Transformer

What is a Transformer?
A Transformer is a static electrical machine which transfers AC
electrical power from one circuit to the other circuit at the constant
frequency, but the voltage level can be altered that means voltage can be
increased or decreased according to the requirement.

The main reason for adopting the AC system instead of DC

system for the generation, transmission and distribution
of electrical power is that the alternating voltage can be
increased or decreased accordingly with the help of the
transformer.

Fig (1)

Necessity of a Transformer
In Iraq, usually, electrical power is generated at 11Kv. For
economical reasons AC power is transmitted at very high
voltages say 132 kV or 400 kV over long distances.
Therefore a step up transformer is applied at the
generating stations. Now for safety reasons the voltage is
stepped down to different levels by step down transformer
at various substations to feed the power to the different
locations and thus the utilization of power is done at

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 If (V2 > V1) the voltage is raised on the output side and is
known as Step-up transformer

If (V2 < V1) the voltage level is lowered on the output side
and is known as Step down transformer

It works on the principle of Faraday’s Law of

Electromagnetic Induction which states that “ the
magnitude of voltage is directly proportional to the rate of
change of flux.”

Construction of a Transformer
It mainly consists of

1. Magnetic circuit (consisting of core, limbs, yoke and

damping structure.
2. Electrical circuit (consists of primary and secondary
windings)
3. Dielectric circuit (consisting of insulations in different
forms and used at the different places)
4. Tanks and accessories (conservator, breather, bushings,
cooling tubes, etc.)

Transformer Construction
The construction of a simple two-winding transformer consists
of each winding being wound on a separate limb or core of the
soft iron form which provides the necessary magnetic circuit.
This magnetic circuit, know more commonly as the
“transformer core” is designed to provide a path for the
magnetic field to flow around, which is necessary for induction
of the voltage between the two windings.

2
As well as providing a low reluctance path for the magnetic
field, the core is designed to prevent circulating electric currents
within the iron core itself. Circulating currents, called “eddy
currents”, cause heating and energy losses within the core
decreasing the transformers efficiency.
These losses are due mainly to voltages induced in the iron
circuit, which is constantly being subjected to the alternating
magnetic fields setup by the external sinusoidal supply voltage.
One way to reduce these unwanted power losses is to construct
the transformer core from thin steel laminations.

In all types of transformer construction, the central iron core is

constructed from of a highly permeable material made from thin
silicon steel laminations assembled together to provide the
required magnetic path with the minimum of losses. The
resistivity of the steel sheet itself is high reducing the eddy
current losses by making the laminations very thin.
These steel transformer laminations vary in thickness’s from
between 0.25mm to 0.5mm and as steel is a conductor, the
laminations are electrically insulated from each other by a very
thin coating of insulating varnish or by the use of an oxide layer
on the surface.

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Transformer Construction of the Core
Generally, the name associated with the construction of a transformer is
dependant upon how the primary and secondary windings are wound
around the central laminated steel core. The two most common and basic
designs of transformer construction are the Closed-core transformer and
the Shell-core Transformer.
In the “closed-core” type (core form) transformer, the primary and
secondary windings are wound outside and surround the core ring. In the
“shell type” (shell form) transformer, the primary and secondary
windings pass inside the steel magnetic circuit (core) which forms a shell
around the windings as shown below.

In both types of transformer core design, the magnetic flux linking the
primary and secondary windings travels entirely within the core with no
loss of magnetic flux through air. In the core type transformer
construction, one half of each winding is wrapped around each leg (or
limb) of the transformers magnetic circuit as shown above.
The coils are not arranged with the primary winding on one leg and the
secondary on the other but instead half of the primary winding and half of
the secondary winding are placed one over the other concentrically on
each leg in order to increase magnetic coupling allowing practically all of
the magnetic lines of force go through both the primary and secondary
windings at the same time. However, with this type of transformer
construction, a small percentage of the magnetic lines of force flow
outside of the core, and this is called “leakage flux”.
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Shell type transformer cores overcome this leakage flux as both the
primary and secondary windings are wound on the same centre leg or
limb which has twice the cross-sectional area of the two outer limbs. The
advantage here is that the magnetic flux has two closed magnetic paths to
flow around external to the coils on both left and right hand sides before
returning back to the central coils.
This means that the magnetic flux circulating around the outer limbs of
this type of transformer construction is equal to Φ/2. As the magnetic flux
has a closed path around the coils, this has the advantage of decreasing
core losses and increasing overall efficiency.

Transformer Laminations
But you may be wondering as to how the primary and secondary
windings are wound around these laminated iron or steel cores for this
types of transformer constructions. The coils are firstly wound on a
former which has a cylindrical, rectangular or oval type cross section to
suit the construction of the laminated core. In both the shell and core type
transformer constructions, in order to mount the coil windings, the
individual laminations are stamped or punched out from larger steel
sheets and formed into strips of thin steel resembling the
letters “E’s”, “L’s”, “U’s” and “I’s” as shown below.

Transformer Core Types

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These lamination stampings when connected together form the
required core shape. For example, two “E” stampings plus two end
closing “I” stampings to give an E-I core forming one element of a
standard shell-type transformer core. These individual laminations
are tightly butted together during the transformers construction to
reduce the reluctance of the air gap at the joints producing a highly
saturated magnetic flux density.

Laminating the Iron Core

The type of wire used as the main current carrying conductor in a

transformer winding is either copper or aluminum. While aluminum wire
is lighter and generally less expensive than copper wire, a larger cross
sectional area of conductor must be used to carry the same amount of
current as with copper so it is used mainly in larger power transformer
applications.
Transformer oil. The transformer oil acts as an insulator and also as a
coolant.

Transformer Dot Orientation

We cannot just simply take a laminated core and wrap one of the coil
configurations around it. We could but we may find that the secondary
voltage and current may be out-of-phase with that of the primary voltage
and current. The two coil windings do have a distinct orientation of one
with respect to the other. Either coil could be wound around the core
clockwise or anticlockwise so to keep track of their relative orientations
“dots” are used to identify a given end of each winding.

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This method of identifying the orientation or direction of a transformers
windings is called the “dot convention”. Then transformers windings are
wound so that the correct phase relations exist between the winding
voltages with the transformers polarity being defined as the relative
polarity of the secondary voltage with respect to the primary voltage as
shown below.

Transformer Construction using Dot Orientation

The first transformer shows its two “dots” side by side on the two
windings. The current leaving the secondary dot is “in-phase” with the
current entering the primary side dot. Thus the polarities of the voltages
at the dotted ends are also in-phase so when the voltage is positive at the
dotted end of the primary coil, the voltage across the secondary coil is
also positive at the dotted end.
The second transformer shows the two dots at opposite ends of the
windings which means that the transformers primary and secondary coil
windings are wound in opposite directions. The result of this is that the
current leaving the secondary dot is 180o “out-of-phase” with the current
entering the primary dot. So the polarities of the voltages at the dotted
ends are also out-of-phase so when the voltage is positive at the dotted

7
end of the primary coil, the voltage across the corresponding secondary
coil will be negative.
Then the construction of a transformer can be such that the secondary
voltage may be either “in-phase” or “out-of-phase” with respect to the
primary voltage. In transformers which have a number of different
secondary windings, each of which is electrically isolated from each other
it is important to know the dot polarity of the secondary windings so that
they can be connected together in series-aiding (secondary voltage is
summed) or series-opposing (the secondary voltage is the difference)
configurations.
The ability to adjust the turns ratio of a transformer is often desirable to
compensate for the effects of variations in the primary supply voltage, the
regulation of the transformer or varying load conditions. Voltage control
of the transformer is generally performed by changing the turns ratio and
therefore its voltage ratio whereby a part of the primary winding on the
high voltage side is tapped out allowing for easy adjustment. The tapping
is preferred on the high voltage side as the volts per turn are lower than
the low voltage secondary side.

Transformer Primary Tap Changes

In this simple example, the primary tap changes are calculated for a
supply voltage change of ±5%, but any value can be chosen. Some
transformers may have two or more primary or two or more secondary
windings for use in different applications providing different voltages
from a single core.

8
Laminating the Iron Core

Eddy current losses within a transformer core cannot be eliminated

completely, but they can be greatly reduced and controlled by reducing
the thickness of the steel core. Instead of having one big solid iron core as
the magnetic core material of the transformer or coil, the magnetic path is
split up into many thin pressed steel shapes called “laminations”.
The laminations used in a transformer construction are very thin strips of
insulated metal joined together to produce a solid but laminated core as
we saw above. These laminations are insulated from each other by a coat
of varnish or paper to increase the effective resistivity of the core thereby
increasing the overall resistance to limit the flow of the eddy currents.
The result of all this insulation is that the unwanted induced eddy current
power-loss in the core is greatly reduced, and it is for this reason why the
magnetic iron circuit of every transformer and other electro-magnetic
machines are all laminated. Using laminations in a transformer
construction reduces eddy current losses.
, which The losses of energy appears as heat due both to hysteresis and to
eddy currents in the magnetic path, is known commonly as “transformer
core losses”. Since these losses occur in all magnetic materials as a result
of alternating magnetic fields. Transformer core losses are always present
in a transformer whenever the primary is energized, even if no load is
connected to the secondary winding. Also these hysteresis and the eddy
current losses are sometimes referred to as “transformer iron losses”, as
the magnetic flux causing these losses is constant at all loads.

