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Power System Analysis and Design SI Edition Fifth
Edition J. Duncan Glover Digital Instant Download
Author(s): J. Duncan Glover, Mulukutla S. Sarma, Thomas Overbye
ISBN(s): 9781111425791, 1111425795
Edition: 5th
File Details: PDF, 15.76 MB
Year: 2011
Language: english
This page intentionally left blank
 This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions,
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 POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS
AND DESIGN
FIFTH EDITION, SI

J. DUNCAN GLOVER
FAILURE ELECTRICAL, LLC

MULUKUTLA S. SARMA
NORTHEASTERN UNIVERSITY

THOMAS J. OVERBYE
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States
Power System Analysis and Design, c
 2012, 2008 Cengage Learning
Fifth Edition, SI
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright
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TO LOUISE, TATIANA & BRENDAN, ALISON & JOHN, LEAH, OWEN,
ANNA, EMILY & BRIGID

Dear Lord! Kind Lord!

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CONTENTS

Preface to the SI Edition xii

Preface xiii
List of Symbols, Units, and Notation xix

CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1
Case Study: The Future Beckons: Will the Electric Power
Industry Heed the Call? 2
1.1 History of Electric Power Systems 10
1.2 Present and Future Trends 17
1.3 Electric Utility Industry Structure 21
1.4 Computers in Power System Engineering 22
1.5 PowerWorld Simulator 24

CHAPTER 2 Fundamentals 31
Case Study: Making Microgrids Work 32
2.1 Phasors 46
2.2 Instantaneous Power in Single-Phase AC Circuits 47
2.3 Complex Power 53
2.4 Network Equations 58
2.5 Balanced Three-Phase Circuits 60
2.6 Power in Balanced Three-Phase Circuits 68
2.7 Advantages of Balanced Three-Phase Versus
Single-Phase Systems 74

CHAPTER 3 Power Transformers 90

Case Study: PJM Manages Aging Transformer Fleet 91
3.1 The Ideal Transformer 96
3.2 Equivalent Circuits for Practical Transformers 102
3.3 The Per-Unit System 108
3.4 Three-Phase Transformer Connections and Phase Shift 116
3.5 Per-Unit Equivalent Circuits of Balanced Three-Phase
Two-Winding Transformers 121
3.6 Three-Winding Transformers 126
3.7 Autotransformers 130
3.8 Transformers with O¤-Nominal Turns Ratios 131

vii
viii CONTENTS

CHAPTER 4 Transmission Line Parameters 159

Case Study: Transmission Line Conductor Design Comes of Age 160
Case Study: Six Utilities Share Their Perspectives on Insulators 164
4.1 Transmission Line Design Considerations 169
4.2 Resistance 174
4.3 Conductance 177
4.4 Inductance: Solid Cylindrical Conductor 178
4.5 Inductance: Single-Phase Two-Wire Line and Three-Phase
Three-Wire Line with Equal Phase Spacing 183
4.6 Inductance: Composite Conductors, Unequal Phase Spacing,
Bundled Conductors 185
4.7 Series Impedances: Three-Phase Line with Neutral Conductors
and Earth Return 193
4.8 Electric Field and Voltage: Solid Cylindrical Conductor 199
4.9 Capacitance: Single-Phase Two-Wire Line and Three-Phase
Three-Wire Line with Equal Phase Spacing 201
4.10 Capacitance: Stranded Conductors, Unequal Phase Spacing,
Bundled Conductors 204
4.11 Shunt Admittances: Lines with Neutral Conductors
and Earth Return 207
4.12 Electric Field Strength at Conductor Surfaces
and at Ground Level 212
4.13 Parallel Circuit Three-Phase Lines 215

CHAPTER 5 Transmission Lines: Steady-State Operation 233

Case Study: The ABCs of HVDC Transmission Technologies 234
5.1 Medium and Short Line Approximations 248
5.2 Transmission-Line Di¤erential Equations 254
5.3 Equivalent p Circuit 260
5.4 Lossless Lines 262
5.5 Maximum Power Flow 271
5.6 Line Loadability 273
5.7 Reactive Compensation Techniques 277

CHAPTER 6 Power Flows 294

Case Study: Future Vision 295
Case Study: Characteristics of Wind Turbine Generators
for Wind Power Plants 305
6.1 Direct Solutions to Linear Algebraic Equations:
Gauss Elimination 311
6.2 Iterative Solutions to Linear Algebraic Equations:
Jacobi and Gauss–Seidel 315
6.3 Iterative Solutions to Nonlinear Algebraic Equations:
Newton–Raphson 321
 CONTENTS ix

6.4 The Power-Flow Problem 325

6.5 Power-Flow Solution by Gauss–Seidel 331
6.6 Power-Flow Solution by Newton–Raphson 334
6.7 Control of Power Flow 343
6.8 Sparsity Techniques 349
6.9 Fast Decoupled Power Flow 352
6.10 The ‘‘DC’’ Power Flow 353
6.11 Power-Flow Modeling of Wind Generation 354
Design Projects 1–5 366

CHAPTER 7 Symmetrical Faults 379

Case Study: The Problem of Arcing Faults in Low-Voltage
Power Distribution Systems 380
7.1 Series R–L Circuit Transients 382
7.2 Three-Phase Short Circuit—Unloaded
Synchronous Machine 385
7.3 Power System Three-Phase Short Circuits 389
7.4 Bus Impedance Matrix 392
7.5 Circuit Breaker and Fuse Selection 400
Design Project 4 (continued ) 417

CHAPTER 8 Symmetrical Components 419

Case Study: Circuit Breakers Go High Voltage 421
8.1 Definition of Symmetrical Components 428
8.2 Sequence Networks of Impedance Loads 433
8.3 Sequence Networks of Series Impedances 441
8.4 Sequence Networks of Three-Phase Lines 443
8.5 Sequence Networks of Rotating Machines 445
8.6 Per-Unit Sequence Models of Three-Phase
Two-Winding Transformers 451
8.7 Per-Unit Sequence Models of Three-Phase
Three-Winding Transformers 456
8.8 Power in Sequence Networks 459

