EXPLANATION IN SPECIALCIRCULATION

MAJOR VEINS OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION

So this passage describes some important points about the differences between arteries and veins,
as well
as how veins are named and where they carry blood.

1. Arteries are usually deep inside the body and well protected, while many veins are closer to the surface
and can often be seen or felt under the skin.
2. Most major veins have the same names as the arteries they run alongside. For example, if there's a major
artery called the "brachial artery" in your arm, you'll also have a "brachial vein" running nearby.
3. Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to various parts of the body, while veins carry
deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
4. In the circulatory system, blood vessels form a network where arteries branch off from the aorta (a large
artery leaving the heart), and veins converge into two major vessels called the "venae cavae."
5. Veins that collect blood from the head and arms empty into a large vein called the "superior vena cava,"
which then carries this deoxygenated blood into the right atrium of the heart.
6. Veins that drain the lower part of the body, such as the legs and abdomen, empty into another large vein
called the
"inferior vena cava," which also leads to the right atrium of the heart.

So, in simple terms, arteries and veins serve different roles in the body, with arteries carrying oxygenated
blood away from the heart, while veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart. Veins have names that
often match the arteries they run with, and they all come together in the venae cavae, which take the blood
back to the heart.

VEINS DRAINING INTO THE SUPERIOR VENA CAVA

When listing the veins that drain into the superior vena cava, they are usually listed in a distal-to-
proximal
direction, which means they are listed in the order in which the blood flows into the superior vena cava. This
arrangement follows the path of blood circulation, starting from the smaller veins in the body's extremities
(distal) and progressing towards the larger veins closer to the heart (proximal). This way, it helps in
understanding the order in which blood returns to the heart through the superior vena cava.

VEINS DRAINING INTO THE SUPERIOR VENA CAVA

1. The radial and ulnar veins are deep veins in the forearm. They come together to form the
deep brachial vein, which drains the entire arm and connects to the axillary vein in the armpit. 2.
The cephalic vein drains the outer part of the arm and connects to the axillary vein.
3. The basilic vein drains the inner part of the arm and connects to the brachial vein near the
elbow. The basilic and cephalic veins join at the elbow through the median cubital vein, often
used for blood testing. 4. The subclavian vein receives blood from the arm through the axillary
vein and also from the skin and muscles of the head through the external jugular vein.
5. The vertebral vein drains the back of the head.
6. The internal jugular vein drains blood from the dural sinuses of the brain.
7. The brachiocephalic veins (right and left) are large veins that collect blood from the subclavian,
vertebral, and internal jugular veins on their respective sides. These brachiocephalic veins join
together to form the superior vena cava, which eventually enters the heart.

These veins are part of the complex network that carries deoxygenated blood from the upper body, including
the arms and head, back to the heart, where it can be pumped to the lungs for oxygenation.

VEINS DRAINING INTO THE INFERIOR VENA CAVA

The inferior vena cava plays a major role in returning blood from the lower half of your body to your
heart, where it can be pumped to the lungs for oxygenation and then circulated to the rest of your body.

1. Veins in the leg and calf include the anterior tibial, posterior tibial, and fibular veins. The posterior
tibial vein turns into the popliteal vein at the knee, and then into the femoral vein in the thigh. The
femoral vein becomes the external iliac vein as it enters the pelvis.
2. The great saphenous veins are the longest veins in the body. They drain the superficial areas of
the leg and start at the foot, running along the inner side of the leg, ultimately emptying into the
femoral vein in the thigh.
3. Each common iliac vein (right and left) forms by combining the external iliac vein (from the leg)
and the internal iliac vein (from the pelvis) on its respective side. The two common iliac veins join
to form the inferior vena cava, which goes up through the abdomen.
4. The right gonadal vein drains the right ovary in females and the right testicle in males. The left
gonadal vein connects to the left renal vein above.
5. The renal veins (right and left) are responsible for draining the kidneys.
6. The hepatic portal vein collects blood from the digestive organs and passes through the liver
before joining the systemic circulation. It's a crucial part of the body's digestive system. 7. The
hepatic veins (right and left) are responsible for draining the liver.

