By Sisay B.(MSc.

)
December, 2023

1
 KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS OF PARTICLES
 Mechanics is the study of the physics of motions and how it relates to the physical
factors that affect them, like force, mass, momentum and energy.
 Mechanics may be divided into two branches:
Dynamics, which deals with the motion of objects with its cause – force; and
Kinematics describes the possible motions of a body or system of bodies without
considering the cause.
Alternatively, mechanics may be divided according to the kind of system studied.
The particle, defined as a body so small that its shape and internal structure are of no
consequence in the given problem.
System of two or more particles that exert forces on one another and possibly
undergo forces exerted by bodies outside of the system.

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Cont’d
Kinematics in One and Two Dimensions
 Kinematics is the branch of mechanics that describes the motion of objects
without reference to the causes of motion (i.e., forces).
 Kinematics is concerned on analyzing kinematical quantities used to describe
motion such as velocity, acceleration, displacement, time, and trajectory.
 Planets moving around the sun, car moving along a road, blood flowing through
veins, etc, are some examples of motion.

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Cont’d
2.1.1. Displacement, velocity and Acceleration in 1D and 2D Definition:
Kinematical Quantities
 Position: - The location of an object with respect to a chosen reference point.
 Displacement: - The change in position of an object with respect to a given
reference frame.

 Distance (S):- The length of the path followed by the object.

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Cont’d
 Average Velocity (𝒗𝒂𝒗 ):-is the total displacement divided by the total time.
∆𝒓 𝒓𝒇 −𝒓𝒊
𝒗𝒂𝒗 = =
∆𝒕 𝒕𝒇 −𝒕𝒊

 Average Speed: - is the total distance traveled by the object divided by the total
elapsed time.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑠)
𝑣𝑎𝑣 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙(∆𝑡)
∆𝒓
 Instantaneous Velocity (𝒗): - is the limiting value of the ratio as approaches ∆𝑡
∆𝒕Ԧ
zero.
∆𝒓
𝑣Ԧ = lim
Ԧ
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝒕
The instantaneous speed:-It is the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity

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Cont’d
 Average and Instantaneous Accelerations:
If the velocity of a particle changes with time, then the particle is said to be
accelerating.
 Average acceleration: is the change in velocity (∆𝒗) of an object divided by the
∆𝒗 𝒗𝒇 −𝒗𝒊
time interval during which that change occurs. 𝒂𝒂𝒗 = =
∆𝒕 𝒕𝒇 −𝒕𝒊

 Instantaneous acceleration: The limit of average acceleration as ∆𝒕 approaches

zero.
∆𝒗
𝑎Ԧ = lim
Ԧ
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝒕

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Cont’d
Example: A person walks first at a constant speed of 5m/s along the straight line
from point A to point B, and then back along the same line from B to A at a constant
speed of 3m/s
a) What is his average speed over the entire trip?
b) What is his average velocity over the entire trip?
Solution

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑠)

a) By definition average speed is 𝑣𝑎𝑣 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙(∆𝑡)
the total distance covered in the entire trip is 𝑺𝑨𝑩 + 𝑺𝑩𝑨 = 𝟐𝒙
𝑺𝒕𝒐𝒕 𝑺𝑨𝑩 +𝑺𝑩𝑨 𝒙 𝒙 𝒙 𝒙
𝒗𝒂𝒗 = 𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒕
= 𝒕𝑨𝑩 +𝒕𝑩𝑨
, But 𝒕𝑨𝑩 = 𝒗 = 𝟓𝒎/𝒔, 𝒕𝑩𝑨 = 𝒗 = 𝟑𝒎/𝒔
𝑨𝑩 𝑩𝑨

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Cont’d
𝟐𝒙 𝟏𝟓 𝟏𝟓
Therefore, 𝒗𝒂𝒗 = 𝒙 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒙 = = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟓𝒎/𝒔
+ 𝟖𝒙 𝟒
𝟓𝒎/𝒔 𝟑𝒎/𝒔

b) Average velocity over the entire trip is zero, because for the entire trip
𝒓𝒇 = 𝒓𝒊 → ∆𝒓 = 𝒓𝒇 − 𝒓𝒊 =0
∆𝒓 𝒓𝒇 − 𝒓𝒊
𝒗𝒂𝒗 = = =𝟎
∆𝒕 𝒕𝒇 − 𝒕𝒊
Motion with Constant Acceleration
For motion with constant acceleration,
 The velocity changes at the same rate throughout the motion
 Average acceleration over any time interval is equal to the instantaneous
acceleration at any instant of time

