( it is assumed
that |x0 | < l, i.e. the external force is applied to the membrane in the damaged region,
where l is half of the damage function zone length):
κ
U = C− ( sin(β(x + l)) + κ cos(β(x + l)), x ∈ (−l, x0 ), (1.17)
β

U = C− exp(κ(x + l)), x < −l, (1.18)

and for x < x0 one has

κ
U = C+ (− sin(β(x − l)) + cos(β(x − l)), x ∈ (x0 , l), (1.19)
β

U = C+ exp(−κ(x − l)), x > l. (1.20)

Let x0 = 0. Then constants C± can be found from the following equation:

1
C+ = C− = . (1.21)
2(κ sin(βl) − β cos(βl))

Thus, the resonance condition has a form:

κ sin(βl) − β cos(βl) = 0. (1.22)

The left part of this equation is the eigenvalue E 1 of the corresponding Schrödinger
operator. This condition does not depend on x0 , but U solution depends on x0 . It is
obvious that the general resonance condition has the form:

k0 G 0 /(k0 + G 0 ) + E j = ρω(m 0 )2 j = 1, . . . (1.23)

where E j —is the eigenfunction of the corresponding Schrödinger operator. The

accurate expression for E j can be obtained only for some cases. Thus, using asymp-
totic form (1.11), for small damage function values n 0 (x) it can be obtained.
 +l
k0 G 0
E1 = n 0 (x)d x. (1.24)
(k0 + G 0 )2 −l

For the two-dimensional case eigenvalues are presented in the form:

= cos(mπ y/ h) ˆ m (x, ω). Respectively, the discrete spectrum is obtained in the
form E j,m = E j + m 2 π 2 / h 2 , where m—is any positive integer number and E j is an
eigen energy obtained above. Now, we have infinite number of localized modes with
energies exceeding the energies in the one-dimensional case. They are the greater,
the narrower the zone is. When the zone width tends to zero (h → 0), those energies
8 A. K. Abramian and S. A. Vakulenko

tend to infinity. Therefore, we do not have a formal membrane-spring passage to the

limit (it results from the condition of the membrane fixation on the edges of the zone).
The most important mechanical corollary of the above mathematical reasoning is as
follows. Localized modes contribute a lot into a membrane reaction effect on an
impact if the resonance condition is fulfilled. To understand that fact, let us con-
sider equation (1.9) and expand its solution in eigenfunctions in [−L , L] × [−h, h],
domain , where L—is the strip length and L >> 1.
Then, the eigenfunction contribution to the solution is in proportion to
S(ω) j (x0 , y0 ) value for the localized functions and S(ω) k (x0 , y0 ), where k is
the wave vector for the non-localized functions. i.e. is proportional to the function
amplitudes in an impact point. The sum contribution of the none-localized functions
is in proportion to k integral that can be regularized as an principal value integral
even if it contains singularity relating to the resonance. A significant resonance effect
occurs at localized modes. Their amplitudes are in proportion to h −1/2 . Therefore,
the narrower the zone, the stronger the resonance effect is (in case it exists). On the
other hand, since the oscillation frequencies are of large values for narrow zones,
the impact frequency should be of large values to cause the resonance. Below, in the
next section, the other difference of a wave propagation in a membrane and a string
is considered.

1.3.2 Wave Regime

The wave regime relates to a case when an external force is specified by relation (1.2)
and n ≈ 1. In this case the expression for K (n) has the form G 0 (1 − n) + (1 − n)2 ,
and the Schrödinger operator has again a small potential well. However, condition
(1.10) is not fulfilled and, therefore, a localized mode does not exist, neither does the
resonance. Thus, at the last stage of destruction the localized mode and the resonance
do not exist . Taking into account that K (n) ≈ 0, Eq. (1.1) has the form

γ Δu − ρ0 u tt = Q(x, y, t, ), x ∈ (−∞, +∞), t > 0. (1.25)

Expand the displacement into a Fourier series by transversal modes:

+∞

u(x, y, t) = u m (x, t) sin(π my/ h).
m=1

For u m one has the equation

γ u m x x − ρ0 u m tt − π 2 m 2 / h 2 u = Q m (x, t, ), x ∈ (−∞, +∞), t > 0, (1.26)

where Q m —is the Fourier coefficients that can be found from

Localized Waves in a Damaged Film Foundation Subjected to Periodic Impacts 9
 h
−1
Q m (x, t, ) = 2h Q(x, y, t, ) sin(π my/ h)dy. (1.27)
−h

Using expression (1.2) in the limit of  → 0 and h → +∞ the following solution

of Eq. (1.26) can be found (for u(x, t, ) → u(x, t) when  → 0 ):


M
u m = (2c)−1 (H (x − c(t − jΔ) − (H (x − c(t + jΔ))H (t − jΔt), t > 0,
j=1
(1.28)
where H is a Heaviside function . This solution is representing M traveling waves
of a constant shape that is not changed during the propagation. Such a solution
relates to the string case. At finite but small thicknesses h a solution of Eq. (1.25) is
well known and can be obtained by the Fourier method. The waves are propagating,
but their shape varies due to dispersion effects. The waves fronts are spread and
oscillations on x axis occur at large t. This effect increases for large numbers of
modes m. For small thicknesses h the waves do not practically propagate.

1.4 Propagation of Localized Wave Through a Zone with

Damaged Foundation

It was found in [3–5] that an impact on a string lying on a damaged foundation

can cause a localized wave in the damaged zone or propagating localized waves. In
case of several damaged zones a question arise on how an amplitude of a localized
propagation wave changes when the wave passes through a damaged foundation
(substrate) zone where the foundation’s rigidity differs from the rigidity outside the
zone. The localized wave varies its amplitude when it is propagating through the
damage foundation zone and the damage function distribution along the coordinate
is not uniform. An asymptotic solution is obtained that is true for any damage function
growth velocity β and for not small damage function values. Thus, this solution is
free from contingencies introduced in [3–5] works. At first, let us consider a case of
large width h, the fixation boundary conditions can be neglected at y = ±h. Then,
the displacement localized in the damage function zone can be described as:

u(x, y, t, ) = a(x, t) exp(− −1 S(x, t)), (1.29)

where S(x, t) ≥ 0 is a smooth function, such as S(x, t) = 0 in x = X (t) point, and

 > 0 is a small parameter. As it is explained below, these asymptotic solutions can
describe waves propagation along x axis in the membrane. Inserting the displacement
expression into the membrane dynamic equation, one can get the following equation
for S(x, t):
10 A. K. Abramian and S. A. Vakulenko

 −2 a(γ Sx2 − ρ0 St2 ) +  −1 (γ (−2ax Sx − aSx x ) + ρ0 (2at St + aStt )) + K (n)a + γ ax x − ρ0 att = 0.

(1.30)

Let us consider the terms of the equation of  −2 order. Then, one has the following
eikonal equation:

γ Sx2 − ρ0 St2 = 0. (1.31)

For the amplitude a(x, t) one has

γ (−2ax Sx − aSx x ) + ρ0 (2at St + aStt ) + (K (n)a + γ ax x − ρ0 att ) = 0. (1.32)

One of the simplest solutions of Eq. (1.31) is a solution in the form S = (x−ct)
2

2
.
Then, X (t) = ct. The solution expression for a(x, t) ( which is very complicated for
a general case) can be simplified. Introduce the functions

ā(t) = a(ct, t), n̄(t) = n(ct, t).