CHAPTER 9 Unsymmetrical Faults 471

Case Study: Fires at U.S. Utilities 472
9.1 System Representation 473
9.2 Single Line-to-Ground Fault 478
9.3 Line-to-Line Fault 483
9.4 Double Line-to-Ground Fault 485
9.5 Sequence Bus Impedance Matrices 492
Design Project 4 (continued ) 512
Design Project 6 513
x CONTENTS

CHAPTER 10 System Protection 516

Case Study: The Future of Power Transmission 518
10.1 System Protection Components 525
10.2 Instrument Transformers 526
10.3 Overcurrent Relays 533
10.4 Radial System Protection 537
10.5 Reclosers and Fuses 541
10.6 Directional Relays 545
10.7 Protection of Two-Source System with Directional Relays 546
10.8 Zones of Protection 547
10.9 Line Protection with Impedance (Distance) Relays 551
10.10 Di¤erential Relays 557
10.11 Bus Protection with Di¤erential Relays 559
10.12 Transformer Protection with Di¤erential Relays 560
10.13 Pilot Relaying 565
10.14 Digital Relaying 566

CHAPTER 11 Transient Stability 579

Case Study: Real-Time Dynamic Security Assessment 581
11.1 The Swing Equation 590
11.2 Simplified Synchronous Machine Model and System
Equivalents 596
11.3 The Equal-Area Criterion 598
11.4 Numerical Integration of the Swing Equation 608
11.5 Multimachine Stability 613
11.6 A Two-Axis Synchronous Machine Model 621
11.7 Wind Turbine Machine Models 625
11.8 Design Methods for Improving Transient Stability 632

CHAPTER 12 Power System Controls 639

Case Study: Overcoming Restoration Challenges Associated
with Major Power System Disturbances 642
12.1 Generator-Voltage Control 652
12.2 Turbine-Governor Control 657
12.3 Load-Frequency Control 663
12.4 Economic Dispatch 667
12.5 Optimal Power Flow 680

CHAPTER 13 Transmission Lines: Transient Operation 690

Case Study: VariSTAR8 Type AZE Surge Arresters 691
Case Study: Change in the Air 695
13.1 Traveling Waves on Single-Phase Lossless Lines 707
13.2 Boundary Conditions for Single-Phase Lossless Lines 710
 CONTENTS xi

13.3 Bewley Lattice Diagram 719

13.4 Discrete-Time Models of Single-Phase Lossless Lines
and Lumped RLC Elements 724
13.5 Lossy Lines 731
13.6 Multiconductor Lines 735
13.7 Power System Overvoltages 738
13.8 Insulation Coordination 745

CHAPTER 14 POWER DISTRIBUTION 757

Case Study: The Path of the Smart Grid 759
14.1 Introduction to Distribution 770
14.2 Primary Distribution 772
14.3 Secondary Distribution 780
14.4 Transformers in Distribution Systems 785
14.5 Shunt Capacitors in Distribution Systems 795
14.6 Distribution Software 800
14.7 Distribution Reliability 801
14.8 Distribution Automation 804
14.9 Smart Grids 807

Appendix 814
Index 818
P R E FA C E TO T H E S I E D I T I O N

This edition of Power System Analysis and Design has been adapted to incor-
porate the International System of Units (Le Système International d’Unités
or SI) throughout the book.

LE SYSTÈME INTERNATIONAL D’UNITÉS

The United States Customary System (USCS) of units uses FPS (foot–
pound–second) units (also called English or Imperial units). SI units are pri-
marily the units of the MKS (meter–kilogram–second) system. However,
CGS (centimeter–gram–second) units are often accepted as SI units, espe-
cially in textbooks.

USING SI UNITS IN THIS BOOK

In this book, we have used both MKS and CGS units. USCS units or FPS
units used in the US Edition of the book have been converted to SI units
throughout the text and problems. However, in case of data sourced from
handbooks, government standards, and product manuals, it is not only ex-
tremely di‰cult to convert all values to SI, it also encroaches upon the intel-
lectual property of the source. Also, some quantities such as the ASTM grain
size number and Jominy distances are generally computed in FPS units and
would lose their relevance if converted to SI. Some data in figures, tables, ex-
amples, and references, therefore, remains in FPS units. For readers unfamil-
iar with the relationship between the FPS and the SI systems, conversion ta-
bles have been provided inside the front and back covers of the book.
To solve problems that require the use of sourced data, the sourced
values can be converted from FPS units to SI units just before they are to be
used in a calculation. To obtain standardized quantities and manufacturers’
data in SI units, the readers may contact the appropriate government agencies
or authorities in their countries/regions.

INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES

A Printed Instructor’s Solution Manual in SI units is available on request. An

electronic version of the Instructor’s Solutions Manual, and PowerPoint
slides of the figures from the SI text are available through http://login.
cengage.com.
The readers’ feedback on this SI Edition will be highly appreciated and
will help us improve subsequent editions.

The Publishers

xii
P R E F A C E

The objective of this book is to present methods of power system analysis and
design, particularly with the aid of a personal computer, in su‰cient depth
to give the student the basic theory at the undergraduate level. The approach
is designed to develop students’ thinking processes, enabling them to reach a
sound understanding of a broad range of topics related to power system
engineering, while motivating their interest in the electrical power industry.
Because we believe that fundamental physical concepts underlie creative
engineering and form the most valuable and permanent part of an engineering
education, we highlight physical concepts while giving due attention to math-
ematical techniques. Both theory and modeling are developed from simple be-
ginnings so that they can be readily extended to new and complex situations.
This edition of the text features new Chapter 14 entitled, Power Distribu-
tion. During the last decade, major improvements in distribution reliability
have come through automated distribution and more recently through the
introduction of ‘‘smart grids.’’ Chapter 14 introduces the basic features of pri-
mary and secondary distribution systems as well as basic distribution compo-
nents including distribution substation transformers, distribution transformers,
and shunt capacitors. We list some of the major distribution software vendors
followed by an introduction to distribution reliability, distribution automation,
and smart grids.
This edition also features the following: (1) wind-energy systems model-
ing in the chapter on transient stability; (2) discussion of reactive/pitch control
of wind generation in the chapter on powers system controls; (3) updated case
studies for nine chapters along with four case studies from the previous edition
describing present-day, practical applications and new technologies; (4) an
updated PowerWorld Simulator package; and (5) updated problems at the end
of chapters.
One of the most challenging aspects of engineering education is giving
students an intuitive feel for the systems they are studying. Engineering sys-
tems are, for the most part, complex. While paper-and-pencil exercises can
be quite useful for highlighting the fundamentals, they often fall short in
imparting the desired intuitive insight. To help provide this insight, the book
uses PowerWorld Simulator to integrate computer-based examples, problems,
and design projects throughout the text.
PowerWorld Simulator was originally developed at the University of
Illinois at Urbana–Champaign to teach the basics of power systems to
nontechnical people involved in the electricity industry, with version 1.0 in-
troduced in June 1994. The program’s interactive and graphical design made