Copper Losses
But there is also another type of energy loss associated with transformers
called “copper losses”. Transformer Copper Losses are mainly due to the
electrical resistance of the primary and secondary windings. Most
transformer coils are made from copper wire which has resistance in
Ohms, ( Ω ). This resistance opposes the magnetizing currents flowing
through them.

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 When a load is connected to the transformers secondary winding, large
electrical currents flow in both the primary and the secondary windings,
electrical energy and power ( or the I2 R ) losses occur as heat. Generally
copper losses vary with the load current, being almost zero at no-load,
and at a maximum at full-load when current flow is at maximum.
A transformers VA rating can be increased by better design and
transformer construction to reduce these core and copper losses.
Transformers with high voltage and current ratings require conductors of
large cross-section to help minimize their copper losses. Increasing the
rate of heat dissipation (better cooling) by forced air or oil, or by
improving the transformers insulation so that it will withstand higher
temperatures can also increase a transformers VA rating.
In the next tutorial about Transformers we will look at Transformer
Loading of the secondary winding with respect to an electrical load and
see the effect a “NO-load” and a “ON-load” connected transformer has
on the primary winding current.
Types of Transformer

1. Position of the windings with respect to the core( On the

basis of construction)

 Core type
 Shell type

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2. According to the transformation ratio or number of turns
in the windings ( On the basis of their purpose)

 Step up transformer
 Step down transformer

3. Types of services

 Power transformer
 Distribution transformer
 Instrument transformer
 Current transformer
 Potential transformer
 Auto transformer

4. On the basis of the supply

 Single phase
 Three phase

5. On the basis of cooling

 Air Natural (AN) or Self air cooled or dry type

 Air Forced (AF) or Air Blast type
 Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN)
 Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF)
 Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF)
 Oil Natural Water Forced (ONWF)
 Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF)

Working Principle of a Transformer

The basic principle on which the transformer works
is Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction or mutual
induction between the two coils. The working of the transformer
is explained below.

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The transformer consists of two separate windings placed
over the laminated silicon steel core. The winding to which
AC supply is connected is called primary winding and to
which load is connected is called secondary winding as
shown in the figure below. It works on the alternating
current only because an alternating flux is required for
mutual induction between the two windings.

When the AC supply is given to the primary winding with a

voltage of V1, an alternating flux ϕ sets up in the core of
the transformer, which links with the secondary winding
and as a result of it, an emf is induced in it called Mutually
Induced emf. The direction of this induced emf is opposite
to the applied voltage V1; this is because of the Lenz’s law
shown in the figure below

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 I1

Physically, there is no electrical connection between the

two windings, but they are magnetically
connected. Therefore, the electrical power is transferred
from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit through
mutual inductance. The induced emf in the primary and
secondary windings depends upon the rate of change of
flux linkage that is

(N dϕ/dt).

ϕd/dt is the change of flux and is same for both the

primary and secondary windings. The induced emf E1 in
the primary winding is proportional to the number of turns
N1 of the primary windings (E1 ∞ N1). Similarly induced
emf in the secondary winding is proportional to the
number of turns on the secondary side. (E2 ∞ N2).

Transformer on DC supply
As discussed above, the transformer works on AC supply,
and it cannot work not DC supply. If the rated DC voltage
is applied across the primary winding, a constant
magnitude flux will set up in the core of the transformer
and hence there will not be any self-induced emf
generation, as for the linkage of flux with the secondary

13
winding there must be an alternating flux required and not
a constant flux.

According to Ohm’s Law

The resistance of the primary winding is very low, and the

primary current is high. So this current is much higher
than the rated full load primary winding current. Hence,
as a result, the amount of heat produced will be greater
and therefore, eddy current loss (I2R) loss will be more.
Because of this, the insulations of the primary windings
will get burnt, and the transformer will be damaged.

Turn Ratio
It is defined as the ratio of primary to secondary turns.

If N2 > N1 the transformer is called Step up transformer

If N2 < N1 the transformer is called Step down transformer

Transformation Ratio
The transformation ratio is defined as the ratio of the
secondary voltage to the primary voltage. It is denoted by
K.

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Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer is one which has no ohmic resistance and no
magnetic leakage flux that means 100% flux passes through the core and
links with the primary as well as with the secondary winding. It has no
iron and copper losses. There are two purely inductive coils in the Ideal
Transformer, which are wound on a core. As in Ideal transformer, there
are no losses. Hence, the core of the transformer is free from the losses.

The resistance of the winding is zero, and there is no

leakage reactance. The core of the transformer is infinitely
permeable. It is an imaginary transformer and practically
it is not possible for a transformer to behave as an ideal
transformer. In an ideal transformer, there is no power
loss. Therefore, the output power is equal to the input
power.

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Since E2 ∞ N2 and E1 ∞ N1, also E1 is similar to V1 and
E2 is similar to V2

Therefore, transformation ratio will be given by the

equation shown below

The primary and the secondary currents are inversely

proportional to their respective turns.

EMF Equation of a Transformer

When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary winding of a
transformer, alternating flux ϕm sets up in the iron core of the transformer.
This sinusoidal flux links with both primary and secondary winding. The
function of flux is a sine function. The rate of change of flux with respect
to time is derived mathematically.

EMF Equation of the transformer is shown below

Let

 ϕm be the maximum value of flux in Weber

 f be the supply frequency in Hz
 N1 is the number of turns in the primary winding
 N2 is the number of turns in the secondary winding

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 Φ is the flux per turn in Weber

As shown in the above figure that the flux changes from +

ϕm to – ϕm in half a cycle of 1/2f seconds.

By Faraday’s Law

et E1 is the emf induced in the primary winding

Where Ψ = N1ϕ

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Since ϕ is due to AC supply ϕ = ϕm Sinwt

So the induced emf lags flux by 90 degrees.

Maximum valve of emf

But w = 2πf

Root mean square RMS value is

Putting the value of E1max in equation (6) we get

Putting the value of π = 3.14 in the equation (7) we will

get the value of E1 as

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Similarly

Now, equating the equation (8) and (9) we get

The above equation is called the turn ratio where K is

known as transformation ratio.

The equation (8) and (9) can also be written as shown

below using the relation

(ϕm = Bm x Ai) where Ai is the iron area and Bm is the

maximum value of flux density.

For a sinusoidal wave

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21
21
Example .2

An ideal transformer with a 300 turn primary connected to a 400 V,

50 Hz supply line needs to output 220 V from the secondary. If a
100 Ω resistor is connected across the secondary, determine: A)
How many turns the secondary must have to output the desired
voltage. B) The current through the resistor, C)The current drawn
through the primary. D) The maximum flux in the core of the
transformer

Solution:
Part A:

The ratio of primary voltage to secondary voltage is directly proportional to the ratio of
number of turns on the primary to number of turns on the secondary:

Where Voltage across primary, Voltage across secondary, Number

of turns in primary, Number of turns in secondary

To solve for the number of turns required for the secondary, the equation is rearranged
solving for :

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Part B:

The voltage across the secondary is given in the problem statement as 120 volts. Using
ohms law, , we can solve for the current in the loop ( ).

Where Current through secondary, Voltage across secondary, Load

Resistor ( 100 Ω)

Part C:

The ratio of primary current to secondary current is inversely proportional to the ratio of
number of turns on the primary to number of turns on the secondary:

Where Current in primary, Current in secondary, Number of turns in

primary, Number of turns in secondary

Rearranging to solve for :

Part D:

The induced emf of the secondary can be calculated by: for , we can calculate the

maximum flux in the core:

Where max flux in core, Voltage across secondary, Frequency of

line, Number of turns in secondary

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Phasor Diagram of Ideal Transformer

Consider an ideal transformer whose secondary side is

open circuited that means the load is not connected in the
secondary side of the transformer as shown in the figure
below.

When the primary side is connected to the sinusoidal

alternating voltage V1, a current Im known as magnetizing
current flows through it. These current sets up the
alternating flux ϕ or mutual flux ϕm in the core and
magnetize it. Hence, it is called Magnetizing current. The
flux ϕm is proportional to the current Im and is in phase
with it. As the primary coil is purely inductive the
magnetizing current (Im) lags behind the applied voltage
V1 by 90◦.