The physical interpretation of function n̄(t) is very simple. It is a damage function

on the wave front.
Function ā determines the amplitude of the wave solution. Indeed, in our case one
has assessments a(x, t) ≈ a(ct, t) = ā(t) + O() and n(x, t) ≈ n(ct, t) + O() =
n̄(t) + O() because for |x − ct|  solution u is exponentially small. It is not
easy to find a(x, t) from Eq. (1.32). Therefore, we propose to use an energy balance
equation here. This equation can be obtained as follows. Multiply both parts of Eq.
(1.1) by u t and integrate both parts of the obtained expression over all x ∈ [−L , L],
where L—is the membrane length in a horizontal direction (for the infinite in this
direction zone we go to the limit L → +∞. Thus, one has
dE
= D[u], (1.33)
dt
where the functional
 L
1
E[u, u t ] = (γ u 2x + ρ0 u 2t + K (n)u 2 )d x (1.34)
2 −L

has the meaning of the system energy and the functional

 L
1
D= K (n(x, t))n t (x, t)u(x, t)2 d x (1.35)
2 −L
Localized Waves in a Damaged Film Foundation Subjected to Periodic Impacts 11

determines the velocity of the energy dissipation in the system. Let us calculate a
contribution of the localized solution to the system energy. At first, two auxiliary
expressions are introduced:.
 L
R(, t) ≈ exp(−2S/)( −2 (γ Sx2 + ρ0 St2 ) + K (n̄(t)))d x, (1.36)
−L

 L
M0 () = exp(−2S/)d x.
−L

Taking into account a smallness of , the asymptotic of these expressions can be

found using the Laplace method. Standard calculations give the following:
 ∞
√
M0 () ≈  exp(−w2 )dw.
−∞

Take into consideration (1.31) for R one has:

 L
R(, t) ≈ exp(−(x − ct)2 )/)(2γ (x − ct)2 + K (n̄(t)))d x = R0 ().
−L

The last expression can be estimate by the Laplace method. In the right part of the
expression K (n̄(t) term can be left out, because the contributions of the first and
the second terms have the order of O( −1 M0 ); the contribution of the third term of
the order of O(M0 ). Then, the expression R0 () can be considered as practically
independent on t and vanishing with high accuracy when  → 0. Finally we have:
 ∞
−1/2
R(, t) ≈ R0 =  exp(−w2 )w2 dw.
−∞

Using the introduced energy functions (1.35), one has the asymptotic

ā 2 (t)
E[u, u t ] ≈ R0 . (1.37)
2
For dissipative functional D the asymptotic expression has the form:

M0 2 d K
D[u] ≈ ā (t) (n̄(t))n̄ t . (1.38)
2 dn
Assume that a force applied to the system and its impulse is enough to start the
destruction process in a point where x = ct, then , using expressions (1.38), (1.37)
and (1.33) obtained above one has the following equation for the localized amplitude
solution ā:
d ā d K (n̄(t))
= ā. (1.39)
dt dt
12 A. K. Abramian and S. A. Vakulenko

Thus, the localized solution amplitude varies in relation to the following formula:

ā(t) = Θ(t)ā(0), Θ(t) = exp(K (n̄(t)) − K (n̄(0)). (1.40)

Since n̄(t) = n(ct, t), it is seem that two effects determine the amplitude variation:
the wave propagation and the local growth of the damage function. The second effect
always reduces the amplitude. The first effect can either increases or decreases it.
Let us describe modifications that should be introduced into the solution when two-
dimensionality of the problem and the boundary conditions along y are taking into
account. For this purpose, again the Fourier method is applied and the solution has
the form
∞

u(x, y, t, ) = u m (x, t) sin(π my/ h)am (x, t) exp(− −1 S(x, t)), (1.41)
m=1

where
u m = am (x, t) exp(− −1 Sm (x, t)).

For coefficients am , Sm we have an equation similar to the one obtained above.

However, it is not necessary to consider it again. It is easy to notice that for u m
we have the same equations as for the one-dimensional case, but instead of K we
have K m (n) = K (n) + π 2 m 2 / h 2 . Therefore, we have the same expression (1.40) as
the above one. It should be noted that a wave propagating in a string may not be
propagating in a membrane. This is evident from the fact that in the two-dimensional
case a cut-off frequency increases due to growth of the elastic foundation coefficient
K m (n).

1.5 Conclusion

Thus, we have obtained the following results: 1. Asymptotic solutions of the problem
on a finite number of periodical impacts on a membrane with a damage function for
two cases relating to small and large damage function of the elastic foundation are
obtained. A condition of the membrane resonance initiation in the case of small
damage functions was found. The obtained results allow us to assume that the initial
stage of the damage growth is dangerous for the system because the membrane
oscillation amplitude can grow and, therefore, the membrane delamination from the
elastic foundation is possible. Thus, a localized wave can be a determinative factor
of the delamination process. It is shown that at the final stage of the damage function
growth (when its value is close to the critical) the localized mode and the resonance
do not exist in a membrane on an elastic foundation; only traveling waves exist
there. The main difference from the string case studied before is that those wave are
dispersible and their shape varies in time and their front spread in the membrane
Localized Waves in a Damaged Film Foundation Subjected to Periodic Impacts 13

case. 2. The obtained solution of a localized wave propagating through an elastic

foundation zone shows that exponential reduction of the localized wave amplitude
depends on the difference between elastic foundation coefficients at the moment
when the wave has passed the damage zone and the coefficients at the initial moment
of time.