xiii
xiv PREFACE

it an immediate hit as an educational tool, but a funny thing happened—its

interactive and graphical design also appealed to engineers doing analysis of
real power systems. To meet the needs of a growing group of users,
PowerWorld Simulator was commercialized in 1996 by the formation of
PowerWorld Corporation. Thus while retaining its appeal for education, over
the years PowerWorld Simulator has evolved into a top-notch analysis pack-
age, able to handle power systems of any size. PowerWorld Simulator is now
used throughout the power industry, with a range of users encompassing uni-
versities, utilities of all sizes, government regulators, power marketers, and
consulting firms.
In integrating PowerWorld Simulator with the text, our design philoso-
phy has been to use the software to extend, rather than replace, the fully
worked examples provided in previous editions. Therefore, except when the
problem size makes it impractical, each PowerWorld Simulator example in-
cludes a fully worked hand solution of the problem along with a PowerWorld
Simulator case. This format allows students to simultaneously see the details
of how a problem is solved and a computer implementation of the solution.
The added benefit from PowerWorld Simulator is its ability to easily extend
the example. Through its interactive design, students can quickly vary example
parameters and immediately see the impact such changes have on the
solution. By reworking the examples with the new parameters, students get im-
mediate feedback on whether they understand the solution process. The inter-
active and visual design of PowerWorld Simulator also makes it an excellent
tool for instructors to use for in-class demonstrations. With numerous exam-
ples utilizing PowerWorld Simulator instructors can easily demonstrate many
of the text topics. Additional PowerWorld Simulator functionality is in-
troduced in the text problems and design projects.
The text is intended to be fully covered in a two-semester or three-
quarter course o¤ered to seniors and first-year graduate students. The orga-
nization of chapters and individual sections is flexible enough to give the
instructor su‰cient latitude in choosing topics to cover, especially in a one-
semester course. The text is supported by an ample number of worked exam-
ples covering most of the theoretical points raised. The many problems to be
worked with a calculator as well as problems to be worked using a personal
computer have been expanded in this edition.
As background for this course, it is assumed that students have had
courses in electric network theory (including transient analysis) and ordinary
di¤erential equations and have been exposed to linear systems, matrix algebra,
and computer programming. In addition, it would be helpful, but not neces-
sary, to have had an electric machines course.
After an introduction to the history of electric power systems along
with present and future trends, Chapter 2 on fundamentals orients the students
to the terminology and serves as a brief review. The chapter reviews phasor
concepts, power, and single-phase as well as three-phase circuits.
Chapters 3 through 6 examine power transformers, transmission-line
parameters, steady-state operation of transmission lines, and power flows
 PREFACE xv

including the Newton–Raphson method. These chapters provide a basic

understanding of power systems under balanced three-phase, steady-state,
normal operating conditions.
Chapters 7 through 10, which cover symmetrical faults, symmetrical
components, unsymmetrical faults, and system protection, come under the
general heading of power system short-circuit protection. Chapter 11 (pre-
viously Chapter 13) examines transient stability, which includes the swing
equation, the equal-area criterion, and multi-machine stability with modeling
of wind-energy systems as a new feature. Chapter 12 (previously Chapter 11)
covers power system controls, including turbine-generator controls, load-
frequency control, economic dispatch, and optimal power flow, with reactive/
pitch control of wind generation as a new feature. Chapter 13 (previously
Chapter 12) examines transient operation of transmission lines including
power system overvoltages and surge protection. The final and new Chapter 14
introduces power distribution.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

Companion websites for this book are available for both students and in-
structors. These websites provide useful links, figures, and other support ma-
terial. The Student Companion Site includes a link to download the free stu-
dent version of PowerWorld. The Instructor Companion Site includes access
to the solutions manual and PowerPoint slides. Through the Instructor Com-
panion Site, instructors can also request access to additional support mate-
rial, including a printed solutions manual.
To access the support material described here along with all additional
course materials, please visit www.cengagebrain.com. At the cengage-
brain.com home page, search for the ISBN of your title (from the back cover
of your book) using the search box at the top of the page. This will take you
to the product page where these resources can be found.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The material in this text was gradually developed to meet the needs of classes
taught at universities in the United States and abroad over the past 30 years.
The original 13 chapters were written by the first author, J. Duncan Glover,
Failure Electrical LLC, who is indebted to many people who helped during
the planning and writing of this book. The profound influence of earlier texts
written on power systems, particularly by W. D. Stevenson, Jr., and the de-
velopments made by various outstanding engineers are gratefully acknowl-
edged. Details of sources can only be made through references at the end of
each chapter, as they are otherwise too numerous to mention.
Chapter 14 (Power Distribution) was a collaborative e¤ort between
Dr. Glover (Sections 14.1–14.7) and Co-author Thomas J. Overbye (Sections
14.8 & 14.9). Professor Overbye, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
xvi PREFACE