The above all discussion done is represented by the

phasor diagram shown below.

24
Phasor Diagram of an Ideal Transformer

The alternating flux links with both the primary and the
secondary winding. When it links with the primary
winding, it produces self-induced emf E1 which is in the
opposite direction to the applied voltage V1. Similarly,
when this alternating flux links with the secondary winding
it produces induced emf E2known as mutually induced emf
in the opposite direction to the applied voltage. Both
E1 and E2 lags behind the flux ϕ by 90◦.

Then we can define an ideal transformer as having:

 No Hysteresis loops or Hysteresis losses → 0
 Infinite Resistivity of core material giving zero Eddy current
losses → 0
 Zero winding resistance giving zero I2R copper losses → 0

25
Transformer on No Load Condition
When the transformer is operating at no load, the secondary winding is
open circuited, which means there is no load on the secondary side of the
transformer and, therefore, current in the secondary will be zero, while
primary winding carries a small current I0 called no load current which is
2 to 10% of the rated current. This current is responsible for supplying the
iron losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses) in the core and a very
small amount of copper losses in the primary winding. The angle of lag
depends upon the losses in the transformer. The power factor is very low
and varies from 0.1 to 0.15.

The no load current consists of two components

 Reactive or magnetizing component Im


(It is in quadrature with the applied voltage V1. It
produces flux in the core and does not consume any
power)

 Active or power component Iw, also known as working

component
(It is in phase with the applied voltage V1. It supplies

26
 the iron losses and a small amount of primary copper
loss).

The following steps are given below to draw the phasor

diagram.

1. The function of the magnetizing component is to produce

the magnetizing flux, and thus, it will be in phase with the flux.

2. Induced emf in the primary and the secondary winding lags

the flux ϕ by 90 degrees.

3. The primary copper loss is neglected, and secondary current

losses are zero as I2 = 0. Therefore, the current I0 lags behind
the voltage vector V1 by an angle ϕ0 called no-load power factor
angle shown in the phasor diagram above.

4 .The applied voltage V1 is drawn equal and opposite to the

induced emf E1 because the difference between the two, at no
load, is negligible.

5. Active component Iw is drawn in phase with the applied

voltage V1

The phasor sum of magnetizing current Im and the working

current Iw gives the no load current I0.

27
28
Example 3. A 230 VI 115 V single-phase transformer takes a
no-load current of 2 A at a power factor of 0.2 lagging with
low voltage winding kept open. If the

low voltage winding is now loaded to take a current of 15 A

at 0.8 power factor lagging find the current taken by high
voltage winding.

Solutlon. Primary, E1 = V1 = 230 V

Secondary, E2 = V2 = 115 V
No-load current 10 = 2 A
No-load power factor, cos ɸ0 = 0.2 or ɸ0 = 78.46° or 78°
29′
Load power factor, cos ɸ2 = 0.8 or ɸ2 = 36.9° or 36° 54′
Current taken by h.v, winding, I1:
Now, transformation ratio,

Hence, current taken by h.v., winding

I1 = 9.09 A. (Ans.)

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Example 4. The number of turns on the primary and
secondary windings of a transformer are 1000 and 200
respectively. When the load current on the secondary is 100
A at 0.8 power factor lagging, the primary current is 30 A at
0.707 power factor lagging. Determine the no-load current
of the transformer and its phase with respect to the voltage.
Solution. Primary turns N1 = 1000
Secondary turns, N2 = 200
Secondary current I2 = 100
Power factor, cos ɸ2 = 0.8 or ɸ2 = 36.9° or 36°54’
Primary current, I1 = 30 A
Power factor, cos ɸ1 = 0.707 or ɸ1 = 45°
No-load current, I0, ɸ0:

Refer Fig. 43. I1 is the vector sum of I0 and I2’. Let I0 lag
behind V1 by an angle ɸ0.
Resolving currents into their X and Y components, we get
I0 cos ɸ0 + 20 cos 36.9° = 30 cos 45°
I0 cos ɸ0 = 30 cos 45° – 20 cos 36.9°
= 21.21 – 16 = 5.21 A (i)
I0 sin ɸ0 + 20 sin 36.9° = 30 sin 45°
I0 sin ɸ0 = 30 sin 45° – 20 sin 36.9°

= 21.21 – 12 = 9.21 A (ii)

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From (i) and (ii), we get

Hence, no-load current = 10.58 A

and ɸ0 = 60.5°.

31
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer
Referred to Primary
For drawing equivalent circuit of transformer referred to
primary, first we have to establish general equivalent circuit of
transformer then, we will modify it for referring from primary side.
For doing this, first we need to recall the complete vector diagram
of a transformer which is shown in the figure below. Let us consider
the transformation ratio be,

In the figure above, the applied voltage to the primary is V1 and

voltage across the primary winding is E1. Total current supplied to
primary is I1. So the voltage V1 applied to the primary is partly
dropped by I1Z1 or I1R1 + j.I1X1 before it appears across primary
winding. The voltage appeared across winding is countered by
primary induced emf E1. So voltage equation of this portion of the
transformer can be written as,

The equivalent circuit for that equation can be drawn as below,

From the vector diagram above, it is found that the total primary
current I1 has two components, one is no - load component Io and
the other is load component I2′. As this primary current has two
components or branches, so there must be a parallel path with
primary winding of transformer. This parallel path of current is
known as excitation branch of equivalent circuit of transformer. The
resistive and reactive branches of the excitation circuit can be
represented as

32
The load component I2′ flows through the primary winding of
transformer and induced voltage across the winding is E1 as shown
in the figure right. This induced voltage E1 transforms to secondary
and it is E2 and load component of primary current I2′ is
transformed to secondary as secondary current I2. Current of
secondary is I2. So the voltage E2 across secondary winding is partly
dropped by I2Z2 or I2R2 + j.I2X2 before it appears across load. The
load voltage is V2.
The complete equivalent circuit of transformer is shown below.

Now if we see the voltage drop in secondary from primary side,

then it would be ′K′ times greater and would be written as K.Z 2.I2.
Again I2′.N1 = I2.N2

Therefore,

From above equation, secondary impedance of transformer referred

to primary is,

33
So, the complete equivalent circuit of transformer referred to
primary is shown in the figure below,

Approximate Equivalent Circuit of Transformer

Since Io is very small compared to I1, it is less than 5% of full load
primary current, Io changes the voltage drop insignificantly. Hence,
it is good approximation to ignore the excitation circuit in
approximate equivalent circuit of transformer. The winding
resistance and reactance being in series can now be combined into
equivalent resistance and reactance of transformer, referred to any
particular side. In this case it is side 1 or primary side.

34
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer
Referred to Secondary
In similar way, approximate equivalent circuit of transformer
referred to secondary can be drawn. Where equivalent impedance
of transformer referred to secondary, can be derived as

Example 1.A 30 kVA, 2000/200V, single-phase, 50 Hz

transformer has a primary resistance of 3.5 and reactance 5
Ω.The secondary resistance and reactance are 0.015 Ω and
0.02 Ω respectively. Find:
(i) Equivalent resistance, reactance and impedance referred
to primary.
(ii) Equivalent resistance, reactance and impedance referred
to secondary.
(iii) Total copper loss of the transformer.
Solution. Primary resistance, R1 = 3.5 Ω
Primary reactance, X1 = 4.5 Ω
Secondary resistance, R2 = 0.015 Ω
Secondary reactance, X2 = 0.02 Ω

35
copper loss = I22 R02 = 1502 × 0.05 = 1125 W. (Total Ans.)

36
Example 2. The full load copper loss on h.v. side of 100
kVA, 11000/317 V 1-phase transformer is 0.62 kW and on
the l.v. side is 0.48 kW.
(i) Calculate R1, R2 and R2’ in ohms:
(ii) The total reactance is 4 percent, find X1, X2 and X2’ in
ohms if the reactance is divided in the same proportion as
resistance.

37
38
Example 3. A 12 kVA 4000/400 V transformer has primary
and secondary winding resistance of 13 Ω and 0.15 Ωand
leakage reactance of 20 Ωand 0.25 Ω respectively. The
magnetising reactance is 6000 Ω and the resistance
representing core loss is 12000 Ω. Determine :
(i) Equivalent resistance and reactance as referred to
primary.
(ii) Input current with secondary terminals open circuited.
(iii) Input current when the secondary load current is 30 A
at 0.8 power factor lagging.

39
41
Theory of Transformer on Load
With no resistive and leakage reactace.