References

1. Babeshko, V.A., Buzhan, V.V., Williams, R.: Localization of a vibrational process in an elastic
solid by an array of rigid planar inclusions. Dokl. Phys. 47, 156–158 (2002)
2. Babeshko, V.A., Pryakhina, O.D., Smirnova, A.V.: Dynamic problems for discontinuous media.
Int. Appl. Mech. 40, 241–245 (2004)
3. Abramyan, A.K., Vakulenko, S.A., Indeitsev, D.A., Semenov, B.N.: Influence of dynamic
processes in a film on damage development in an adhesive base. Mech. Sol. 47(5), 498–504
(2012)
4. Indeitsev, D.A., Abramyan, A.K., Bessonov, N.M.: Motion of the exfoliation boundary during
localization of wave processes. Dokl. Phys. 57(4), 179–182 (2012)
5. Abramyan, A.K., Bessonov, N.M., Indeitsev, D.A., Mochalova, Yu.A., Semenov, B.N.: Influ-
ence of oscillation localization on film detachment from a substrate. Vest. St .Petersb. Univ.
Math. 44, 1, 5–12 (2011)
6. Tran, P., Kandula, S.V., Geubelle, P.H., et al.: Dynamic delamination of patterned thin films: a
numerical study. Int. J. Fract. 162, 77–90 (2010)
7. Maeva, E., Severina, I., Bondarenko, S., Chapman, G., O’Neill, B., Severin, F., Maev, R.G.:
Acoustical methods for the investigation of adhesively bonded structures. A review. Can. J.
Phys. 82, 981–1025 (2004)
8. Petrov, YuV., Smirnov, I.V., Volkov, G.A., Abramian, A.K., Bragov, A.M., Verichev, S.N.:
Dynamic failure of dry and fully saturated limestone samples based on incubation time concept.
J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng. 9(1), 125–134 (2016)
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
distinct bark-like coat, and in Clitocybe the stem is covered with
minute fibers. In Mycena as in Collybia the stem is different in
substance from the pileus, but is distinguished by the margin of the
pileus being straight. It is most closely allied to Marasmius, which is
characterized by its tough coriaceous substance, which when dried
fully revives and expands on being moistened. The line between
them can not always be closely drawn, and there are numerous
species which it is difficult to place with certainty in either genus.
This does not apply to the fleshy edible species of this genus as they
are quite distinct from Marasmius.
Peck’s 49th Report contains a monograph of the New York species of
Collybia, supplemented by one of those found in other states.
Several common, prolific, long-season, delicious fungi occur in this
genus. They vary in size from “a small coin” to five inches across.
They grow in woods, on wood, on ground, on leaves, on lawns and
among moss and grass in shaded places. The writer has tested
many species raw, and eaten small quantities cooked, which are not
herein described for the reason that not enough of a species was
found to test to full extent. So far as is reported and as his
experience goes, there is not a poisonous species in Collybia. Many
of them are strong in odor.
 Photographed by Dr. J.R. Weist. Plate
XXIX.
COLLYBIA RADICATA.

ANALYSIS OF TRIBES.

Series A. Gills White or Brightly Colored, Not Gray. Flesh White.

Striæpedes (striate-stemmed). Page 113.

Stem stout, hollow or imperfectly filled with a spongy pith; grooved

or striate with fibers.
* Gills broad, rather distant.
** Gills narrow, crowded.
 Vestipedes (clothed-stemmed). Page 118.

Stem thin, equal, hollow or with a pith, even, velvety, downy or

covered with a bloom.
* Gills broad, rather distant.
** Gills very narrow, closely crowded.

Lævipedes (even-stemmed). Page 120.

Stem thin, equal, hollow, naked, smooth—except the base—

apparently not striate, but some species are minutely striate under a
lens.
* Gills broad, lax, usually more or less distant.
** Gills narrow, crowded.

Series B. Gills Becoming Gray. Hygrophanous.

Tephrophanæ. Page —-.

Color brownish becoming gray. Allied to the last section of

Tricholoma and Clitocybe, but distinguished from them by the
cartilaginous stem.
Some are strong scented. None known to be edible.

Striæ´pedes.

* Gills broad, rather distant.

C. radica´ta Relh.—radix, a root. (Plate XXIX, p. 112.) Pileus 1½-4

in. across, from convex to nearly plane, broadly umbonate,
frequently wrinkled toward and at the umbo, glutinous when moist.
Color variable, usually brown in grayish shades, from dark to almost
white. Flesh thin, white, elastic. Gills white, thick, tough, distant,
ventricose, adnexed, rounded or notched behind like Tricholoma,
sometimes with a decurrent tooth. Stem 4–8 in. long, 3–5 lines
thick, smooth, firm, same color as pileus, tapering upward,
becoming vertically striate or grooved, often twisted, ending in a
long, tapering, pointed root deeply planted in the earth.
Spores elliptical, 14–15×8–9µ Massee; 11×17µ W.G.S.; 11×9µ
W.P.; 16–17×10–11µ B.
Often sombre, but erect, neat and handsome. Growing solitary and
in troops in woods, usually near stumps, if much decayed,
sometimes on them, or on shaded lawns and grassy places. June to
October.
Var. furfu´racea Pk. Stem furfuraceous, less distinctly striate.
Var. pusil´la Pk. Plant small. Pileus about 1 in. broad, passing
gradually into the typical form. Stem slender.
Professor Peck says: “The variety furfuracea is common and
connects this species with C. longipes, which has a villose stem and
dry velvety pileus.” 49th Rep.
Common to the United States. Edible. Curtis, according to Dr. F.
Peyre Porcher of Charleston, S.C., was the first to declare this edible.
A very attractive species. The purity of its gills is especially
noticeable. I began eating it in 1881, and it has continued to be a
favorite. The caps should be broiled or fried. They are sweet,
pleasing in texture, and delicately flavored.

C. platyphyl´la Fr. Gr.—broad; a leaf. (Plate XXVIII, fig. 1, p. 114.)

Pileus 3–4 in. broad, dusky and gray then whitish, fleshy-
membranaceous, thin, fragile, soon flattened, obtuse, watery when
moist, streaked with fibrils. Stem 3–4 in. long, ½ in. thick, stuffed,
soft, equal, fibrilloso-striate, otherwise smooth, naked or obsoletely
powdered at the apex, whitish, shortly and bluntly rooted at the
base. Gills obliquely cut off behind, slightly adnexed, ½ in. and
more broad, distant, soft, white.
Odor not remarkable. It inclines toward the Tricholomata in the
somewhat membranaceous cuticle of the soft stem. Fries. Spores
13×19µ W.G.S.
Solitary, gregarious, rarely clustered. On rotten wood, roots, ground
near stumps, among leaves, etc. June to October.

Grouped by F.D. Briscoe—Studies by C.

McIlvaine. Plate XXVIII.

Fig. Page. Fig. Page.

1. Collybia platyphylla, 114 3. Collybia dryophila, 120
2. Collybia platyphylla (after 114 4. Collybia fusipes, 116
rain),
Distinguished by the very broad and deeply emarginate gills, which
frequently slope up behind to near the cap then with a short turn
downward connect with the stem which is either stuffed or hollow,
and by the abundant, cord-like rooting mycelium. The gills are very
broad. Professor Peck says: “The species is quite variable. The pileus
is sometimes irregular and even eccentric, the thin margin may be
slightly striate, is often split and in wet weather may be upturned or
revolute. The lamellæ are sometimes ½ in. broad or more and
transversely split. They may be obscurely striated transversely and
even veiny above with venose interspaces. Occasionally a slight
anise-like odor is perceptible, but in decay the plants have a very
disagreeable odor and disgusting appearance.” 49th Rep. N.Y. State
Bot.
West Virginia, 1880–1885; Haddonfield, N.J., 1896. Gregarious, and
in large bunches. Mt. Gretna and Eagle’s Mere, Pa., 1897, McIlvaine.
When fresh, in good condition, the caps are good, but they are not
nearly equal in substance or flavor to C. radicata and C. longipes.
They are best broiled or fried.
Var. re´pens Fr. Pileus more fleshy, depressed. Stem hollow,
compressed, pruinate at the apex, with a creeping, string-like
mycelium.
It is best distinguished by its white, villous, anastomosing, very
much branched mycelium which creeps a long distance in a rooting
string-like manner. The so-called roots are quite different from the
stem, not a prolongation of the stem itself. Fries.
Clearly a variety of C. platyphylla. C. platyphylla is quite variable,
even puzzling. Edible qualities the same.

