INTRODUCTION AND STEPS

IN RESEARCH
Research methods and statistics

By Psycho Didi
 WHAT IS RESEARCH

Kerlinger (1973) defines research as a

"systematic, controlled, empirical and critical
investigation of hypothetical propositions about the
presumed relationship about various phenomena."

Like any scientific research, psychological enquiry has

the following goals: description, prediction, explanation,
and control of behaviour, and application of knowledge
so generated, in an objective manner.
 QUALITIES OF GOOD RESEARCH
Good research Is systematic it means that research is structured
according to set of rules to follow certain steps in specified
sequence.
Good research is empiricaI it implies that any conclusion drawn is
based upon hardcore evidence gathered from information collected
from real life experiences and observations. Good research is valid
and verifiable: Research involves precise observation and accurate
description.
Good Researchs logical it suggests that research is guided by the
rules of reasoning and logieai process of induction and deduction
that plays an important role in carrying out research.
Good research develops theories and principles: which are very
helpful in accurate prediction regarding the variables under study.
Research is replicable: the designs, procedures and results of
scientific. research should be replicable so that any person other
than the researcher himself may assess their validity
TYPES OF RESEARCH
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
CASE STUDIES
In-depth examination of a single individual, group, or event
using multiple methods (e.g., interviews, observations).
Provides rich qualitative data and insights into complex
issues.
Lacks generalizability due to focus on one subject.
Useful for generating hypotheses for future research.

INTERVIEW METHOD
Involves direct interaction to gather detailed qualitative data.
Can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured.
Reveals personal insights into thoughts and experiences.
Risks interviewer bias and is time-consuming.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
OBSERVATIONAL METHODS
Involves systematic observation of behaviors in natural settings.
Types: Participant (involved) and Non-participant (observer
only).
High ecological validity but prone to observer bias.
Lacks control over external variables, affecting causality.

META-ANALYSIS
Combines results from multiple studies to find patterns and
draw conclusions.
Increases sample size and generalizability.
Helps resolve conflicting findings in literature.
Quality depends on included studies; risk of publication bias.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
OBSERVATIONAL METHODS SURVEY METHODS
Involves systematic observation of behaviors in natural Collects data from a large group using questionnaires or
settings. interviews.
Types: Participant (involved) and Non-participant Can be conducted online, face-to-face, or by phone.
(observer only). Useful for understanding attitudes, behaviors, and
High ecological validity but prone to observer bias. demographics.
Lacks control over external variables, affecting causality. Prone to response biases, such as social desirability.

META-ANALYSIS CONTENT ANALYSIS

Combines results from multiple studies to find patterns Analyzes communication content (texts, videos, social
and draw conclusions. media).
Increases sample size and generalizability. Identifies patterns, themes, or concepts.
Helps resolve conflicting findings in literature. Can be quantitative (frequency) or qualitative (meaning).
Quality depends on included studies; risk of publication bias. Requires careful coding and may involve subjective
interpretation.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
CORRELATIONAL METHOD NATURALISTIC METHOD
Examines relationships between variables using Observes behavior in its natural environment without
correlation coefficients. interference.
Shows strength and direction of relationships (positive, Ensures ecological validity by preserving real-world conditions.
negative, or none). No control over variables, making causality difficult to
Does not establish causality, only associations. establish.
Useful for identifying patterns for further research. Ethical concerns over observing without participants' consent.

CROSS-SECTIONAL METHOD FIELD EXPERIMENT

Collects data at one point in time from different groups. Conducted in real-world settings with manipulated variables.
Provides a snapshot for comparison across High external validity due to natural context.
demographics or variables. Challenges in controlling variables due to complex
No insight into changes over time or causal relationships. environments.
Efficient for large-scale surveys and demographic Ethical concerns if participants aren't aware of the experiment.
studies.
 STEPS IN RESEARCH- IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM
Identifying a problem is the first step in research, starting with a question or need arising from curiosity.
Psychological studies often explore:
Causes of behavior or responses.
Nature and structure of behavior and its connections with other actions.
Links between psychological processes and behavior.
The research question shapes the study’s direction. To formulate it:
Understand the problem thoroughly.
Rephrase it analytically for clarity.
Consider these while defining the problem:
Financial resources and time availability.
Expertise of both researcher and supervisor.
Knowledge of software if needed.
Also, check for gaps in relevant knowledge, like in statistics required for analysis.
 STEPS IN RESEARCH- REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A review of literature helps identify a research problem and avoid duplication by examining prior work
related to the topic. It guides future research by familiarizing the researcher with known and unknown
phenomena.

Main purposes include:

Identifying relevant variables for the study.
Extending previous research meaningfully.
Organizing existing knowledge systematically.
Drawing conclusions about variables and their applications.
Redefining variables and understanding their relationships.
Sources for literature review include journals, books, abstracts, indexes, and periodicals. PsycINFO is a
valuable tool for searching psychological research, along with its print version, Psychological Abstracts.
 STEPS IN RESEARCH- FORMULATING A HYPOTHESIS
After identifying the problem and reviewing relevant
literature, the researcher formulates a hypothesis. This is a
tentative statement about the relationship between
variables, presented as a declarative sentence. Hypotheses
are often based on theory, previous research, or personal
observations.
For example, if past research suggests a positive
relationship between reward and learning, a possible
hypothesis could be:
"Those who are rewarded will require fewer trials to
learn a lesson than those who are not rewarded."