Now we will examine the behavior of above said

transformer on load, that means load is connected to
the secondary terminals. Consider, transformer having
core loss but no copper loss and leakage reactance.
Whenever load is connected to the secondary winding,
load current will start to flow through the load as well as
secondary winding. This load current solely depends upon
the characteristics of the load and also upon secondary
voltage of the transformer. This current is called
secondary current or load current, here it is denoted as I2.
As I2 is flowing through the secondary, a self mmf in
secondary winding will be produced. Here it is N2I2, where,
N2 is the number of turns of the secondary winding of
transformer.

This mmf or magneto motive force in the secondary

winding produces flux φ2. This φ2 will oppose the main
magnetizing flux and momentarily weakens the main flux
41
and tries to reduce primary self induced emf E1. If E1 falls
down below the primary source voltage V1, there will be
an extra current flowing from source to primary winding.
This extra primary current I2′ produces extra flux φ′ in the
core which will neutralize the secondary counter flux φ2.
Hence the main magnetizing flux of core, Φ remains
unchanged irrespective of load.
So total current, this transformer draws from source can
be divided into two components, first one is utilized for
magnetizing the core and compensating the core loss i.e.
Io. It is no-load component of the primary current. Second
one is utilized for compensating the counter flux of the
secondary winding. It is known as load component of the
primary current. Hence total no load primary current I1 of
a electrical power transformer having no winding
resistance and leakage reactance can be represented as
follows

Where, θ2 is the angle between Secondary Voltage and

Secondary Current of transformer. Now we will proceed
one further step toward more practical aspect of a
transformer.
Theory of Transformer On Load, With Resistive
Winding, But No Leakage Reactance
Now, consider the winding resistance of transformer but
no leakage reactance. So far we have discussed about the
transformer which has ideal windings, means winding with
no resistance and leakage reactance, but now we will

42
consider one transformer which has internal resistance in
the winding but no leakage reactance. As the windings are
resistive, there would be a voltage drop in the windings.

We have proved earlier that, total primary current from

the source on load is I1. The voltage drop in the primary
winding with resistance, R1 is R1I1. Obviously, induced emf
across primary winding E1, is not exactly equal to source
voltage V1. E1 is less than V1 by voltage drop I1R1.

Again in the case of secondary, the voltage induced across

the secondary winding, E2 does not totally appear across
the load since it also drops by an amount I2R2, where R2 is
the secondary winding resistance and I2 is secondary
current or load current.
Similarly, voltage equation of the secondary side of the
transformer will be

Theory of Transformer On Load, With Resistance As

Well As Leakage Reactance in Transformer Windings
Now we will consider the condition, when there is leakage
reactance of transformer as well as winding resistance of

43
transformer. Let leakage reactances of primary and
secondary windings of the transformer are X1 and X2
respectively. Hence total impedance of primary and
secondary winding of transformer with resistance R1 and
R2 respectively, can be represented as,

We have already established the voltage equation of a

transformer on load, with only resistances in the
windings, where voltage drops in the windings occur only
due to resistive voltage drop. But when we consider
leakage reactances of transformer windings, voltage drop
occurs in the winding not only because of resistance, it is
because of impedance of transformer windings. Hence,
actual voltage equation of a transformer can easily be
determined by just replacing resistances R1 & R2 in the
previously established voltage equations by Z1 and Z2.
Therefore, the voltage equations are,

Resistance drops are in the direction of current vector but,

reactive drop will be perpendicular to the current vector
as shown in the above vector diagram of transformer.

44
Example 13. A single phase transformer has the following
data:
Turn ratio 20: 1; R1= 20Ω ,X1 = 80 Ω
R2 = 0.04 Ω,X2 = 0.2 Ω
No-load current = 1.2 A leading the flux by 300.
The secondary delivers 180 A at a terminal voltage of 400 V
and at a power factor of 0.8 lagging.
Determine by the aid of a vector diagram:
(i) The primary applied voltage.
(ii) The primary power factor
(iii) The efficiency.
Solution. Refer Fig. 44:
(i) Primary applied voltage, V1 :

Taking V2 as the reference vector

45
46
(ii) Primary power factor, cosɸ1 :
Phase angle between V1 and I1,
ɸ1= Primary power factor = =7.303 (lag). (Ans.)
(iii) Efficiency:
No-load primary input power
= V1I₀ cos ɸ₀= 9269 × 1.2 × cos( 60) = 5561.4 W

Total copper losses as referred to secondary

= I22R02 = (180)2 × 0.09 = 2916 w
Output = V2I2 cos ɸ2 = 400 × 180 × 0.8 = 57600 W
Total losses = 5561.4 + 2916 = 8477.4 W
Input = Output + Losses = 57600 + 8477.4 = 66077.4 W

EXAMPLE 14. The high voltage and low voltage windings of

a 2200/220 V single-phase 50 Hz transformer has
resistances of 4.8 Ω and 0.04 Ω and reactance 2 Ω and
0.018Ω respectively. The low voltage winding is connected
to a load having an impedance of (6+j4) Ω. Determine:
(i) Current in l.v. winding,
(ii) current in h.v. winding
(iii) load voltage, and
(iv) Power consumed by the load.
Solution. Primary resistance. R1 = 4.8 Ω
Primary reactance, X1 = 2 Ω
Secondary resistance, R2 = 0.04 Ω
Secondary reactance, X2 = 0.018 Ω
Impedance of load, ZL = (6+j4)

47
48
Types of Losses in a Transformer
There are various types of losses in the transformer such as iron losses,
copper losses, hysteresis losses, eddy current losses, stray loss, and
dielectric losses. The various types of losses are explained below in
detail.

Iron Losses

Iron losses are caused by alternating flux in the core of

the transformer as this loss occurs in the core it is also
known as Core loss. Iron loss is further divided into
hysteresis and eddy current loss.

Hysteresis Loss
The core of the transformer is subjected to an alternating
magnetizing force and for each cycle of emf, a hysteresis
loop is traced out. Power is dissipated in the form of heat
known as hysteresis loss and given by the equation shown
below

Where

49
 KȠ is a proportionality constant which depends upon the
volume and quality of the material of the core used in
the transformer.
 f is the supply frequency
 Bmax is the maximum or peak value of the flux density

The iron or core losses can be minimized by using silicon

steel material for the construction of the core of the
transformer.

Eddy Current Loss

When the flux links with a closed circuit, an emf is induced
in the circuit and the current flows, the value of the
current depends upon the amount of emf around the
circuit and the resistance of the circuit. Since the core is
made of conducting material, these EMFs, circulates
currents within the body of the material. These circulating
currents are called Eddy Currents. They will occur when
the conductor experiences a changing magnetic field. As
these currents are not responsible for doing any useful
work, and it produces a loss (I2R loss) in the magnetic
material known as an Eddy Current Loss.
The eddy current loss is minimized by making the core
with thin laminations.

The equation of the eddy current loss is given as

Where,

 Ke – co-efficient of eddy current. Its value depends upon

the nature of magnetic material like volume and
resistivity of core material, thickness of laminations
 Bm – maximum value of flux density in wb/m2
 T – thickness of lamination in meters
 F – frequency of reversal of magnetic field in Hz

51
 V – volume of magnetic material in m3

Copper Loss Or Ohmic Loss

These losses occur due to ohmic resistance of the
transformer windings. If I1 and I2 are the primary and the
secondary current. R1 and R2 are the resistance of primary
and secondary winding then the copper losses occurring in
the primary and secondary winding will be I12R1 and
I22R2 respectively.

Therefore, the total copper losses will be

These losses vary according to the load and known hence

it is also known as variable losses. Copper losses vary as
the square of the load current.

Stray Loss
The occurrence of these stray losses is due to the
presence of leakage field. The percentage of these losses
is very small as compared to the iron and copper losses so
they can be neglected.

Dielectric Loss
Dielectric loss occurs in the insulating material of the
transformer that is in the oil of the transformer, or in the
solid insulations. When the oil gets deteriorated or the
solid insulation get damaged, or its quality decreases and
because of this, the efficiency of transformer is effected.

Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Inductive Load

The phasor diagram of the actual transformer when it is
loaded inductively is shown below

51
Phasor Diagram of the Transformer on Inductive Load

Steps to draw the phasor diagram

 Take flux ϕ a reference

 Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the flux by 90 degrees.
 The component of the applied voltage to the primary
equal and opposite to induced emf in the primary
winding. E1 is represented by V1’.
 Current I0 lags the voltage V1’ by 90 degrees.
 The power factor of the load be lagging. Therefore
current I2 is drawn lagging E2 by an angle ϕ2.
 The resistance and the leakage reactance of the
windings result in a voltage drop and hence secondary
terminal voltage V2 is the phasor difference of E2 and
voltage drop.
52
V2 = E2 – voltage drops

I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2X2 is in quadrature with I2.