C. long´ipes Bull.—longus, long; pes, a foot. Pileus 1–2 in. across,

conical then expanded, umbonate, dry, minutely, beautifully velvety.
Color from pale to date-brown, sometimes umber. Flesh white,
thin, elastic. Gills white, broad, tough, thick, adnexed, distant,
ventricose, rounded behind, emarginate. Stem 4–6 in. long, 2–4
lines thick, tapering upward, usually densely and minutely velvety
like the cap, nearly same color, with a long, tapering root.
On much decayed stumps and logs. July to October. Closely
resembles C. radicata. It is readily distinguished by its velvety cap
and stem. It is more glutinous.
Spores spheroid, 12µ Q.
California. Edible. H. and M.
West Virginia mountains, 1880–1885; Cheltenham, Pa., 1889.
McIlvaine.
Excepting from California, C. longipes has not previously been
reported as found in the United States. It is not plentiful in the
forests of West Virginia, yet I often found it upon rotting stumps and
logs, solitary, but up to a dozen in the same vicinity. It is
unmistakable. Its rich yet dull velvety cap and stem and the purity of
its gills hold the finder’s admiration.
The caps fried or broiled are delicious, resembling in every way
those of C. radicata.

C. fu´sipes Bull.—fusus, a spindle; pes, a foot. (Plate XXVIII, fig. 4,

p. 112.) Pileus 1–3 in. broad, reddish-brown, becoming pale and
also dingy-tan, fleshy, convex then flattened, umbonate (the umbo
at length vanishing), even, smooth, dry, here and there broken up in
cracks when dry. Stem 3 in. and more long, commonly ½ in., but
here and there as much as 1 in. broad, fibrous-stuffed then hollow,
remarkably cartilaginous externally, swollen, ventricose in the
middle, attenuated at both ends, often twisted, longitudinally
furrowed, red or reddish-brown, rooted in a spindle-shaped manner
at the base. Gills annulato-adnexed (joined into a ring), soon
separating, free, broad, distant, firm, connected by veins, crisped,
white then becoming somewhat of the same color as the pileus,
often spotted. Stevenson.
Spores 6×3µ W.G.S.; 4–5×2–4µ B.
Solitary, gregarious, usually densely clustered on decaying wood,
roots, etc. August until after heavy frosts.
West Virginia, 1882, McIlvaine.
In the West Virginia mountains C. fusipes is frequent. Caps in the
clusters rarely exceed 1½ in. across. They show an auburn or
burgundy shade of brown in their color. When young they are
smooth and appear to remain so unless rained upon or moistened,
when they crack more or less finely in drying. At first the connection
of the gills with the stem is peculiar—they join in a collar-like ring at
the top of the stem. As the cap expands the gills part more or less
and separate from the stem. The stem is markedly spindle-shaped,
though variously flattened by compression in dense clusters; the
outside often splitting, breaking and turning out from the stem.
The caps, alone, are good, the stem being hard and refractory. The
caps are very fine, cooked in any way.
The caps dry well, and are a pleasant addition to gravies, soups and
other dishes. They make a choice pickle.

** Gills narrow, crowded.

C. macula´ta A. and S.—macula, a spot. Pileus fleshy, firm,

convex or nearly plane, even, glabrous, white or whitish, sometimes
varied with reddish spots or stains. Flesh white. Gills narrow,
crowded, adnexed, sometimes nearly or quite free, white or whitish.
Stem generally stout, firm, equal or slightly swollen in the middle,
striate, white, stuffed or sometimes hollow, commonly narrowed at
the base, rooting, often curved at the base, rarely slightly thickened
and blunt. Spores subglobose, 4–6µ broad, sometimes showing a
slight point at one end.
Pileus 2–4 in. broad. Stem 2–4 in. long, 3–6 lines thick.
Var. immacula´ta Cke. This differs from the type in having no reddish
spots or stains.
This species is easily recognized by its large size, firm or compact
substance and white color. It grows in soil filled with decaying
vegetable matter or on much decayed wood. Peck, 49th Rep. N.Y.
State Bot.
West Philadelphia, Pa. Weed grown lot near University of
Pennsylvania. September to frost. Grew gregariously over a large lot.
The plants varied greatly in size and appearance. The gills of most
were crenulate (scalloped). Assorted specimens were sent Professor
Peck who wrote: “They are all forms of C. maculata.”
The caps were stewed and eaten in abundance by many, and
pronounced “Fine.”
C. butyra´cea Bull.—butyrum, butter;
buttery to the touch. Pileus 2–3 in. broad, (Plate XXX.)
normally reddish-brown, but becoming pale,
fleshy, convex then expanded, more or less
umbonate, dry, even, smooth. Flesh
buttery, soft, somewhat hygrophanous,
flesh-color then white. Stem 2–3 in. long,
attenuated upward from the thickened white
downy base, hence much thinner at the
apex, 2–3 lines only, but at the base ½-1 in.
thick, externally covered over with a rigid
cartilaginous cuticle, internally stuffed with
soft spongy pith, or hollow only when old,
striate, reddish, commonly smooth, but Collybia butyracea.
varying with white deciduous scales, and
occasionally wholly downy with soft hairs. Gills slightly adnexed,
somewhat free, thin, crowded, notched at the edge, white, never
spotted-reddish. Stevenson.
Spores 6–10×3–5µ B.; elliptical, 7–9×4–5µ.
Cap greasy looking. Umbo dark.
The color of the cap is variable. The species differs from C. dryophila
in having an umbonate pileus, slightly uneven gill-edges and stem
which tapers upward.
Solitary and in troops under coniferous trees. Spring, autumn.
West Virginia, Chester county and Eagle’s Mere, Pa., McIlvaine.
The caps cook quickly, are tender and have a good flavor.

Vesti´pedes.

* Gills broad, rather distant.

C. velu´tipes Curt.—velutum, velvet; pes,

a foot. Pileus 1–4 in. broad in the same (Plate XXIXb.)
cluster, tawny, sometimes paler at the
margin, moderately fleshy at the disk, but
thin at the circumference, convex then soon
becoming plane, often eccentric, irregular
and bent backward, smooth, viscous;
margin spreading and at length slightly
striate. Flesh watery, soft, slightly tawny-
hyaline. Stem 1–3 in. long, 1–4 lines thick,
tough, externally cartilaginous, umber then
becoming black, densely, minutely velvety,
commonly ascending or twisted, commonly
equal, even, internally fibrous-stuffed and
hollow. Gills broader and rounded behind, Collybia velutipes.
slightly adnexed, so as at first sight to Natural size.
appear free, somewhat distant, very
unequal, becoming pallid-yellow or tawny. Fr.
Spores ellipsoid, 7µ W.G.S.; 6×4µ B.; elliptical, 7×3–3.5µ Massee.
Our American plant, common to the states, is rarely found attaining
such dimensions. Its usual size is from 1–2 in. across, more
frequently at 1–1¼. It is generally found in clusters more or less
dense. The color varies from yellowish to a dark yellowish-brown.
The center is darker than the margin. The cap viscid when moist,
often irregular from crowding. Gills may be rounded or notched at
their attachment to the stem, whitish or yellowish. Stem usually
hollow, 1–4 in. long, 1–3 lines thick, whitish when young becoming
colored with the dense brownish velvety hairs.
It grows on stumps, roots in the ground, trunks and earth heavily
charged with wood matter. I have found it in every month of the
year. The heavier crop appears in September, October and
November, and lasts until long after heavy frosts. Then sporadic
clusters spring up wherever the winter sun gives them
encouragement.
It sometimes does considerable damage to the tree so unfortunate
as to be its host. It begins its growth upon some injured or decayed
spot and by continually insinuating itself under the surrounding bark
it, by its mycelium and growth, pries the bark away from the wood
until the tree is entirely denuded.
It is a valuable species, not only on account of its continuous
growth, but because of its plentifulness and excellent substance.