These veins are essential for collecting and moving blood from various parts of the lower body,
pelvis, and
abdominal organs, as well as from the liver and kidneys. This blood eventually returns to the heart, where it
can be pumped to the lungs for oxygenation and then distributed throughout the body.

ARTERIAL SUPPLY OF THE BRAIN

The four arteries composing the circle of Willis are indicated by bullet points.

The internal carotid arteries carry blood to our brain. They come from the common carotid arteries,
which are also in our neck. These internal carotid arteries run up through our neck and enter our skull
through a bone called the temporal bone. Once they're inside our head, they split into two smaller arteries
called the anterior cerebral artery and the middle cerebral artery. These arteries supply most of our brain
with blood. So, they're important for our brain to work properly by bringing it the oxygen and nutrients it
needs.

1. We have two vertebral arteries in our neck. They start from the subclavian arteries, which are located at
the base of our neck.
2. These vertebral arteries travel upward into our skull.
3. Inside our skull, they join together to create a single artery called the basilar artery.
4. The basilar artery is responsible for supplying blood to the brain stem and cerebellum as it goes upwards.
5. Near the base of the cerebrum (the big part of your brain), the basilar artery splits into smaller branches
known as the posterior cerebral arteries. 6. These posterior cerebral arteries provide blood to the back
part of our cerebrum.

The brain has two main sources of blood supply: the front (anterior) and the back (posterior). These two
blood supplies are connected by small branches that form a circle of blood vessels around the base of the
brain. This circle is called the cerebral arterial circle or the circle of Willis. The purpose of this circle is to
protect the brain. If there's a problem like a blood clot or a blockage in one part of the blood vessels, the
circle of Willis provides alternative pathways for blood to reach the brain. This redundancy ensures that the
brain always gets the blood it needs to function properly, even if one route is blocked

THE HEPATIC PORTAL SYSTEM

The hepatic portal system is a system of blood vessels that helps with digestion.
When you eat food, your intestines absorb nutrients from it. These nutrients, such as sugars and proteins,
need to get to your liver for processing. The hepatic portal system takes these nutrients from your intestines
to your liver. So, here's how it works:
1. You eat food, and your intestines absorb nutrients from it.
2. Instead of sending these nutrients directly into your regular bloodstream, they go into the hepatic portal
vein, which is leading to your liver.
3. The liver processes and stores these nutrients, making sure they are safe and balanced for your body to
use.
4. After the liver has done its job, the nutrients can enter your regular bloodstream and travel to other parts
of your body, providing energy and nourishment.

THE HEPATIC PORTAL CIRCULATION

The hepatic portal circulation is a system of major blood vessels that transport blood from various abdominal
organs to the liver for processing.
1. Inferior Mesenteric Vein: This vein collects blood from the lower part of the large intestine.
2. Splenic Vein: It gathers blood from the spleen, pancreas, and the left side of the stomach.
3. Superior Mesenteric Vein: This vein collects blood from the small intestine and the beginning of the colon.
4. Splenic and Superior Mesenteric Veins: These two veins join together to create the hepatic portal vein. 5.
Left Gastric Vein: This vein drains the right side of the stomach and connects directly to the hepatic portal
vein.

So, in straightforward terms, these major vessels work together to transport blood from the digestive organs
(intestines, stomach, pancreas, and spleen) to the liver through the hepatic portal vein. The liver then plays
a crucial role in processing and filtering this blood before it continues circulating throughout the body.

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

In the adult, oxygenated blood is sent from the left atrium to the left ventricle and then out the aorta to
arteries in the rest of the body. Blood then returns through veins to the right atrium and goes into the right
ventricle, which pumps it to the lungs in order to drop off carbon dioxide and pick up oxygen.
In the fetus, the lungs are not mature enough to do that, so oxygenation happens in the placenta.