 The total current flowing in the primary winding is the

phasor sum of I1’ and I0.
 Primary applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of V1’ and
the voltage drop in the primary winding.
 Current I1’ is drawn equal and opposite to the current I2

V1 = V1’ + voltage drop

I1R1 is in phase with I1 and I1XI is in quadrature with I1.

 The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the

power factor angle ϕ1 of the primary side of the
transformer.
 The power factor of the secondary side depends upon
the type of load connected to the transformer.
 If the load is inductive as shown in the above phasor
diagram, the power factor will be lagging, and if the
load is capacitive the power factor will be leading.
Where, I1R1 is the resistive drop in the primary windings
I2X2 is the reactive drop in the secondary winding

Similarly

Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Capacitive Load

The Transformer on Capacitive load (leading power factor
load) is shown below in the phasor diagram.

53
Phasor Diagram of the Transformer on Capacitive Load

Steps to draw the phasor diagram at capacitive load

 Take flux ϕ a reference

 Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the flux by 90 degrees.
 The component of the applied voltage to the primary
equal and opposite to induced emf in the primary
winding. E1 is represented by V1’.
 Current I0 lags the voltage V1’ by 90 degrees.
 The power factor of the load be leading. Therefore
current I2 is drawn leading E2
 The resistance and the leakage reactance of the
windings result in a voltage drop and hence secondary

54
 terminal voltage V2 is the phasor difference of E2 and
voltage drop.

V2 = E2 – voltage drops

I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2X2 is in quadrature with I2.

 Current I1’ is drawn equal and opposite to the current I2

 The total current I1 flowing in the primary winding is the
phasor sum of I1’ and I0.
 Primary applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of V1’ and
the voltage drop in the primary winding.

V1 = V1’ + voltage drop

I1R1 is in phase with I1 and I1XI is in quadrature with I1.

 The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power

factor angle ϕ1 of the primary side of the transformer.

 The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type
of load connected to the transformer.

Voltage Regulation of a Transformer

Definition The voltage regulation is the percentage of
voltage difference between no load and full load voltages
of a transformer with respect to its full load voltage.

When the Transformer is loaded with a constant supply

voltage, the terminal voltage changes depending upon the
load and its power factor. The algebraic difference
between the no-load and full load terminal voltage is
measured in terms of voltage regulation.

55
where,
E2 – secondary terminal voltage at no load

V2 – secondary terminal voltage at full load

When all the quantities are referred to the primary side of

the transformer, the voltage regulation equation becomes

Let us understand the voltage regulation by taking an

example explained below

If the secondary side of the transformer is open circuited

meaning, no load is connected to the secondary side of
the transformer then I2 = 0 that means the secondary
current will not flow in the circuit.If there is no secondary
current flowing the circuit, there will be no voltage drops
across the resistive and reactive components of the
secondary side of the transformer. The primary side
voltage drop is almost negligible.

Now if the transformer works on full load, that means the

load is connected to the secondary side of the
transformer, the voltage drop appears, but the value of
the voltage regulation from no load to full load should be

56
less for the better performance of the transformer.

From the circuit diagram shown above, the following

conclusions are made

 The primary voltage should always be greater than the

induced emf on the primary side of the transformer.
V1>E1

 The secondary terminal voltage at no load is always be

greater than the secondary voltage at full load. E2>V2

Considering the above circuit diagram the following

equations are drawn

The approximate expression for the no-load secondary

voltage for the different types of load is:

Voltage Regulation of Transformer for Lagging

Power Factor
Now we will derive the expression of voltage regulation in
detail. Say lagging power factor of the load is cosθ2, that
means angle between secondary current and voltage is θ2

57
Here, from the above diagram,

Angle between OC and OD

may be very small, so it can be neglected and OD is
considered nearly equal to OC i.e.

Voltage regulation of transformer at lagging power

factor,

58
Voltage Regulation of Transformer for Leading
Power Factor
Let's derive the expression of voltage regulation with
leading current, say leading power factor of the load is
cosθ2, that means angle between secondary current and
voltage is θ2.

Here, from the above diagram,

Angle between OC and OD

may be very small, so it can be neglected and OD is
considered nearly equal to OC i.e.

Voltage regulation of
transformer at leading power factor,

59
61
Example 2. The primary and secondary winding resistance of
a 30 kVA, 6600/250 V single-phase transformer are
8 Ω and 0.015 Ω respectively. The equivalent leakage
reactance as referred to the primary winding is 30 Ω. Find
the full-load regulation for load power factors of:
(i) Unity
(ii) 0.8 Lagging
(iii) 0.8 leading

61
62
Transformer Efficiency
The Efficiency of the transformer is defined as the ratio of useful power
output to the input power, the two being measured in the same unit. Its
unit is either in Watts (W) or KW. Transformer efficiency is denoted by
Ƞ.

Where,

 V2 – Secondary terminal voltage

 I2 – Full load secondary current
 Cosϕ2 – power factor of the load
 Pi – Iron losses = hysteresis losses + eddy current
losses
 Pc – Full load copper losses = I22Res

If x is the fraction of the full load, the transformer

efficiency at this fraction is given by the relation shown
below

The copper losses vary according to the fraction of the

load.

63
Maximum Efficiency Condition of a Transformer
The transformer efficiency at a given load and power
factor is given by the relation shown below

The value of the terminal voltage V2 is approximately

constant. Thus, for a given power factor the Transformer
efficiency depends upon the load current I2. In the
equation (1) shown above the numerator is constant and
the transformer efficiency will be maximum if the
denominator with respect to the variable I2 is equated to
zero.

i.e Copper losses = Iron losses

Thus, the efficiency of a transformer will be maximum

when the copper or variable losses are equal to iron or
constant losses.

From equation (2) the value of output current I2 at which

the transformer efficiency will be maximum is given as
64
If x is the fraction of full load KVA at which the efficiency
of the transformer is maximum

Then, copper losses = x2Pc (where Pc is the full load

copper losses)

Iron losses = Pi

For maximum efficiency x2 Pc = Pi

Therefore, Output KVA corresponding to maximum

efficiency

Putting the value of x from the above equation (3) in

equation (4) we will get

65
The above equation (5) is the maximum efficiency
condition of a transformer

Open Circuit and Short Circuit Test on Transformer

In order to determine the parameters of a transformer such as voltage regulation and
efficiency, the following two tests are carried out.

Open Circuit Test

The Open circuit test is carried out to determine the no-
load loss or core loss or iron loss. No load current I0,
which is helpful in finding the no load parameters R0 and
X0 of the transformer. This test is usually carried out on
the low voltage (LV) side of the transformer that is a watt
meter (W), a voltmeter (V) and an ammeter (A) are
connected to the primary side of the transformer as
shown in the figure below. The primary winding is
connected to the normal rated voltage V1 and frequency
as given of the nameplate rating of the transformer. The
secondary side of the transformer is kept open circuited.

66
 Circuit Diagram of Open Circuit Test on Transformer

As the high voltage side (HV) of the transformer is open

circuited, the current drawn by the primary is no load
current I0 which is measured by an ammeter
connected.The value of no-load current is very small
usually 2 to 10% of the rated full load current. Thus, there
is no copper loss on the secondary side as it is open
circuited and in the primary winding, the copper loss
occurring are very small. Therefore, the wattmeter
reading W0 only represents the core or iron losses. The
voltmeter V’ connected to the secondary side measures
the secondary induced voltage V2.

Calculation of open circuit test

Let,

 W0 – wattmeter reading
 V1 – voltmeter reading
 I0 – ammeter reading

67
Then the iron loss of the transformer Pi = W0 and

The no-load power factor is

Working component Iw is

Putting the value of W0 from the equation (1) in equation

(2) you will get the value of working component as

Magnetizing component is

No load parameters are given below

Equivalent exciting resistance is

Equivalent exciting reactance is

68
The phasor diagram of transformer at no load or when an
open circuit test is performed is shown below

Phasor Diagram of Open Circuit Test

The iron losses measured by the open circuit test is used

for calculating the efficiency of the transformer.

Short Circuit Test

The short circuit test is performed to determine the
copper losses at full load, which is further required for the

69
calculation of the efficiency of the transformer. This test
also helps in determining the equivalent impedance (Zes
or Zep), resistance (Res or Rep) and the leakage
reactance (Xes or Xep) of the transformer referred to the
winding in which the measuring instruments are
connected. By knowing these parameters the voltage drop
can be calculated and thus voltage regulation can be
determined.

The circuit diagram of the short circuit test is shown below

Circuit Diagram of Short Circuit Test on Transformer

The short circuit test is usually carried out on the high

voltage (HV) side of the transformer. The watt meter (W),
a voltmeter (V) and an ammeter (A) are connected to the
secondary side of the transformer as shown in the above
figure. the primary side is short circuited. With the help of
an autotransformer, a low voltage at the normal
frequency is applied to the secondary side of the
transformer so that full load current flows in both the
windings of the transformer. The full load current is
measured by ammeters connected.