** Gills very narrow, closely crowded.

C. con´fluens Pers.—Pileus ¾-1½ in. broad, thin, tough, flaccid,

convex or nearly plane, obtuse, rarely somewhat umbonate,
glabrous, hygrophanous, reddish grayish-red or reddish-brown and
often striatulate on the margin when moist, pallid, whitish or grayish
when dry. Lamellæ narrow, crowded, free, whitish or yellowish-
gray. Stem 2–5 in. long, 1–2 lines thick, equal, cartilaginous, hollow,
clothed with a short dense somewhat pulverulent whitish
pubescence or down. Spores minute ovate or subelliptical, slightly
pointed at one end, 5–6×3–4µ.
Among fallen leaves in woods. Common. July to October.
The plants commonly grow in tufts, but sometimes in lines or arcs of
circles or scattered. They revive under the influence of moisture and
thereby indicate an intimate relationship to the genus Marasmius.
The pileus varies much in color, but commonly has a dull reddish or
russety tinge when moist, sometimes approaching bay-red. It fades
in drying and becomes almost white or grayish-white, but sometimes
the center remains more deeply colored than the margin. The stem
is commonly rather long in proportion to the width of the pileus.
Occasionally it is somewhat flattened either at the top or throughout
its entire length. Sometimes the stems become united at the base
which union is suggestive of the specific name. Peck, 49th Rep.
West Virginia, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, McIlvaine. July to frost.
The caps of C. confluens are of excellent substance and flavor. Their
quantity makes up for their small size. I have gathered them 2 in.
across, but their average size is about 1 in. They dry well.

Lævi´pedes.

* Gills broad, more or less distant.

C. esculen´ta Wulf.—esculent. Pileus ½ in. and more broad,

ochraceous-clay, often becoming dusky, slightly fleshy, convex then
plane, orbicular, obtuse, smooth, even or when old slightly striate.
Flesh tough, white, savory. Stem 1 in. and more long, scarcely 1
line thick, or thread-like and wholly equal, obsoletely tubed, tough,
stiff and straight, even, smooth, slightly shining, clay-yellow, with a
long perpendicular, commonly smooth, tail-like root. Gills adnexed,
even decurrent with a very thin small tooth, then separating, very
broad, limber, somewhat distant, whitish, sometimes clay-color.
Gregarious but never cespitose. The tube of the stem is very narrow.
Stevenson.
The smallest edible Collybia. Cooke. Edible. In dense woods. Curtis.
It is dried and preserved. Cordier.
In pastures and grassy places. Spring and early summer.
Edible, but rather bitter flavor. In Austria, where it is in great plenty
in April, large baskets are brought to market under the name of
Nagelschwämme—nail mushrooms.
Professor Peck describes C. esculentoides Pk., 49th Rep. N.Y. State
Bot., which he states: “Differs from the type in its paler and more
ochraceous color and in its farinaceous flavor, and is related to the
European C. esculenta from which it differs essentially in the
umbilicate pileus and in the absence of any radicating base to the
stem.”

** Gills narrow, crowded.

C. dryophil´a Bull. Gr.—oak-loving. (Plate XXVIII, fig. 3, p. 112.)

Pileus 1–3 in. across, bay-brown-rufous, etc., becoming pale, but
not hygrophanous, slightly fleshy, tough, convexo-plane, obtuse,
commonly depressed in the center, even, smooth; margin at first
inflexed then flattened. Flesh thin, white. Stem 1–3 in. long, 1–3
lines thick, cartilaginous, remarkably tubed, thin, even, smooth,
somewhat rooting, commonly becoming yellow or reddish. Gills
somewhat free, with a small decurrent tooth, but appearing adnexed
when the pileus is depressed, crowded, narrow, distinct, plane,
white or becoming pale.
There are numerous monstrous forms which are very deceiving: a.
Stem elongated, waved, decumbent, inflated at the base; pileus
broader, lobed; gills white. b. Funicularis, larger, cespitose, the lax
and decumbent stem equal and hairy at the base, gills sulphur-
yellow. These forms, analagous with A. repens Bull., occur on heaps
of leaves. c. Countless specimens growing together in a large
cluster; stems thick, inflated, irregularly shaped, sulcate, brown, the
mycelium collecting the soil in the form of a ball; pileus very
irregularly shaped, full of angles, undulated, blackish then bay-
brown. In gardens. Stevenson.
Spores elliptic-fusiform, 7–8×4µ; 6µ W.G.S.
Professor Peck, 49th Rep. N.Y. State Bot., gives the following: Pileus
thin, convex or nearly plane, sometimes with the margin elevated,
irregular, obtuse, glabrous, varying in color, commonly some shade
of bay-red or tan-color. Flesh white. Lamellæ narrow, crowded,
adnexed or almost free, white or whitish, rarely yellowish. Stem
equal or sometimes thickened at the base, cartilaginous, glabrous,
hollow, yellowish or rufescent, commonly similar in color to the
pileus. Spores, 6–8×3–4µ.
Pileus 1–2 in. broad. Stem 1–2 in. long, 1–2 lines thick.
Woods, groves and open places. Common. June to October.
West Virginia, North Carolina, New Jersey, Pennsylvania. McIlvaine.
C. dryophila is so common and variable that descriptions would fail
to cover it in its eccentricities. The writer has eaten it in all the forms
obtained since 1881. A very pretty form grew in large quantities
among pine needles at Eagle’s Mere, Pa., in August, 1897. It was
cooked and served at the hotel table. Many ate it and were
delighted.
Dr. Badham refers to a case in which illness was caused by eating it.
In my eighteen years' experience with it, knowing it to have been
enjoyably eaten by scores of persons, I have not heard of the
slightest discomfort from it.