Fetal circulation involves the delivery of oxygen and nutrients from the placenta to the fetus and the
transport of waste products from the fetus to the placenta, in order for them to be eventually eliminated by
the mother’s body.
Fetal circulation has some unique features because the fetal lungs are not involved in gas
exchange and there are three fetal shunts, which redirect the blood to ensure the highest oxygenated blood
reaches the heart and brain, while redirecting blood away from the nonfunctional fetal lungs.
Now let’s first review the physiology of the umbilical cord that connects the fetus to the placenta,
which takes on the role of exchanging oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and wastes. The cord houses
two umbilical arteries and one umbilical vein. The umbilical vein provides the path for oxygenated blood to
flow from the placenta to the fetus, while the umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood back to the
placenta.
 Now, oxygenated blood first flows through the umbilical vein and to the fetal liver, and here, the
circulation divides as it meets the first fetal shunt called the ductus venosus. At this point, most of the blood
passes through the ductus venosus and flows directly into the inferior vena cava. Meanwhile, the remaining
blood perfuses the liver and then meets up with the rest of the blood in the inferior vena cava. Together, this
blood flows into the right atrium of the fetal heart.
In the fetal heart, the pressure on the right side is higher than on the left side of the heart. This is
because the fetal lungs are filled with fluid and the arteries are tightly constricted, so the pressure in the fetal
lungs is high, leading to increased pressure in the right side of the heart.
This pressure difference allows a majority of the oxygenated blood in the right atrium to pass through
the second shunt, called the foramen ovale, which is an opening between the two atria.
This shunt allows most of the blood to bypass the lungs and flow directly into the left atrium. From
here, the blood flows into the left ventricle, which pumps it through the aorta, to supply oxygenated blood to
perfuse the brain, the heart, and then the rest of the fetus.
At the same time, the right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary trunk. Again, since the lungs are
collapsed, only a small portion of oxygenated blood enters the lungs. The remaining blood flows through the
third shunt, called the ductus arteriosus, into the descending aorta and eventually to the umbilical
arteries that lead to the placenta.
After birth, when the baby takes its first breath, their lungs expand and pulmonary blood
flow increases. This makes pulmonary vessels expand, and decreases pulmonary pressure. In turn, this
decreases the pressure in the right side of the heart and the change in pressures causes the
foramen ovale to close.
As the baby continues to breathe, arterial oxygen levels increase, causing the ductus arteriosus to
constrict. When the umbilical cord is cut, the placental circulation is separated from the fetal circulation,
causing the ductus venosus to constrict. The process of closing these three shunts is gradual and may take
up to 48 hours to fully close.
Oxygenated blood flows from the placenta through the umbilical vein to reach the fetal liver. Here,
most of the oxygenated blood passes through the ductus venosus directly into the inferior vena cava, while
the rest perfuses the liver and meets with the rest of the blood in the inferior vena cava. This blood is then
carried into the right atrium, and passes through the foramen ovale into the left atrium.
Congenital heart defects environmental interferences such as maternal infections and ingested drugs
during the first three months of pregnancy seem to be the major cause of such problems.
In the absence of congenital heart problems the heart usually functions smoothly throughout a long
lifetime for most people homeostatic mechanisms are so effective that we rarely are aware of when the
heart is working harder the heart becomes not only a more powerful pump but also a more effective one an
added benefit for aerobic exercise is that it clears fatty deposits from the blood vessel walls.
However, let's raise a caution flag here at the once a month or once a year tennis player or snow
shoveler also known as the weekend athletes have not built up this type of heart endurance and strength
which is why so many become victims of heart attacks.
As we age more and more signs of cardiovascular system disturbances start to appear gradually loss
of elasticity in the artery's leads to hypertension and hypertensive heart disease and clogging of the vessels
with fatty substances leads to coronary artery disease and stroke.
Coronary artery disease or cad happens when the arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle
become hardened and narrow.
Though the aging process itself contributes to changes in the walls of the blood vessels that can lead
to stroke or myocardial infractions most researchers feel that diet not aging is a single most important
contributing factor to cardiovascular disease there's some agreement that the risk is lowered if people eat
less animal fat cholesterol and salt other recommendations include avoiding stress eliminating cigarette
smoke and taking part in regular moderate exercise programs.