As a low voltage is applied on the HV side, which is 5 to

10% of the normal rated voltage. Therefore, the value of
the flux which is set up in the core is also small, about
71
1/30th to 1/8th of the normal flux. Hence, the iron losses
are negligibly small due to the low value of flux and thus
the wattmeter Wconly measures the copper loss in the
transformer windings.

Calculation of Short Circuit Test

Let,

 Wc – Wattmeter reading
 V2sc – voltmeter reading
 I2sc – ammeter reading

Then the full load copper loss of the transformer is given

by

Equivalent resistance referred to secondary side is

The phasor diagram of the short circuit test of the

transformer is shown below

71
 Phasor Diagram of Short Circuit Test

From the phasor diagram

Equivalent impedance referred to the secondary side is

given by

The Equivalent reactance referred to the secondary side is

given by

The voltage regulation of the transformer can be

determined at any load and power factor after knowing
the values of Zes and Res.

In the short circuit test the wattmeter record, the total

losses including core loss but the value of core loss is very

72
small as compared to copper loss so, the core loss can be
neglected.

Example 4. The parameters of the equivalent circuit of a 100

kVA, 2000/200 volt single-phase transformer are as follows
:
Primary resistance = 0.2 Ω
Secondary resistance = 2 mΩ.
Primary leakage reactance = 0.45 Ω;
Secondary leakage reactance = 4.5 m Ω.
Core loss resistance = 10 k Ω;
Magnetizing reactance = 1.55 k Ω.
Using the circuit referred to primary, determine the :
(i) Voltage regulation.
(ii) Efficiency of the transformer operating at rated load with
0.8 lagging power factor.

Solution. Given : Rating 100 kVA

R1 = 0.2 Ω, X1 = 0.45 Ω
R2 = 0.002 Ω, X2 = 0.0045 Ω
R0 = 10000 Ω,X0 = 1550 Ω
(i) Voltage regulation:

73
74
Polarity Test of Transformer
Polarity means the direction of the induced voltages in the
primary and the secondary winding of the transformer. If the
two transformers are connected in parallel, then the polarity
should be known for the proper connection of the transformer.
There are two types of polarity one is Additive, and another
is Subtractive.

75
Additive Polarity: In additive polarity the same
terminals of the primary and the secondary windings of
the transformer are connected

Subtractive Polarity: In subtractive polarity different

terminals of the primary and secondary side of the
transformer is connected.

Explanation With Connection Diagram

Each of the terminals of the primary as well as the
secondary winding of a transformer is alternatively
positive and negative with respect to each other as shown
in the figure below. Let A1 and A2 be the positive and
negative terminal respectively of the transformer primary
and a1, a2 are the positive and negative terminal of the
secondary side of the transformer.

If A1 is connected to a1 and A2 is connected to a2 that

means similar terminals of the transformer are connected,

76
then the polarity is said to be additive. If A1 is connected
to a2 and A2 to a1, that means the opposite terminals are
connected to each other, and thus the voltmeter will read
the subtractive polarity.

Circuit Diagram of Polarity Test of Transformer

It is essential to know the relative polarities at any instant

of the primary and the secondary terminals for making the
correct connections if the transformers are to be
connected in parallel or they are used in a three phase
circuit.

In the primary side, the terminals are marked as A1 and

A2 and from the secondary side the terminals are named
as a1 and a2. The terminal A1 is connected to one end of
the secondary winding, and a voltmeter is connected
between A2 and the other end of the secondary winding.

When the voltmeter reads the difference that is (V1 – V2),

the transformer is said to be connected with opposite
polarity know as Subtractive polarity and when the
voltmeter reads (V1 + V2), the transformer is said to have
additive polarity.

77
Steps to Perform Polarity Test

 Connect the circuit as shown in the above circuit

diagram figure and set the autotransformer to zero
position.
 Switch on the single phase supply
 Records the values of the voltages as shown by the
voltmeter V1, V2 and V3.
 If the reading of the V3 shows the addition of the value
of V1 and V2 that is V2 = V1+V2 the transformer is said to
be connected in additive polarity.
 If the reading of the V3 is the subtraction of the
readings of V1 and V2, then the transformer is said to be
connected in subtractive or negative polarity.

78
All Day Efficiency of a Transformer
Definition: The all day efficiency is defined as the ratio of output in kilo
watt hour (KWh) or watt hour (Wh) to the input in kWh or Wh of a
transformer over 24 hours.

Simply the ordinary or commercial efficiency of a transformer is defined

as the ratio of the output power to the input power.

Some transformer efficiency cannot be judged by simple

commercial efficiency as the load on certain transformer
fluctuates throughout the day. For example, the
distribution transformers are energized for 24 hours, but
they deliver very light loads for the major portion of the
day, and they does not supply rated or full load and most
of the time the distribution transformer has 50 to 75%
load on it.

As we know, there are various losses in the transformer

such as iron and copper loss. The iron loss takes place in
the core of the transformer. Thus, the iron or core loss
occurs for the whole day in the distribution transformer.
The second type of loss known as copper loss takes place
in the windings of the transformer also known as variable
loss. It occurs only when the transformers are in the
loaded condition.

Hence, the performance of such transformers cannot be

judged by the commercial or ordinary efficiency, but the
efficiency is calculated or judged by All Day Efficiency also
known as operational efficiency or energy efficiency which

79
 is computed on the basis of energy consumed during a
period of 24 hours.

To find this all day efficiency, firstly you have to know the
load cycle of the transformer

Cooling of Transfomer and Methods of Cooling

Cooling of Transformer is the process by which heat generated in the
transformer is dissipated or treated to the safe value. This is achieved by
various cooling methods of transformer available. The major factor for
the generation of heat in the transformer is the various losses like
hysteresis, eddy current, iron, and copper loss. Among all the various
losses the major contributor of the heat generation is the copper loss or
I2R loss.

If the temperature of the transformer will continue to

increase rapidly, it will result in the degradation of the
insulation used in the transformer resulting in the
damaging of the various parts and hence the failure of the
transformer. Thus, proper removal or treatment of heat is
necessary for the efficient working, longer life and higher
efficiency of the transformer.

The various coolant used for the cooling purpose of the

transformer are air, synthetic oils, mineral oils, gas,
water.

Basically, there are two types of transformer one is

the dry type and another one is oil immersed type. For
the cooling of transformers, the following cooling methods
listed below are used

1. Air Natural
2. Air Blast or forced
3. Oil Natural Air Natural
4. Oil Natural Air Forced
5. Oil Forced Air Forced
6. Oil Natural Water Forced
7. Oil Forced Water Forced

81
Methods of Cooling of Transformer
The detailed description of cooling methods, one by one is
given below

Dry Type Transformer is cooled by the following two

methods given below

Air Natural (AN)

By Air Natural method the generated heat in the
transformer is cooled by the circulation of natural air.
When the temperature of the transformer becomes higher
as compared to the temperature of the surrounding air,
thus by the process of natural convection heated air is
replaced by the cool air. This method is also known as a
self-cooled method. This method is used for cooling the
smaller output transformer rating that is up to 1.5 MVA.

Air Forced (AF) or Air Blast

In this method, the heat generated is cooled by the forced
air circulation method. With the help of fans and blowers,
high velocity of air is forced on the core and the windings
of the transformer. As the temperature inside the

81
transformer goes beyond the standard safe level, an
alarm is activated, and the fans and blowers are switched
ON automatically. this method is used for transformer
rating up to 15MVA.

Oil immersed type transformer is cooled by the oil

air cooling method and oil water cooling method.

Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN)

Natural convection process is used for this type of cooling.
The assembly of the core and windings are placed in the
oil immersed tank. As the core and the windings heat up
the temperature of the oil in the transformer rises. As a
result, the oil moves upward and flows from the upper
portion of the transformer tank. This hot oil dissipates
heat in the air by natural convection and conduction
process, the oil gets cooled by the circulation of natural air
and passes through the radiator again for the use of the
transformer. This type of cooling is used for the
transformer rating up to 30 MVA.

82
Oil Natural Air Natural Cooling of Transformer

Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF)

ONAF method is used for the cooling of the transformer of
rating up to 60 Mega volts ampere. As discussed above
that in ONAN method, the dissipation of heat is taking
place by the convection process in which air is naturally
circulated to cool down, but in this type, the forced air is
used for the purpose of cooling the transformer.

The cooling of oil will be faster if the area of the tank of

the transformer is increased finally which result in the
increase in heat dissipation level. As the fans and blowers
are installed, a high velocity of air is forcefully applied to
the radiator and cooling towers which will help in cooling
oil more quickly and efficiently. Cost is higher as
compared to another process where the circulation of oil

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and air is done naturally because a fan and blowers are
attached as an extra cooling equipment in this method.