C. spinulif´era Pk.—spinula, a little thorn. Pileus fleshy, thin,

convex or nearly plane, glabrous, hygrophanous reddish tan-color
tinged with pink and slightly striatulate on the margin when moist,
paler when dry, adorned with minute colored spinules or setæ. Gills
narrow, close, rounded behind and free, pale cinnamon-color,
becoming somewhat darker with age, spinuliferous. Stem slender,
tough, glabrous, shining, hollow, reddish-brown, often paler or
whitish at the top, especially in young plants, with a whitish
myceloid tomentum at the base. Spores elliptical or nearly so, 4µ.
Plant cespitose. Pileus 8–16 lines broad. Stem 2–3 in. long, about
1 line thick.
Prostrate trunks and ground among leaves in woods. Lewis county.
September.
In this species the lamellæ, under a lens, appear to be minutely
pubescent or velvety. This is due to the colored spinules or setæ
which clothe them. Peck, 49th Rep. N.Y. State Bot.
Angora, Pa. September, 1897. Among moss in mixed woods.
September to frost. McIlvaine.
Specimens identified by Professor Peck. Stems of some tapered at
base.
Excepting the extreme base of stems the whole plant is tender and
of good flavor.
C. acerva´ta Fr.—acervus, a heap. Pileus
(Plate XXXI.) fleshy but thin, convex or nearly plane,
obtuse, glabrous, hygrophanous, pale tan-
color or dingy pinkish-red and commonly
striatulate on the margin when moist, paler or
whitish when dry. Gills narrow, close,
adnexed or free, whitish or tinged with flesh-
color. Stem slender, rigid, hollow, glabrous,
reddish, reddish-brown or brown, often
whitish at the top, especially when young,
commonly with a white matted down at the
base. Spores elliptical, 6×3–4µ.
Plant cespitose. Pileus 1–2 in. broad. Stem
2–3 in. long, about 1 line thick.
Decaying wood and ground among fallen
Collybia Acervata (young).
leaves in woods. Adirondack mountains.
August and September. Peck, 49th Rep. N.Y.
State Bot.
This very pretty plant resembles forms of C. dryophila. The coloring
of the stems is often extremely delicate, like paintings upon rice
paper.
West Virginia mountains; Eagle’s Mere, Pa. August to frost.
McIlvaine.
The entire plant is tender, delicate and of fine flavor. In these
qualities it is not distinguishable when cooked from the smaller
forms of C. dryophila.

MYCE´NA Fr.

Gr.—a fungus.

Pileus regular, rarely depressed in the

center, thin, usually streaked with (Plate XXXII.)
longitudinal lines, at first conico-cylindrical,
margin at the first straight, closely
embracing the stem which is attenuated
upward. Stem hollow, slender,
cartilaginous. Gills adnate or adnexed,
sometimes with a small tooth, never
decurrent. Spores white.
Generally small and slender, growing on
branches, twigs, heaps of leaves, sometimes
on the ground, some minute species on
single dead leaves. Long, rooting stems are
not uncommon. Clitocybe and Omphalia are Mycena Galericulata.
separated by their decurrent gills and in Collybia the margin is at
first incurved.
In this genus the species of the various sections are not always
distinguished by single sharply defined characteristics, so that it will
sometimes be necessary to pay attention to all the features. Species
with a thread-like stem are found in other sections than Filipedes
and some of the Lactipedes are slippery when moist, but not truly
viscous.

ANALYSIS OF TRIBES.

Calodontes (kalos, beautiful; odontes, teeth). Page 126.

Stem juiceless, not dilated into a disk at the base. Edges of gills
darker, minutely toothed.

Adonideæ (Adonis, referring to beauty). Page 126.

Stem juiceless, not dilated at the base. Gills of one color, not
changing color. Color pure-colored, bright, not becoming brownish or
gray. On the ground.

Rigipedes (rigid-stemmed). Page 126.

Stem firm, rigid, rather tough, juiceless, more or less rooting. Gills
changing color, white, then gray or reddish, generally at length
connected by veins.
Tough, persistent, inodorous, usually on wood, very cespitose, but
individuals of the same species sometimes grow singly on the
ground.

Fragilipedes (fragile-stemmed). Page 130.

Stem fragile, juiceless, fibrillose at the base, scarcely rooting. Pileus

hygrophanous. Gills becoming discolored, at length somewhat
connected by veins.
Thin, fragile, often soft, normally growing singly on the ground. A
few strong smelling, cespitose on wood.

Filipedes (thread-stemmed). Page 130.

Stem thread-like, flaccid, somewhat tough, rooting, juiceless,

generally extremely long in proportion to the pileus. Gills becoming
discolored, paler at the edge.
Straight, growing singly on the ground; inodorous. Pileus dingy-
brown, becoming paler.

Lactipedes (milky-stemmed). Page 130.

Gills and rooting stem milky when broken.

Glutinipedes (glutinous-stemmed). Page 131.

Stem juiceless but externally sticky with gluten. Gills at length

decurrent with a tooth.

Basipedes (base-stemmed). Page 131.

Stem dry, rootless, the base naked and dilated into a disk or small
hairy bulb. Growing singly, slender, soon becoming flaccid.

Insititiæ (insero, to insert or graft). Page 131.

Stem very thin, dry, growing as if inserted in the supporting surface,

not downy, not disk-like at the base.
Gills adnate with a small decurrent tooth. Small, very tender,
becoming flaccid with the first touch of the sun.
Mycena is a large genus composed of small species. About sixty
members have been found in America. They are from ½ to 1 in.
across the cap, with thin stems and altogether delicate appearance.
Yet the flesh of most of them has a gummy consistency in the
mouth, and they shrink but little in stewing. Heretofore not any
appear to have been reported as edible, probably because the size
of the species has not attracted experimenters. While some have a
strong odor and taste of radishes, and one species is bitter, it is
probable that all are edible. The writer has eaten, raw and cooked,
small quantities (all he has found) of many species not here reported
as edible, which will, when further tested, be reported upon.
The substance and flavor of those here given is remarkably pleasant.
Their late coming, hardiness and abundance are commendable
qualities.
I.—Calodon´tes. Stem juiceless. Gills minutely toothed.
None tested.

II.—Adoni´deæ. Stem juiceless. Gills of one color, etc.

None tested.

III.—Rigidi´pedes. Stem rigid. Gills at first white, changing

color, etc.

M. prolif´era Sow.—proles, offspring; fero, to bear. (Plate X, figs. 6,

7, p. 28.) Pileus ⅔-1¼ in. across, slightly fleshy, expanded bell-
shape, dry, the broad umbo darker (dingy-brown), slightly striate,
and at length furrowed or rimosely split at the margin (pale
yellowish or becoming brownish-tan). Stem 2½-3 in. long, firm,
rigid, smooth, shining, slightly striate, rooted. Gills adnexed,
somewhat distinct, becoming pale white.
Inodorous, only at length nauseous. Very closely allied to M.
galericulata, in habit approaching nearest to M. cohærens. The
stems are pallid at the apex, but slightly tawny-bay-brown below,
and glued together by hairy down at the base. There is a white form
with transparent stem—on trunks. Fries.
Mt. Gretna, Pa. On ground in grass. Mycelium spreading on leaves.
McIlvaine.
Found in great plenty. Base of stems is sometimes white when in
dense tufts.
The whole plant is tender, cooking in fifteen minutes, and is of fine
flavor. No one will want a better fungus.