updated Chapter 6 (Power Flows), Chapter 11 (Transient Stability), and

Chapter 12 (Power System Controls) for this edition of the text. He also pro-
vided the examples and problems using PowerWorld Simulator as well as
three design projects. Co-author Mulukutla Sarma, Northeastern University,
contributed to end-of-chapter multiple-choice questions and problems.
We commend the following Cengage Learning professionals: Chris
Shortt, Publisher, Global Engineering; Hilda Gowans, Senior Developmental
Editor; Swati Meherishi, Acquisitions Editor; and Kristiina Paul, Permissions
Researcher; as well as Rose Kernan of RPK Editorial Services, lnc., for their
broad knowledge, skills, and ingenuity in publishing this edition.
The reviewers for the fifth edition are as follows: Thomas L. Baldwin,
Florida State University; Ali Emadi, Illinois Institute of Technology; Reza Iravani,
University of Toronto; Surya Santoso, University of Texas at Austin; Ali Shaban,
California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo; and Dennis O. Wiitanen,
Michigan Technological University, and Hamid Ja¤ari, Danvers Electric.
Substantial contributions to prior editions of this text were made by a
number of invaluable reviewers, as follows:
Fourth Edition: Robert C. Degene¤, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; Venkata Dina-
vahi, University of Alberta; Richard G. Farmer, Arizona State University;
Steven M. Hietpas, South Dakota State University; M. Hashem Nehrir,
Montana State University; Anil Pahwa, Kansas State University; and Ghadir
Radman, Tennessee Technical University.
Third Edition: Sohrab Asgarpoor, University of Nebraska–Lincoln; Mariesa L. Crow,
University of Missouri–Rolla; Ilya Y. Grinberg, State University of New
York, College at Bu¤alo; Iqbal Husain, The University of Akron; W. H.
Kersting, New Mexico State University; John A. Palmer, Colorado School
of Mines; Satish J. Ranada, New Mexico State University; and Shyama C.
Tandon, California Polytechnic State University.
Second Edition: Max D. Anderson, University of Missouri–Rolla; Sohrab Asgarpoor,
University of Nebraska–Lincoln; Kaveh Ashenayi, University of Tulsa;
Richard D. Christie, Jr., University of Washington; Mariesa L. Crow, Univer-
sity of Missouri–Rolla; Richard G. Farmer, Arizona State University; Saul
Goldberg, California Polytechnic University; Cli¤ord H. Grigg, Rose-Hulman
Institute of Technology; Howard B. Hamilton, University of Pittsburgh;
Leo Holzenthal, Jr., University of New Orleans; Walid Hubbi, New Jersey
Institute of Technology; Charles W. Isherwood, University of Massachusetts–
Dartmouth; W. H. Kersting, New Mexico State University; Wayne E.
Knabach, South Dakota State University; Pierre-Jean Lagace, IREQ Institut
de Reserche d’Hydro–Quebec; James T. Lancaster, Alfred University; Kwang
Y. Lee, Pennsylvania State University; Mohsen Lotfalian, University of Ev-
ansville; Rene B. Marxheimer, San Francisco State University, Lamine Mili,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; Osama A. Mohammed,
Florida International University; Cli¤ord C. Mosher, Washington State Uni-
versity, Anil Pahwa, Kansas State University; M. A. Pai, University of Illinois
 PREFACE xvii

at Urbana–Champaign; R. Ramakumar, Oklahoma State University; Teodoro

C. Robles, Milwaukee School of Engineering, Ronald G. Schultz, Cleveland
State University; Stephen A. Sebo, Ohio State University; Raymond Shoults,
University of Texas at Arlington, Richard D. Shultz, University of Wisconsin
at Platteville; Charles Slivinsky, University of Missouri–Columbia; John P.
Stahl, Ohio Northern University; E. K. Stanek, University of Missouri–Rolla;
Robert D. Strattan, University of Tulsa; Tian-Shen Tang, Texas A&M
University–Kingsville; S. S. Venkata, University of Washington; Francis M.
Wells, Vanderbilt University; Bill Wieserman, University of Pennsylvania–
Johnstown; Stephen Williams, U.S. Naval Postgraduate School; and Salah M.
Yousif, California State University–Sacramento.
First Edition: Frederick C. Brockhurst, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology; Bell A.
Cogbill. Northeastern University; Saul Goldberg, California Polytechnic State
University; Mack Grady, University of Texas at Austin; Leonard F. Grigsby,
Auburn University; Howard Hamilton, University of Pittsburgh; William
F. Horton, California Polytechnic State University; W. H. Kersting, New
Mexico State University; John Pavlat, Iowa State University; R. Ramakumar,
Oklahoma State University; B. Don Russell, Texas A&M; Sheppard Salon,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; Stephen A. Sebo, Ohio State University; and
Dennis O. Wiitanen, Michigan Technological University.
In conclusion, the objective in writing this text and the accompanying
software package will have been fulfilled if the book is considered to be
student-oriented, comprehensive, and up to date, with consistent notation
and necessary detailed explanation at the level for which it is intended.

J. Duncan Glover
Mulukutla S. Sarma
Thomas J. Overbye
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Title: Photo-Lithography

Author: Georg Fritz

Translator: E. J. Wall

Release date: November 14, 2017 [eBook #55971]

Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Chris Curnow, RichardW, and the Online

Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
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by The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PHOTO-

LITHOGRAPHY ***
 P HOTO -L ITHOGRAPHY

BY

GEORG FRITZ
Vice-director of the Court and Imperial State Printing Works at Vienna

TRANSLATED BY

E. J. WALL
(Fellow of the Royal Photographic Society )
Author of “The Dictionary of Photography,” “Carbon Printing,” etc.