Oil Natural Air Forced Cooling of Transformer

Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF)

As the name itself says that both the oil and the air are
applied by force for cooling of a transformer. The Heat
Exchanger is installed through which hot oil is circulated
with the help of a pump. Air is forced to pass on the heat
exchanger with the help of high-speed fans. This method
is similar to ONAN, as when there is low load on the
transformer the cooling is done by a simple ONAN
method, and as soon as the load is increased, the
generated heat will also be more and therefore the sensor
gave an alarm that the dissipation of heat exceed the safe
value and as a result, the fans and pumps are switched on
automatically and thus the cooling takes place by OFAF
method.

84
 Oil Forced Air Forced Cooling of Transformer

Oil Natural Water Forced (ONWF)

In Oil Natural Water Force cooling method the transformer
core and the windings are immersed in the oil tank. A
radiator is installed outside the tank aa the temperature
rises and the oil heats up and moves upward the heat is
dissipated by the natural process of convection and oil is
passed through the radiator, but the water is pumped and
passed through the heat exchanger for cooling of the oil.

Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF)

A heat exchanger is installed through which both oil and
water are passed with the help of a pump. The level and
pressure of the oil are always kept higher than that of
water so that if any leakage occurs in the system the oil
mixes with the water but water does not get mixed up
with the oil. This type of method is suitable for large
capacity of the transformer having rating as several
hundred MVA or where banks of transformers are
installed. Mainly this type of cooling is done for the
transformer installed at the hydro power plant.

85
Oil Forced Water Forced Cooling of Transformer

Difference Between Power Transformer and Distribution Transformer

There are several differences between Powers
Transformer and Distribution Transformer. The difference is
categorized on the factors like the type of network used where
they are installed and used whether for low voltages or high
voltages. The various ratings in which the power and the
distribution transformers are available in the market. The
designed efficiency and the designing of their core, the types of
losses occurring in the transformer, their operating conditions,
and various applications.

86
Power Transformer
The Power Transformer is installed at various power stations for
generation and transmission of power. It acts as a step-up or a
step-down transformer for increasing and decreasing of the level of
voltages as per the requirement, and it’s also used as an
interconnection between two power stations.

Distribution Transformer
The Distribution Transformer is used to bring down or step down
the voltage and current level of a transmission line to a predefined
level, which is called safety level for the end user consumer in
domestic and industrial purpose.

Difference Between Power Transformer and Distribution Transformer

 Power transformers are used in transmission network of higher

voltages whereas the Distribution Transformers are used in the
distribution network of lower voltages.
 The power transformers are available in various ratings of 400
KV, 200 KV, 110 KV, 66 KV, 33 KV in the market and the
distribution transformer are available in 11 KV, 6.6 KV, 3.3 KV,
440 V, 230 Volts.
 The power transformer always operates on rated full load as the
load fluctuation is very less but the distribution transformer is
operated at the load less than full load as the variation in the
loads are very high.
 The power transformers are designed for maximum efficiency of
100%, and the efficiency is simply calculated by the ratio of
output power to the input power, whereas the distribution
transformer the maximum efficiency varies between 50-70% and
calculated by All Day Efficiency.
 Power transformers are used in power generating stations and
transmission substations, and the distribution transformer is
installed at the distribution stations from where the power is
distributed for the industrial and domestic purposes.
 The size of the power transformer is large as compared to the
distribution transformers.
 In Power Transformer, the iron and copper losses take place
throughout the day but in distribution transformer the iron loss
takes place 24 hours i.e., throughout the day, and the copper
losses depend on the load cycle.

87
Auto Transformer
An Auto Transformer is a transformer with only one winding wound on
a laminated core. An auto transformer is similar to a two winding
transformer but differ in the way the primary and secondary winding are
interrelated. A part of the winding is common to both primary and
secondary sides. On load condition, a part of the load current is obtained
directly from the supply and the remaining part is obtained by
transformer action. An Auto transformer works as a voltage regulator.

Explanation of Auto Transformer with Circuit Diagram

In an ordinary transformer, the primary and the
secondary windings are electrically insulated from each
other but connected magnetically as shown in the figure
below and in auto transformer the primary and the
secondary windings are connected magnetically as well as
electrically. In fact, a part of the single continuous winding
is common to both primary and secondary.

Figure A: Ordinary Two Winding Transformer

88
There are two types of auto transformer based on the
construction. In one type of transformer, there is
continuous winding with the taps brought out at
convenient points determined by desired secondary
voltage and in another type of auto transformer, there are
two or more distinct coils which are electrically connected
to form a continuous winding. The construction of Auto
transformer is shown in the figure below.

Figure B: Auto – Transformer

The primary winding AB from which a tapping at C is

taken, such that CB acts as a secondary winding. The
supply voltage is applied across AB, and the load is
connected across CB. The tapping may be fixed or
variable.When an AC voltage V1 is applied across AB, an
alternating flux is set up in the core, as a result, an emf

89
E1 is induced in the winding AB. A part of this induced emf
is taken in the secondary circuit.

Let,

 V1 – primary applied voltage

 V2 – secondary voltage across the load
 I1 – primary current
 I2 – load current
 N1 – number of turns between A and B
 N2 – number of turns between C and B

Neglecting no load current, leakage reactance and losses,

V1 = E1 and V2 = E2

Therefore the transformation ratio

As the secondary ampere-turns are opposite to primary

ampere turns, so the current I2 is in phase opposition to
I1. The secondary voltage is less than the primary.
Therefore current I2 is more than the current I1.
Therefore, the resulting current flowing through section
BC is (I2 – I1)

The ampere-turns due to section BC = current x turns

Equation (1) and (2) shows that the ampere turns due to

91
section BC and AC balance each other which is
characteristic of the transformer action.

Saving of Copper in Auto Transformer as Compared to Ordinary

Two Winding Transformer
The weight of the copper is proportional to the length and
area of a cross section of the conductor.

The length of the conductor is proportional to the number

of turns, and the cross section is proportional to the
product of current and number of turns.

Now, from the above figure (B) shown of the auto

transformer, the weight of copper required in an auto
transformer is

Wa = weight of copper in section AC + weight of copper in

section CB

Therefore

If the same duty is performed with an ordinary two

winding transformer shown above in the figure (A)

The total weight of the copper required in the ordinary

transformer

W0 = weight of copper on its primary winding + weight of

copper on its secondary winding

Therefore,

91
Now, the ratio of the weight of the copper in an auto
transformer to the weight of copper in an ordinary
transformer is given as

Saving of copper affected by using an auto transformer =

weight of copper required in an ordinary transformer –
weight of copper required in an auto transformer

Therefore,

Saving of copper = K x weight of copper required for two

windings of the transformer

Hence, saving in copper increases as the transformation

ratio approaches to unity. Hence the auto transformer is
used when the value of K is nearly equal to unity.

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Advantages of Auto transformer

 Less costly
 Better regulation
 Low losses as compared to ordinary two winding
transformer of the same rating.

Disadvantages of Auto transformer

There are various advantages of the auto transformer, but
then also one major disadvantage, why auto transformer
is not widely used, is that

 The secondary winding is not insulated from the primary

winding.
If an auto transformer is used to supply low voltage
from a high voltage and there is a break in the
secondary winding, the full primary voltage comes
across the secondary terminal which is dangerous to the
operator and the equipment. So the auto transformer
should not be used to for interconnecting high voltage
and low voltage system.

 Used only in the limited places where a slight variation

of the output voltage from input voltage is required.

Applications of Auto transformer

 It is used as a starter to give upto 50 to 60% of full

voltage to the stator of a squirrel cage induction motor
during starting.
 It is used to give a small boost to a distribution cable, to
correct the voltage drop.
 It is also used as a voltage regulator
 Used in power transmission and distribution system and
also in the audio system and railways.

93
Parallel Operation of a Single Phase Transformer
Parallel Operation of a Single Phase Transformer means that the two or
more transformers having same polarities, same turn ratios, same phase
sequence and the same voltage ratio are connected in parallel with each
other.

Why Parallel Operation of Transformers is required?