A hypothesis is essential as it guides the study. It should be

formulated before data collection to maintain objectivity
and avoid bias.
 STEPS IN RESEARCH- IDENTIFYING, MANIPULATING, AND
CONTROLLING VARIABLES
While discussing the hypothesis, you will encounter the term ‘variable’ in psychological research. Variables are characteristics
that are manipulated, controlled, and observed by the experimenter.
There are three types of variables:
Dependent Variable: The outcome or effect being measured. It changes as the independent variable is manipulated.
Independent Variable: The condition or characteristic that is manipulated by the experimenter to observe its effect on the
dependent variable.
Extraneous Variable: An uncontrolled factor that may influence the dependent variable. It is also known as the relevant
variable and needs to be controlled to ensure accurate results.
To clearly define variables, they must be operationally defined. An operational definition specifies the exact operations used to
measure or manipulate a variable. This is crucial in psychological research due to the complex nature of variables.
Psychologists use:
Verbal Measures (self-reports)
Behavioral Measures (observations)
Psychological Measures (biological or physiological indicators)
These measures help in quantifying variables and ensuring precision in communication.
 STEPS IN RESEARCH- FORMULATING A RESEARCH DESIGN
A research design may be regarded as the blueprint of the procedures that the researcher follows to test the relationship between
the dependent variable and the independent variable. There are several types of experimental designs, and the selection of any one
depends on:
The purpose of the research
The types of variables to be controlled and manipulated
The conditions under which the experiment is conducted
The main purpose of an experimental design is to help the researcher in manipulating the independent variables freely while
providing maximum control over the extraneous variables. This ensures that any changes in the dependent variable are solely due to
the manipulation of the experimental variable.
The main function of a research design is to explain how the researcher will find answers to the research questions. It sets out the
logic of the inquiry and includes:
The study design
The logistical arrangements proposed
The measurement procedures
The sampling strategy
The frame of analysis
The time frame
 CONSTRUCTING DEVICES FOR OBSERVATION AND MEASUREMENT
When the research design has been formulated, the next step is to construct or collect and choose appropriate
tools of research for scientific observation and measurement. Depending on the nature of the research problem,
a researcher may choose a particular method (e.g., observation, experiment, case study, correlation, and survey).
If readymade tools are not available, the researcher may have to develop appropriate tools before undertaking
the study. All these tools of research are the various methods through which data are collected by asking for
information from a person rather than observing them.

SAMPLE SELECTION AND DATA COLLECTION

After deciding the tools for the study, the researcher must also decide about the participants of the study, for
which purpose usually a small sample is drawn that represents the population. Then the actual study proceeds.
Observations are made of the variables of interest, which involves an experiment in which all variables are
carefully controlled. Field study, field experiment, or survey may be conducted. Whatever method is selected, the
point is that the investigator is observing the variables of interest.
 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
After making observations, the data collected are analyzed with the help of various quantitative and qualitative
statistical techniques. Careful scrutiny of the data is a critical aspect of the scientific method. The purpose of the
analysis is to make sense of the data and see what light they throw on the problem and the hypotheses of the
study.

HYPOTHESIS TESTING
After analyzing data, the researcher is in a position to test the hypothesis. The question is whether the facts
support the hypotheses or if they happen to be contrary. Various parametric and non-parametric tests have been
developed for this purpose. The hypothesis may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests,
depending upon the nature and object of the research inquiry. Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting or
rejecting it.
 DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
After analyzing the results, the investigator draws some conclusions. The investigator wants to make
statements about the research problem that could not be made without conducting the research. It is during
this phase that the hypotheses are accepted or rejected. At the same time, the conclusions of the study are
related to the theory or research findings from which the hypotheses originally came. Depending on the new
findings, the original theory may have to be modified.

PREPARATION OF REPORT AND PUBLICATION

This is the last step in most of the research studies. The researcher documents all the steps of his or her
research in clear terms. This report informs the reader about what the researcher has done, what has been
discovered, and what conclusions the researcher has drawn from the findings. If the researcher is clear about the
whole process, they will also be clear about how they want to write the report. This helps the reader to
understand the study and use it for various purposes. It allows one to replicate the study. The publication of the
study in scientific journals or books makes the work available for wider dissemination.
1. Which of the following best illustrates the importance of formulating a
hypothesis in psychological research?

a) It provides a tentative statement showing a relationship between variables.

b) It ensures data is collected before forming any assumptions.
c) It eliminates the need for a literature review.
d) It solely focuses on proving a theory right.
2. In the context of identifying, manipulating, and controlling variables, why is
it crucial to operationally define variables?

a) To simplify the data collection process.

b) To minimize the influence of the independent variable.
c) To ensure clear communication and accurate measurement.
d) To focus only on qualitative data analysis.
3. Which research design would be most appropriate if a psychologist wants to
isolate the effect of an independent variable while controlling extraneous
variables?

a) Correlational study
b) Experimental design
c) Case study
d) Survey method
4. In hypothesis testing, what is the significance of using both parametric and
non-parametric tests?

a) They are used interchangeably without affecting the results.

b) They cater to different types of data distributions and research objectives.
c) They guarantee the acceptance of the hypothesis.
d) They are required only when the sample size is large.
5. Why is it essential to relate the conclusions of a study to the theory or
previous research findings from which the hypotheses originated?

a) To avoid contradicting well-established theories.

b) To determine whether the new findings support, refute, or modify existing
knowledge.
c) To ensure the publication of the research paper.
d) To increase the complexity of the research report.