1895
LONDON
DAWBARN AND WARD, LIMITED
6, FARRINGDON AVENUE, E.C.
THE AUTHOR’S PREFACE.
P HOTO-LITHOGRAPHY, with its many branches and its extended
application, when used direct and also as handmaid for the
lithographer and printer from stone, is, with the exception of
phototypy and autotypy, indeed that process for the preparation of
letterpress plates which has done the most towards making
photography useful for the graphic arts, in the artistic sense as well
as from the practical point of view. And in the near future it will be a
great acquisition when it is once generally recognized that colour
plates can be prepared by photographic means without any
considerable amount of manual or artistic help. It is the more to be
wondered at that photo-lithography has not yet found that extension
and general use which it in so high a degree deserves.
I have written this book, impressed with the urgency of
stimulating the propagation of this useful process. In writing I have
been careful to avoid all those details which are for the practical
worker of minor interest—the description of the historical evolution,
etc., so instructive as these must certainly be—so that I have
abstained from many complicated and unintelligible formulæ. I leave
this willingly to a more ready writer. Starting rather from the
standpoint of speaking as a practical worker to practical men, I have
recorded all the experience which I have gained in the course of
many years.
Should it occur to me in the future that it was my task to have
treated all photo-lithographic processes, with all their ramifications,
in the most complete manner, I have still the consciousness of
having described as completely as possible the practical processes,
and think that I have thus been useful to many workers, {2} and I
dare say with absolute certainty that only tested and tried formulæ
have been noticed in this book.
With the earnest wish that this book may be received with a
fraction of the goodwill with which I have worked at the writing of
the same, I present it to the technical world.
GEORG FRITZ.
Vienna.