M. rugo´sa Fr.—ruga, a wrinkle. Pileus ash-color but becoming

pale, very tough, slightly fleshy at the disk, otherwise
membranaceous, bell-shaped then expanded, at length rather plane,
somewhat obtuse, more or less corrugated (unequal with elevated
wrinkles), always dry, not moist even in rainy weather, striate at the
circumference. Stem commonly short, remarkably cartilaginous,
tubed, rigid, tough, straight, at length compressed, even, smooth,
pallid, with a short oblique hairy root. Gills arcuato-adnate, with a
decurrent tooth, united behind in a collar, somewhat distant,
connected by veins, broad, ventricose, white then gray, edge
sometimes quite entire, sometimes with saw-like teeth.
Always inodorous. Formerly connected with M. galericulata. M.
rugosa is arid, very tough, more rarely cespitose, the pileus firm,
somewhat obtuse, wrinkled but without striæ, the gills arcuato-
adnate with a hooked tooth, white then ash-color. The genuine M.
galericulata is fasciculato-cespitose, somewhat fragile, the pileus
thinner, at first conical and umbonate, striate without wrinkles, the
gills adnate, with a decurrent tooth, white then flesh-color. Between
these there is a long series of intermediate forms. Fries.
California, H. and M.; Kansas, Cragin; Wisconsin, Bundy; New York,
September, Peck, 46th Rep.; West Virginia, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania. On decaying wood and ground near stumps. August to
November. McIlvaine.
The tenacity frequently occurring in Mycena is well shown in this
species. The caps and stem cook tender, but it is better to discard
the stems, as the two do not become tender at the same time.
M. galericula´ta Scop.—galericulum, a small peaked cap. (Plate
Plate X, fig. 5, p. 28.) Pileus somewhat membranaceous, conical
bell-shaped then expanded, striate to the umbo, dry, smooth,
becoming brownish-livid or changeable in color. Stem rigid,
polished, even, smooth, with a spindle-shaped root at the base.
Gills adnate, decurrent with a tooth, connected by veins, whitish
and flesh-colored.
Very protean. Normally growing in bunches, the numerous stems
(never sticky) glued together with soft hairy down at the base. But it
occurs also solitary, larger, pileus as much as 2 in. broad, wrinkled-
striate. The essential marks by which it is distinguished from A.
rugosa are these: Stem in general thinner, less tense and straight,
often curved, more fragile. Pileus membranaceous, conico bell-
shaped, umbonate, striate but not corrugated, moist in rainy
weather. Gills adnate, with a decurrent tooth, more crowded,
whitish then flesh-colored. The color both of the pileus (normally
dingy-brownish then livid) and of the stem (normally becoming livid-
brownish) is much more changeable than that of A. rugosa,
becoming yellow, rust colored, etc. It is not so tough and pliant as A.
rugosa. Forms departing from the type are very numerous; the most
beautiful is var. calopus (Gr., beautiful; Gr., a foot) with chestnut-
colored stems, united in a spindle-shaped tail. Fries.
Spores spheroid or subspheroid, 9–10×6–8µ K.; 8–11×4–6µ B.; 6–
7×4µ Massee.
Common. Autumnal. Very variable. On trunks, fallen leaves.
Two well-marked varieties of this very variable species were
observed the past season. One grows on the ground among fallen
leaves. It has a dark brown pileus, close lamellæ and a very long
stem, generally of a delicate pink color toward the top. It might be
called var. longipes. The other grows under pine trees, has a broadly
convex or expanded grayish-brown pileus and a short stem. It might
be called var. expansus. Peck, 26th Rep. N.Y. State Bot.
“M. alcalina is closely allied to it (M. galericulata), but has a stronger
alkaline odor and a rather more fragile stem. In one of your
specimens I detect a slight incarnate tint to the gills, and this is
pretty conclusive evidence that it belongs to M. galericulata. Species
of Mycena are not generally reckoned among edible fungi or even
promising fungi; I suppose on account of the thin flesh of the cap,
but of course it is possible to make up in numbers what is lacking in
size. I am glad to know you have found this to be an esculent one.”
Letter Professor Peck to C. McIlvaine, October 5, 1893.
The caps and stems when young make as good a dish as one cares
to eat. The substance is pleasant, and the flavor delicate. They are
best stewed slowly in their own fluids, after washing, for ten minutes
and seasoned with pepper, salt and butter.

M. parabo´lica Fr.—shaped like a parabola. Pileus becoming black

at the disk, inclining to violaceous, otherwise becoming pale, whitish,
somewhat membranaceous, at first erect and oval, then parabolic,
obtuse, never expanded, moist, somewhat shining when dry,
smooth, even, striate toward the entire margin. Stem 2–3 in. long,
1 line thick, tubed, tense and straight but not very rigid, thickened
and bearded-rooted at the base, pale below, dark violaceous above,
when young white-mealy, otherwise even, smooth, dry. Gills simply
adnate, ascending, somewhat distant, rarely connected by veins,
quite entire, white, somewhat gray at the base.
Stem less rigid than that of A. galericulatus. Truly gregarious or
cespitose. Fries.
Spores 12×6µ B.; elliptical, 11–12×6µ Massee.
Trenton, N.J. June. E.B. Sterling; West Virginia, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, on decaying stumps, trunks of oak, chestnut, poplar,
pine. June until far into the winter. McIlvaine.
Plant up to 2½ in. high. Caps usually about ½ in., but reaching ¾
in.
A neat, attractive plant, whether single or in dense tufts. Its smell is
strong of fresh meal, and taste of that delicate flavor one finds in the
succulent base of the round, swamp rush, when pulled from its
sheath—one that every country school boy and girl knows. It is
pleasant raw, and delicious when cooked.

M. latifo´lia Pk.—latus, broad; folium, a leaf. Pileus convex, rarely

somewhat umbonate, striatulate, grayish-brown. Gills white, broad,
hooked, decurrent-toothed. Stem slender, smooth, hollow,
subconcolorous, white-villous at the base.
Height 1–1.5 in., breadth of pileus 4–6 lines. Stem .5 lines thick.
Under pine trees. Center. October.
A small species with quite broad gills, growing among the fallen
leaves of pine trees. Gregarious. Peck, 23d Rep. N.Y. State Bot.
Mt. Gretna, Pa. Among pine needles, scattered, sometimes four or
five in a cluster. September to October. McIlvaine.
Autumnal. Not rare. The caps though small are tenacious in the
mouth and lose little in cooking. The substance is agreeable and
flavor fine.

IV.— Fragili´pedes. Stem fragile, juiceless, etc. None tested.

V.—Fili´pedes. Stem thread-like, etc.

M. collaria´ta Fr.—collare, a collar. Pileus ½ in. and more broad,

typically dingy-brown, but becoming pale, commonly gray-whitish,
becoming brownish only at the disk, membranaceous, bell-shaped
then convex, somewhat umbonate, striate, when dry rigid, smooth,
not soft nor slightly silky. Stem about 2 in. long, tubed, thread-like
but almost 1 line thick, tough, dry, smooth, even or slightly striate
under a lens, becoming pale. Gills adnate, joined in a collar behind,
thin, crowded, hoary-whitish or obsoletely flesh-colored.
The gills are somewhat distant when the pileus is expanded. There is
not a separate collar as in Marasmius rotula; the gills are only joined
in the form of a collar, and remain cohering when they separate from
the stem. Fries.
Spores 8–10×4–6µ B.
New York. Old stumps and rotten logs. June. Peck, 23d Rep. Mt.
Gretna, Pa. Cespitose on decaying wood. July, September and
October. McIlvaine.
Very much like M. galericulata, but gills not connected by veins. The
caps usually have a pinkish hue, often brownish. The stems are not
as tender as the caps. The flavor is excellent.