It is economical to installe numbers of smaller rated
transformers in parallel than installing a bigger rated
electrical power transformers. This has mainly the
following advantages,

1. To maximize electrical power system efficiency:

Generally electrical power transformer gives the
maximum efficiency at full load. If we run numbers of
transformers in parallel, we can switch on only
those transformers which will give the total demand by
running nearer to its full load rating for that time.
When load increases, we can switch none by one other
transformer connected in parallel to fulfill the total
demand. In this way we can run the system with
maximum efficiency.
2. To maximize electrical power system availability:
If numbers of transformers run in parallel, we can
shutdown any one of them for maintenance purpose.
Other parallel transformers in system will serve the
load without total interruption of power.
3. To maximize power system reliability: if any one
of the transformers run in parallel, is tripped due to
fault of other parallel transformers is the system will
share the load, hence power supply may not be
interrupted if the shared loads do not make other
transformers over loaded.
4. To maximize electrical power system flexibility:
There is always a chance of increasing or decreasing
future demand of power system. If it is predicted that
power demand will be increased in future, there must
be a provision of connecting transformers in system in

94
 parallel to fulfill the extra demand because, it is not
economical from business point of view to install a
bigger rated single transformer by forecasting the
increased future demand as it is unnecessary
investment of money. Again if future demand is
decreased, transformers running in parallel can be
removed from system to balance the capital
investment and its return.

Conditions for Parallel Operation of Transformers

When two or more transformers run in parallel, they must
satisfy the following conditions for satisfactory
performance. These are the conditions for parallel
operation of transformers.

1. Same voltage ratio of transformer.

2. Same percentage impedance.
3. Same polarity.
4. Same phase sequence.
Same Voltage Ratio
If two transformers of different voltage ratio are
connected in parallel with same primary supply voltage,
there will be a difference in secondary voltages. Now say
the secondary of these transformers are connected to
same bus, there will be a circulating current between
secondaries and therefore between primaries also. As the
internal impedance of transformer is small, a small
voltage difference may cause sufficiently high circulating
current causing unnecessary extra I2R loss.

Same Percentage Impedance

The current shared by two transformers running in parallel
should be proportional to their MVA ratings. Again, current
carried by these transformers are inversely proportional to
their internal impedance. From these two statements it
can be said that, impedance of transformers running in
parallel are inversely proportional to their MVA ratings. In

95
other words, percentage impedance or per unit values of
impedance should be identical for all the transformers that
run in parallel.

Same Polarity
Polarity of all transformers that run in parallel, should be
the same otherwise huge circulating current that flows in
the transformer but no load will be fed from these
transformers. Polarity of transformer means the
instantaneous direction of induced emf in secondary. If
the instantaneous directions of induced secondary emf in
two transformers are opposite to each other when same
input power is fed to both of the transformers, the
transformers are said to be in opposite polarity. If the
instantaneous directions of induced secondary emf in two
transformers are same when same input power is fed to
the both of the transformers, the transformers are said to
be in same polarity.

Same Phase Sequence

The phase sequence or the order in which the phases
reach their maximum positive voltage, must be identical
for two parallel transformers. Otherwise, during the cycle,
each pair of phases will be short circuited. The above said
conditions must be strictly followed for parallel
operation of transformers but totally identical
percentage impedance of two different transformers is
difficult to achieve practically, that is why the
transformers run in parallel may not have exactly same
percentage impedance but the values would be as nearer
as possible.

96
The circuit diagram of two single phase transformer A and
B connected in parallel are shown below

Let,

a1 is the turn ratio of the transformer A

a2 is the turn ratio of the transformer B

ZA is the equivalent impedance of the transformer A

referred to secondary

ZB is the equivalent impedance of the transformer B

referred to secondary

ZL is the load impedance across the secondary

IA is the current supplied to the load by the secondary of
the transformer A

97
IB is the current supplied to the load by the secondary of
the transformer BVL is the secondary load voltage
IL is the load current

Applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law

By Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Now putting the value of IB from the equation (1) in

equation (3) we will get

Solving equations (2) and (4) we will get

The current IA and IB has two components. The first

component represents the transformers share of the load
currents and the second component is a circulating

98
current in the secondary windings of the single phase
transformer.

The undesirable effects of the circulating currents

are as follows

 They increase the copper loss.

 The circulating current overloads the one transformer
and reduces the permissible load kVA.

Equal Voltage Ratio

In order to eliminate circulating currents, the voltage

ratios must be identical. That is a1=a2

Under this condition,

Equating equation (7) and (8) we will get

From the above equation (9), it is clear that the

transformer currents are inversely proportional to the
transformer impedance. Thus, for the efficient parallel
operation of the two single phase transformers, the
potential differences at full load across the transformer
internal impedance should be equal.

99
This condition ensures that the load sharing between the
two single phase transformers is according to the rating of
each transformer. If the per unit equivalent impedance
are not equal, then the transformer will not share the load
in proportion to their kVA ratings. As a result, the overall
rating of the transformer bank will be reduced.

Equation (9) can also be written as

The current in the equations (7) and (8) is changed into

volt-amperes by multiplying the two equations by the
common load voltage VL.

Therefore, we know that

The total load in volt-ampere (VA) is

The volt-ampere of transformer A is

Similarly, the volt-ampere of transformer B is

Hence, the various equations will be written as shown

below

111
Equating the equation (11) and (12) we will get

Equation (13) tells that the volt-ampere load on each

single phase transformer is inversely proportional to its
impedance.

Hence, to share the load in proportion to their ratings, the

transformers should have the impedance which is
inversely proportional to their ratings

111
The Current and potential Transformer

Current Transformer Basics

The Current Transformer ( C.T. ), is a type of “instrument transformer”
that is designed to produce an alternating current in its secondary winding
which is proportional to the current being measured in its primary.

Current transformers are generally used to measure currents of

high magnitude. These transformers step down the current to be
measured, so that it can be measured with a normal range
ammeter. A Current transformer has only one or very few number
of primary turns. The primary winding may be just a conductor or a
bus bar placed in a hollow core (as shown in the figure). The
secondary winding has large number turns accurately wound for a
specific turns ratio. Thus the current transformer steps up
(increases) the voltage while stepping down (lowering) the current.

112
Now, the secondary current is measured with the help of an AC

ammeter. The turns ratio of a transformer is NP / NS = IS / IP

One of the common application of a current transformer is in a

'Digital Clamp Meter'.

Generally, current transformers are expressed in their primary to

secondary current ratio. A 100:5 CT would mean the secondary
current of 5 amperes when primary current is 100 amperes. The
secondary current rating is generally 5 amperes or 1 ampere,
which is compatible with standard measuring instruments.

So for example, a current transformer with a relationship of say, 300/5A

can be converted to another of 150/5A or even 100/5A by passing the
main primary conductor through its interior window two or three times as

113
shown. This allows a higher value current transformer to provide the
maximum output current for the ammeter when used on smaller primary
current lines.

Current Transformer Primary Turns Ratio

Current Transformer Example No1

A bar-type current transformer which has 1 turn on its primary and 160
turns on its secondary is to be used with a standard range of ammeters
that have an internal resistance of 0.2Ω’s. The ammeter is required to
give a full scale deflection when the primary current is 800 Amps.
Calculate the maximum secondary current and secondary voltage across
the ammeter.
Secondary Current:

Voltage across Ammeter:

Potential Transformer (PT)

Potential transformers are also known as voltage
transformers and they are basically step down transformers with
extremely accurate turns ratio. Potential transformers step down
the voltage of high magnitude to a lower voltage which can be
measured with standard measuring instrument. These

114
transformers have large number of primary turns and smaller
number of secondary turns.

A potential transformer is typically expressed in primary to

secondary voltage ratio. For example, a 600:120 PT would mean
the voltage across secondary is 120 volts when primary voltage is
600 volts.

So for example, assume our current transformer from above is used on a

480 volt three-phase power line. Therefore:

This 76.8kV is why a current transformer should never be left open-

circuited or operated with no-load attached when the main primary
current is flowing through it. If the ammeter is to be removed, a short-

115
circuit should be placed across the secondary terminals first to eliminate
the risk of shock.

Wiring Connection difference:

Tertiary Winding of 3 winding Transformer

What is Tertiary Winding ?

In some high rating transformer, one winding in addition

to its primary and secondary winding is used. This
additional winding, apart from primary and secondary
windings, is known as Tertiary winding of transformer.
Because of this third winding, the transformer is called
three winding transformer or 3 winding transformer.

116
Advantages of Using Tertiary Winding in Transformer
Tertiary winding is provided in electrical power
transformer to meet one or more of the following
requirements-

1. It reduces the unbalancing in the primary due to

unbalancing in three phase load.
2. It redistributes the flow of fault current.
3. Sometime it is required to supply an auxiliary load in
different voltage level in addition to its main secondary
load. This secondary load can be taken from tertiary
winding of three winding transformer.
4. As the tertiary winding is connected in delta
formation in 3 winding transformer, it assists in
limitation of fault current in the event of a short circuit
from line to neutral.

117
Isolation transformer
An isolation transformer is a transformer used to transfer electrical
power from a source of alternating current (AC) power to some
equipment or device while isolating the powered device from the
power source, usually for safety reasons.

118
Vector Group of Transformer

119
111
111