On receiving this work for review I was greatly struck with the
thoroughly practical manner in which it was written, and thought
that an English translation might be acceptable to the large and ever
increasing class of photo-mechanical workers who might not
otherwise have the opportunity of reading it in the original. I have
kept to the author’s text as close as is consistent with the idiomatic
construction of German.
I am indebted to Messrs. Hazell, Watson and Viney for permission
to undertake the task of translating the work for another firm of
publishers, and I hope the translation may prove as acceptable and
useful to the readers as it has been pleasurable to me to do it.
E. J. WALL.
1, Creed Lane,
London, E.C.
INTRODUCTION.
1.—The theory of printing from stone. He who would study or
practise photo-lithography must first become acquainted with the
fundamental principles on which lithography rests. I find it therefore
necessary to first give in concise form a small treatise on the theory
of this process as well as on the most important materials which are
necessary in the practice of the same.
The theoretical principle of lithography is purely chemical, and is
based principally on the repulsion of water and other substances by
fatty bodies, and the alteration of these greasy bodies by acids. As
the support for this chemical opposition a stone or zinc plate is used,
which are sufficiently porous to allow grease, water, acid, and certain
resinous solutions to penetrate to a certain degree.
The fatty substances which are transferred to the stone by writing,
drawing, or transfer, are autographic ink, lithographic ink, and chalk,
the so-called transfer and photo-lithographic colours. There are also
other substances, which are used especially in photo-lithography,
which do not evidently penetrate the stone and which cannot be
considered as greasy substances, but which, as we shall see later
on, have exactly the same action.
The above-mentioned fatty substances actually penetrate the
porous stone and make it in places suitable to take more printing
ink. By the so-called etching—dilute nitric acid mixed with gum water
—two effects are produced. On the one hand the fatty bodies are
altered in chemical composition, being decomposed into the fatty
acids which combine intimately with the material of the stone—
calcium carbonate. On the other hand, the surface of the stone not
covered with the fatty substances is chemically changed, since the
carbonate of lime is converted into nitrate, which has now the
property of keeping moderately damp when moistened with water,
and thus repelling grease. If such a transfer of greasy bodies on to
the stone is allowed to act for some hours, and the fatty substances
are removed with turpentine, it will be seen that these places have a
lighter colour than the other parts of the surface of the stone, and if
the stone be rolled up with a leather roller, charged with a greasy
ink, after the stone {4} has been damped, only these places will take
the greasy ink. By means of a litho steam or hand press prints can
then be prepared from this.
It is frequently necessary to make corrections or additions to the
drawing on the stone; if the stone has been already etched some
means must be used which will remove the action of the etching , or
else the stone will not take the greasy matter, or at least not so
readily as is desirable. Very weak acetic acid, about 1–2 per cent.,
will do this. If the stone is flowed over with this dilute acetic acid or
dilute table vinegar, the action of the stronger nitric acid and the
gum is stopped, and the surface of the stone will again take fatty
matter.
Before the penetration of the grease the stone is prepared by
polishing with a concentrated solution of oxalic acid. Oxalic acid
poured on to the stone would exert an etching action, but make the
stone to a certain degree capable of taking the ink. If this liquid is
rubbed on the stone with a cloth or linen pad with moderate
pressure, the stone receives a high polish—especially the hard kinds
—and in this condition the stone takes the ink well, like any flat
object, but will not retain it. If a transfer is made on to such a stone,
and the same etched, the image will completely disappear the first
time the roller passes over it. This polish can be removed with 1 or 2
per cent. acetic acid, and the stone then has its primitive qualities.
This method is used to reverse the image, which will be described
later on.
2.—Litho stone is dense limestone of the mountain limestone
group, and is found in the Tertiary deposits at a depth of two to
three metres. Its constituents are lime, clay, and silicious earths,
combined with carbonic acid, but lime is in the preponderance; it
only contains a very small proportion of silica. In the stronger acids
litho stone dissolves completely. The varieties of very fine stalactitic
chalk of tolerable hardness, with flat shell-like fracture, without rust
spots, glassy crystals or impurities, and those with very even grain,
are the most useful for photo-lithography. Marble, which consists of
pure chalk, cannot be used for lithography because, on account of
its greater density, the greasy matter cannot penetrate so deeply,
and therefore such stones would give only a few pulls.
The commercial litho stones are of different colours, from whitish
yellow to greenish shining grey. The latter has a finer and more even
grain, and is considerably harder than the other kind. These two
kinds are briefly designated in the trade as “yellow” and “blue,” and
the brighter kinds are, as a rule, softer and cheaper than the darker.
The faults which the stones sometimes show differ considerably,
and these produce certain inconveniences in continuous work. Many
stones have dark and light spots, and as these spots have, as a rule,
different densities, the etching solution cannot exert the {5} same
action over the whole of the stone, and consequently in fine
drawings, autotypes, etc., there are formed bright and dark spots.
This also occurs with calcareous, speckled, and marbly stones. The
very bright stones have less density, and therefore suck up the
damping solution very quickly, and begin with repeated printing to
become tinted. Stones with calcareous, rusty or other veins split
easily, especially in the large sizes. Lime spots or lime veins, which
are easily recognized by their brighter colour, take in graining a very
unequal grain. The drawing is darker on these places, since the grain
is greater according to the softness of the stone. Such stones are
unsuitable for those photo-lithographic processes in which graining is
used, such as the processes of Orell and Füssli and Bartös. The so-
called glass veins and glass spots are crystallizations consisting of
silicon, and are harder than the other parts of the stone. On these
places the fatty inks do not penetrate deep enough, and the drawing
does not adhere well, and can be easily removed by the rollers.
The hard stones receive a much finer surface than the soft when
polished with pumice stone; they also reproduce every point, line,
and detail of the drawing much more delicately, finer, and sharper;
and, lastly, they have the advantage that they etch much more
evenly, and re-etching is easy if moderate care be taken.
For the finer photo-lithographic work, if quality and continuous
working is desired, only the good “blue” stones should be used; for
cheaper line drawings “yellow” stones free from faults may be used.
3.—The zinc plates are now coming into pretty general use
instead of stones, especially in large establishments. Although their
treatment before and during printing is essentially different to that of
the stones, yet so far as regards this method of printing they come
very nearly equal to stones. At first smooth polished zinc plates were
used, but in consequence of some difficulty in using them, and the
great care necessary in choosing them, they have been almost
replaced by the prepared or oxidized plates.
Zincographic processes differ essentially in the preparation of the
plates. In the one, the plate is given a coating which has a similar
composition to a litho stone; in the other, the plate is roughened and
given a fine grain by a mechanical method, such as the sandblast, in
order that it may be then oxidized by a chemical process, with acids
or alkalies. All these processes are more or less advantageous. The
zinc plates cost about one-tenth to one-twentieth of the cost of the
stones, and this may well be sufficient grounds for the proprietors of
large establishments being interested in zinc plates, as the stones
are rather costly.
Excellent zinc plates, coated with a film or merely oxidized, can be
procured commercially in Germany and Austria. For those {6} who
wish to prepare their own plates the following tested formulæ are
given:—
 A zinc plate from 1 to 1·5 mm. thick is roughened by means of the
sandblast till it has a fine, even grain and appears smooth, but
clean. The following solution is prepared:—
Concentrated solution of alum 20 parts
Phosphoric acid 2 parts
Water 20 parts
or
Alum solution 10 parts
Gallic acid 15 parts
Nitric acid 2 parts
Water 30 parts
The roughened plate is first flowed over with water, and
immediately afterwards, with one of the above solutions, in the
same way as a plate, is covered with a developer. The plate is
oxidized by this, and there is formed on the surface a white
precipitate. It is then washed thoroughly under a rose tap and dried,
and the plate may be either coated with a light sensitive substance
for printing or a transfer be made on to it.
After the development or the transfer, the plate is gummed and
then etched with an etching solution consisting of—
Gallic acid 10 parts
Phosphoric acid 2 parts
Gum solution 10 parts
Water 30 parts
this being allowed to act for 30 or 40 seconds.
For repeated printing one to two per cent. of gallic acid is added
to the damping water.
If the plate has been correctly treated the print or the photo-litho
transfer will furnish thousands of good impressions, just like a stone.
Further details as to the printing on the zinc plates, or the transfer of
the chromated gelatine prints on to the same, will be found in
Chapter IV.
 4.—The greasy drawing materials which are necessary for
lithography are litho tusch, autographic ink, and fatty chalk.
The two first are used in the liquid state, the chalk, however, in
solid form. The ink can be obtained in a liquid form and the two
others in solid state. All three materials consist principally of soap,
tallow, wax, resin, and soot. Soap and tallow give the necessary
grease, wax and resin give hardness and consistency, and soot the
colour. The proportion of grease in the drawing materials must be so
great that even the finest lines or points of a drawing can be well
transferred to the stone, so that they may not be attacked by the
proper etching solution, and do not break away from the stone by
continuous printing. As much black as possible in the drawing
materials is pleasant for the draughtsman, but is not actually
necessary for this particular purpose. {7}
The tusch must dissolve well in distilled water and flow fine and
clean from the pen. It should be tolerably brittle, and the fractured
surfaces should be shiny. The photo-lithographer will frequently
require the lithographic tusch for additions or for corrections. The
best is the so-called Lemercier’s tusch, which is used in nearly all
works. It consists of—
Yellow wax 2 parts
Mutton tallow 2 parts
Marseilles soap 6 parts
Shellac 3 parts
Lamp black 1–2 parts
These ingredients should be melted together by boiling.
The autographic ink is, as a rule, used for drawing or writing on
paper, and the result is then transferred to the stone. Instead of this,
any litho tusch can be used, but for some work the autographic ink
is more advantageous. This ink must be thin, run easily, but not
patchily, from the pen, and must keep for a long time equal in
quality and action. It is very advantageous that specially-prepared
paper is not required, since this always makes the work more
difficult; firm, hard writing-paper is quite good enough for this work.
The commercial inks generally possess these good qualities, and if
much is not required one will hardly care to prepare it oneself. A
good successful autographic ink which draws in brown may be
obtained from the following formula:—
Marseilles soap 10 parts
Tallow 10 parts
Shellac 12 parts
Yellow wax 12 parts
Mastic 5 parts
Asphalt 4 parts
Vine soot 3 parts
Distilled water 125 parts
Originals prepared with this ink transfer as well immediately as
after several months, and ordinary well-sized writing paper can be
used for drawing or writing on.
Lithographic chalk is only prepared in the solid form for drawing
on paper direct or on stone. According to the nature of the work, it
is harder or softer, fatter or leaner. The hard kinds, which are also
usually leaner, contain more resin and less fat; the soft, on the
contrary, more grease.
Fatty chalk is composed of—
Wax 30 parts.
Marseilles soap 24 parts.
Tallow 4 parts.
Shellac 1 part.
Lampblack 6 parts.
{8}