VI.—Lacti´pedes. Stem and gills milky, etc.

M. hæma´topa Pers. Gr.—blood; Gr.—a foot. Pileus about 1 in.

broad, white flesh-color, fleshy-membranaceous, slightly fleshy
chiefly at the disk, conical then bell-shaped, obtuse, nay convex and
spuriously umbonate, naked, even or slightly striate at the margin,
which is at the first elegantly toothed. Stem 2–4 in. long, 1 line and
more thick, remarkably tubed, rigid, normally everywhere powdered
with whitish, delicate, soft hairy down, sometimes, however,
denuded of it. Gills adnate, often with a small decurrent tooth, the
alternate ones shorter, in front disappearing short of the slight
margin of the pileus, whitish and wholly of the same color at the
edge.
Cespitose (very many of the stems conjoined and hairy at the base),
firm, stature almost that of M. galericulata, wholly abounding with
dark blood-colored juice.
On stumps. Frequent. September. Stevenson.
Spores spheroid-ellipsoid, 10×6–7µ K.
I find a non-cespitose form of this species with red-margined gills.
Its red juice, however, will serve to distinguish it and show its true
relations. Peck, 31st Rep.
Common in tufts like M. galericulata and of about the same size, but
is readily distinguished by its red juice. This pretty plant can often be
gathered in considerable quantity, and well repays the collector.

VII.—Glutini´pedes. Stems gelatinous, etc.

None tested.

VIII.—Basi´pedes. Stem dilated at base, etc.

None tested.

IX.—Insiti´tiæ. Stem inserted.

None tested.

HIA´TULA Fr.

Hio, to gape.
(Plate XXXIII.)

Pileus symmetrical, very thin, without a

distinct pellicle, formed by the union of the
backs of the gills, splitting when expanded.
 Gills almost or quite free, white. Stem
central. Spores white.
Allied to Lepiota in the thin pileus and free
gills, but differing in the entire absence of a
ring. Not at all deliquescent as in the genus
Coprinus, near to which it was at one time
placed by Fries. Massee. Reported from North
Hiatula Wynniæ.
Carolina.

OMPHA´LIA Fr.

Gr.—belonging to an umbilicus.
(Plate XXXIV.)Pileus generally thin, usually umbilicate at
first, then funnel-shaped, often
hygrophanous, margin incurved or straight.
Gills truly decurrent from the first, sometimes
branched. Stem distinctly cartilaginous,
polished, tubular, often stuffed when young.
Flesh continuous with that of the pileus but
differing in character. Spores white,
somewhat elliptical, smooth.
Generally on wood, preferring hilly woods and
a damp climate.
Omphalia Umbellifera.
Resembling Collybia and Mycena in the flesh
Enlarged about two sizes.
of stem and pileus being different in texture
and in the externally cartilaginous stem. It is perfectly separated by
the gills being markedly decurrent from the first.
The American species of Omphalia number between thirty-five and
forty. Many of them are common. Few woods are free from them.
Several of them are beautiful. They are usually small and lacking in
substance. Raw, the writer has not found one that is objectionable in
any way; a few have a woody taste. But two species have been
found by him in sufficient quantity to make a dish. It is probable that
all are edible. At best the species of Omphalia are valuable in
emergency only.

ANALYSIS OF TRIBES.

COLLYBARII.

* Pileus dilated from the first, margin incurved.

MYCENARII.

Pileus campanulate at first, margin straight and pressed to the stem.

COLLYBA´RII.
* Pileus dilated from the first; margin incurved.

O. onis´cus Fr. Gr.—a wood-louse. From the ashy color. Pileus

scarcely 1 in. broad, dark ashy becoming pale, gray-hoary when dry,
somewhat membranaceous, or slightly fleshy, flaccid, fragile when
old, convexo-umbilicate or funnel-shaped, often irregular, undulato-
flexuous, even-lobed, smooth, even, margin striate. Stem 1 in. long,
1 line and more thick, stuffed then tubed, slightly firm, moderately
tough, sometimes round, curved, sometimes unequal, compressed,
ascending, undulated, gray. Gills shortly decurrent, somewhat
distant, quaternate, ash-color. Not cespitose. Fries.
Spores 12×7–8µ B.
Massachusetts, Sprague; California, H. and M., who record it as
edible.

O. umbellif´era—umbella, a little shade; fero, to bear. From its

umbrella-like shape. (Plate XXXIV, p. 132.) Pileus about ½ in.
broad, commonly whitish, slightly fleshy-membranaceous, convex
then plane, broadly obconic with the decurrent gills, not at all or
only slightly umbilicate, hygrophanous, when moist watery, rayed
with darker striæ, when dry even, changeable in appearance, silky,
flocculose, rarely squamulose, the margin, which is at first inflexed,
crenate (scalloped). Stem short, not exceeding 1 in. long, almost 1
line thick, stuffed then soon tubed, slightly firm, equal or dilated
toward the apex into the pileus, of the same color as the pileus,
commonly smooth, but varying pubescent, white villous at the base.
Gills very broad behind, triangular, decurrent, very distant, edge of
the gills straight.
Cosmopolitan. The common form is to be found everywhere from
the sea level to 4,000 feet. Stevenson.
Spores 3×4µ W.G.S.; 10×4µ W.P.; green variety 10×6µ W.P.;
broadly elliptical, 8–10×5–6µ Peck.
O. umbellifera is known the world over. It is very variable in size and
color. With us it is seldom over ¾ in. broad. Stem ½-1 line thick. It
grows on decaying wood and ground full of decaying material. There
are several varieties. All are edible, but not worth describing. This
description is given that the student may recognize one of our
common plants, and eat it, if very hungry.

Mycena´rii.

O. campanel´la Batsch.—campana, a bell. Pileus thin, rather

tough, hemispherical or convex, glabrous, umbilicate, hygrophanous,
rusty yellow-color and striatulate when moist, paler when dry. Gills
moderately close, arcuate, decurrent, yellowish, the interspaces
venose. Stem firm, rigid, hollow, brown, often paler at the top,
tawny-strigose at the base. Spores elliptical, 6–7×3–4µ.
Pileus 4–8 lines broad. Stem about 1 in. long, scarcely 1 line thick.
Much decayed wood of coniferous trees. Very common. May to
November. Peck, 45th Rep. N.Y. State Bot.
Spores ellipsoid, 6–8×3–4µ C.B.P.; 7×3µ W.P.; 6–9×3–4µ B.
The quantity alone, in which this small species can be found, makes
it worth mentioning as an edible species. It is common over the
United States where coniferous trees abound. Its favorite habitat is
upon the rotting debris of these trees. Occasionally it grows from the
ground, but only from that which is heavily charged with woody
material. It is social in troops, or affectionate in clusters, or
maintains a single existence.
It is edible, of good substance when stewed, tender and of fair
flavor.
Photographed by Dr. J.R. Weist. Plate XXXV.
PLEUROTUS OSTREATUS.

PLEURO´TUS.

Gr.—a side; Gr.—an ear.

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