Lean chalk is composed of—

 Wax 12 parts.
Marseilles soap 8 parts.
Tallow 2 parts.
Shellac 10 parts.
Lampblack 4 parts.
For lithographic work a greasy ink is required in contra­dis­tinc­tion
to ordinary printing ink, which consists of linseed oil and lamp­black,
which would be called “lean.” For inking-up a photo-lith­o­graphic
chromated gelatine print such an ink cannot be used. In order to
obtain a good result in trans­ferring, this ink must contain grease,
soap, and resin.
Any good transfer ink can be used for a developing ink, as this is
applied with a roller. It usually consists of equal parts of tallow, wax,
soap, some resin, and as much litho ink as all the other ingredients
put together.
That prepared by C. Kampmann, Technical Instructor in the K.K.
Lehr- und Versuchsanstalt at Vienna, contains, besides the above-
named ingredients, asphalt and gum elemi, and works well in
practice.
Thin developing inks, which are distributed with a broad brush or
a pad, can be prepared by diluting good transfer ink with equal
quantities of wax, benzine, and turpentine.
A good developing ink must have the following properties: When
spread upon the print must give a clean, sharp, sufficiently dense
impression, which can be easily transferred to the plate or stone; on
the other hand, the drawing ought not to spread. The transfer
should possess such resistance that, without rolling up, it should
resist a slight etching.
5.—The behaviour of asphalt on stone or zinc. When a stone or
plate is coated with asphalt solution and exposed under a negative,
and then washed with turpentine, the exposed parts remain
insoluble, and in this way photo-lithographs can be prepared. The
asphalt here takes the place of the fatty ink, and is, after printing, so
firm and hard that without any rolling or inking up it can be etched
with a weak, gummy, etching solution, which gives a cleaner,
sharper drawing than the other processes. The asphalt and other
light sensitive resins not only intimately combine with the stone or
plate, but chemically alter the surface of the stone, and possibly in a
more advantageous way than the greasy inks. When a properly-
exposed drawing on stone is, immediately after printing and
development, treated for a long time with rectified or Neustadt
turpentine, it is completely removed from the stone, and it will be
found that the drawing appears of a somewhat lighter colour than
the rest of the surface of the stone. If this is now inked up with a
roller, these places take up the ink without having previously come
into contact with grease . Numerous experiments which I have made
on various lines go to show that the {9} chemical theory of
lithography has found an important enlargement with the use of
asphalt.
The following are principal conclusions to be drawn from my
experiments:—
(a. ) The exposed asphalt, whether this exposure is made by
printing or whether a drawing is first made and then exposed to the
light, adheres more firmly to the stone or zinc plate than if it was not
exposed. An asphalt drawing prepared in the dark and inked up does
not adhere to the stone, and this may be explained in that the
grease cannot act through the asphalt film. Insensitive asphalt
behaves in the same way. With correct exposure under a clear
negative of about 20 degrees Vogel, and subsequent development
and auxiliary exposure for about half to one hour, the drawing
adheres firmly to the stone. If the image is to be washed off, the
turpentine must act for five to ten minutes on the film, till the
exposed asphalt has dissolved. If, after washing off, it is inked up, all
the places take the ink well, and the image appears clear and plain.
The image can only be destroyed by strong acids or alkalies, which
actually dissolve the stone itself.
From this it is clear that the prints neither require inking up nor
strengthening in any other way, and my experiments have proved
that in all cases the prints are, by this treatment, clogged up, and
neither gain as regards a longer run nor in withstanding etching.
(b. ) Solution of asphalt, to which oil has not been added, behaves
as described above; if, however, oil is added to it, it acts still better
as regards the keeping of the drawing, and the prints need no
subsequent exposure. Too large an addition of oil has the
disadvantage that, in developing with turpentine, the asphalt
dissolves too quickly. The images wash off and one hardly has time
to examine. The exposed asphalt, to which oil has been added, also
dissolves very readily. For the preparation of colour plates this point
is of some importance.
6.—The etching and preparing solutions are those solutions which
make the stone suitable or unsuitable for taking the grease or water.
Generally these are acids and gum arabic, either used alone or
together.
Of the acids the most important is nitric acid , the purpose of
which is to convert the surface of the stone into a nitrate, so that the
grease cannot penetrate. This acid acts even when diluted very
energetically on the stone, and produces a fine grain.
Hydrochloric acid exerts a less energetic action; it leaves the
stone smoother and does not attack it so evenly as nitric acid, but
has the same result finally.
Sulphuric acid ought not to be used for etching stone. It forms
calcium sulphate on the surface of the stone, and this separates
from the stone in printing and spoils the pulls. {10}
Phosphoric acid may be used for etching as well as for preparing
the stone; it exerts a very faint etching action and is seldom used for
this purpose, but principally for making corrections.
 Acetic acid plays a very important part in lithography. It possesses
the property, even in very dilute condition, of stopping the action of
the gum and oxalic acid, and, indeed, even that of the stronger
nitric, sulphuric, and hydrochloric acids. It finds, therefore,
considerable use in negative printing, in making corrections, etc. It
converts the stone into its original condition and makes it suitable
again for taking ink.
Citric acid fulfils the same purpose, but is, however, much higher
in price.
Oxalic acid is not used for etching, but only for preparation of the
stone. By rubbing the stone with a solution of oxalic acid with a pad
of cloth it takes a mirror-like surface or polish, into which the fatty
ink cannot penetrate. It is used for preparing the stone for
lithogravure, negative drawing, and negative transfer, etc.
Tincture of galls , or instead of this, what is simpler, gallic acid, is
used in lithography. It contains plenty of tannin, and is one of the
most efficacious means of preventing the combination of the stone
or zinc plate with fatty substances.
Gum arabic or some other vegetable gum is indispensable for litho
and zincography. A 10 per cent. solution of gum is generally used. It
penetrates all the pores of the stone and the plate, and gives the
same a thin but very firm film, and prevents the ink taking on these
places. If it has become slightly acid it acts as a weak etcher, and as
an addition to nitric acid it makes the same of thicker consistence
and more easily distributable. The action of gum can be removed
with acetic or citric acid; with water alone this cannot be perfectly
effected.
7.—Etching the stone. There are two principal etchings, the simple
ordinary or first etching , which obviously has the purpose of giving
the drawing the necessary stability and protecting the blank places
from taking ink, and the deep or sharp etching gives for combination
printing a still greater lasting power, and for large runs keeps the
drawing clean and sharp.
 The ordinary etching chiefly causes the fatty substances to
assume a new chemical condition, since in combination with the
stone they form insoluble fatty salts of lime, which represent the
printing surfaces. It has, however, also the property of cleaning the
blank stone surfaces from any adherent grease, and makes the
blank parts of the stone incapable of taking ink; also it makes the
drawing clearer and more precise.
The strength of the first etching may differ, according to the
following circumstances:—
(a. ) The stone; for hard stones stand a stronger, and soft stones a
weaker etching. {11}
(b. ) The printing image; fine drawings must at first be etched with
a weaker solution; coarser drawings, on the other hand, will stand a
fairly strong etcher.
(c. ) The material with which the print or drawing has been
prepared; very fatty developing inks and asphalt stand well even
with strong etching, whereas with lean or hard inks only a weak
etching should be used.
An etching solution which is at the limit of strength, but still
suitable for a hard stone or a very coarse drawing, would
irretrievably ruin a very fine drawing on a soft stone.
Commercial acids differ considerably in strength, and it is,
therefore, better to use a hydrometer than a measure. It is also
always more satisfactory not to use the acid by itself, but in
conjunction with gum. A solution of gum of eight to ten degrees
strength is diluted with nitric acid till it measures 10 to 12 degrees
on the hydrometer. This solution may be safely used for every case,
and it is only necessary to allow it to act longer for coarser drawings;
it should be evenly distributed over the surface of the stone with a
clean soft pad. In very hot weather it acts more energetically, and
then it should be used weaker for fine work. In any case it is
advisable to let the stone or plate stand for some hours before
etching, so that the ink may thoroughly combine. The etching of zinc
plates will be more fully described later on; in other respects the
treatment is the same as for stone.
8.—Deep-etching process. The idea of this is chiefly to increase
the printing form and to make the stone more resistant in printing.
In working this the principal thing is to sufficiently protect the
drawing from the action of the strong acid. This is generally done by
dusting with resin, which has a low melting point.
There are two deep-etching processes which are chiefly used, one
in which the resin is melted with a spirit flame, the other in which
the same thing is done by ether vapour.
The procedure in each case is extremely simple. In the so-called
burnt-etching process, which has been perfected by Eberle, of
Vienna, the already etched stone ready for printing is rolled up with
a very stiff printing ink, not transfer ink, and then the drawing
dusted with the finest powdered resin. The stone is then gone over
with a cotton-wool pad and plenty of talc or French chalk, and then
well dusted off with a broad camel’s hair brush in order to remove all
traces of resin from the blank stone. To melt the resin a spirit lamp
with a side flame is used. The flame is passed over the drawing, and
ought only to be allowed to act sufficiently long to make the resin
combine with the ink, which can be recognized by the drawing
looking shiny. If it has been melted too long the sharpness of the
drawing is damaged. After this the etching may be at once
proceeded with, and this is effected with a solution of gum to which
8 to 10 per cent. by measure of 44 per cent. nitric acid has been
added. For fine drawings 4 to {12} 6 per cent. of acid should be used.
In using this a fairly strong effervescence takes place, which should
not frighten anyone.
In the ether or cold-melting process exactly the same procedure
takes place, only that instead of melting with an open flame this is
effected by ether vapour.
For this work a wooden stick of about 2 mm. thick is laid on two
edges of the stone. On another ruler, which should be large enough
to cover the whole of the stone, and which should be covered with
flannel or stout cloth, ether is poured; this ruler is laid on the others,
so that it forms a right angle with them, and is slowly drawn over
the surface of the stone. The ether vapour falls on to the surface of
the stone and dissolves the resin which thus forms the protective
film for the deep etching, which is done precisely as described
above.
Another melting process recommended by Scamoni consists in
pouring alcohol on the stone and then setting fire to it.
9.—Differentiation of the printing processes. Technically we
differentiate the principal printing methods into three, according to
the method of production. The first and oldest is the typographic or
letterpress printing, which is founded on the principle that every line
or every point which ought to print must stand up on the plate, and
all those places which must appear white in the print must be
sunken in. The artistic effect is obtained by tones which are formed
of individual lines or points, which are closer together or further
apart, or else print finer or deeper. In printing a forme or plate, etc.,
it must be “made ready,” that is to say, the pressure in printing must
be so arranged for each part of the picture that on the lighter places
or finer places less pressure must be exerted, whilst on the deeper
tones more pressure should fall, according to their gradation. This
balancing, which is technically termed “making ready,” is effected by
cutting out the delicate and building up the strong or dark parts on
the overlay. With a proper overlay the artistic effect of the picture
can be much increased; with a faulty overlay it can be quite spoilt.
In letterpress printing the artistic element lies in the making ready.
Typographic prints are distinguished by the lines, figures, etc.,
being somewhat pressed into the paper, and show raised up on the
back, which is technically termed “impression.” When this
“impression” is very plain, that is to say when the printing has gone
pretty deeply into the paper, it is advisable before reproduction to
remove this by strong pressure.
 The second method of printing is exactly the opposite of the first,
and is founded on the principle of printing from intaglio. The lines
and points which should print are cut mechanically (by engraving or
piercing) or chemically (by etching) into the stone. The etched or
engraved intaglio plate represents a negative, or a reversed wood-
cut, only with the difference that the lines do not {13} lay in the same
plane. In order to obtain an impression the ink is pressed into the
cut-out parts, and is wiped off from the surface of the plate. By
stronger or weaker wiping the print receives a stronger or weaker
local tone, which is of great advantage from an artistic point of view,
but which forms no small obstacle to the reproduction.
The impression is represented in relief on the paper. According to
the depth of the lines they take more or less ink, and appear
therefore raised up in the impression according to the amount of
their depth in the plate. Reproduction photography has to reckon on
this disadvantage, for with a side illumination the raised up lines cast
shadows, and a correct negative does not follow.
By the third method, lithography, of which we have already
spoken, the impression lies generally flat on the paper like a
drawing, if a very strong deep etching was not used, in which case it
is also slightly raised. In printing from the graver or from stone
etching a faint relief is generally noticeable, which is never so high
as with copperplate printing, and which is no important obstacle to
making a photographic negative.
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