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Cont’d

 For motion with constant acceleration, average velocity can be written as:
 By definition

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Cont’d
 For 2D motion

Example 1
A track covers 40m in 8.5s while smoothly slowing down to a final speed of 2.8m/s.
Find a) Its original speed b) b) its acceleration
Solution: we are given that 𝑆 = 40 𝑚, 𝑡 = 8.5𝑠 and 𝑣𝑓 = 2.8𝑚/𝑠
𝑣𝑓 +𝑣𝑖
a) ∆𝑟Ԧ = 𝑣Ԧ𝑎𝑣 𝑡 , The magnitude of 𝑣Ԧ𝑎𝑣 is 𝑣𝑎𝑣 = 2
𝑣𝑓 +𝑣𝑖 2𝑆
The magnitude of ∆𝑟Ԧ is 𝑆 = 2
𝑡 → 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑡
− 𝑣𝑓

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Cont’d
2(40𝑚) 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝑣𝑖 = − 2.8 = 9.4 − 2.8 = 6.6𝑚/𝑠
8.5𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝑚 𝑚
∆𝑣 𝑣𝑓 −𝑣𝑖 𝑣𝑓 −𝑣𝑖 6.6 −2.8
𝑠 𝑠
b) 𝑎Ԧ = =
∆𝑡 𝑡
, The magnitude of the acceleration is 𝑎 = 𝑡
= 8.5𝑠
=
0.447𝑚/𝑠 2

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Cont’d
Free Fall Motion
 The motion of an object near the surface of the Earth under the only control of the
force of gravity is called free fall.
 In the absence of air resistance, all objects fall with constant acceleration, g, toward
the surface of the Earth.
 On the surface of the Earth, the generally accepted value is g = 9.8 m/s2 .
 The acceleration due to gravity varies with latitude, longitude and altitude on
Earth‘s surface.
 And it is greater at the poles than at the equator and greater at sea level than a top
mountain.
 The value of 9.8 m/s2 , with only two significant digits, is true for most places on
the surface of the Earth up to altitudes of about 16 km.

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Cont’d
Example 1:

Example 2:

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Cont’d

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Cont’d
Projectile Motion
 Projectile is any object thrown obliquely into the space.
 The object which is given an initial velocity and afterwards follows a path
determined by the gravitational force acting on it is called projectile and the
motion is called projectile motion.
Examples: a stone projected at an angle, a bomb released from an aero plane, a shot
fired from a gun, a shot put or javelin thrown by the athlete are examples for the
projectile.
Consider a body projected from a point 'O' with velocity 'u'. The point 'o' is called
point of projection and 'u' is called velocity of projection.

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Cont’d
Velocity of Projection (u): the velocity with which the body projected.
Angle of Projection (α): The angle between the direction of projection and the
horizontal plane passing through the point of projection is called angle of projection.
Trajectory (OAB): The path described by the projectile from the point of projection
to the point where the projectile reaches the horizontal plane passing through the
point of projection is called trajectory. The trajectory of the projectile is a parabola.
Basic assumptions in projectile motion
 The free fall acceleration (g) is constant over the range of motion and it is directed
downward.
 The effect of air resistance is negligible.

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Cont’d
 For projectile motion
𝑎𝑦 = −𝑔
𝑎𝑥 = 0
(b/ce there is
no force acting
horizontally)
 The horizontal position of the projectile after some time t is:
1
∆𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2 , 𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 = (0,0) if the projectile is initially at the origin
1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑡 + 0 𝑡 2 = 𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝒕 ----------(1)
2
 The vertical position of the projectile after some time t
1 𝟏
∆𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑦 𝒕𝟐 𝒚𝒇 = 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒕 − 𝒈𝒕 𝟐
-------------------(2)
𝟐

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Cont’d
 The horizontal components of the velocity
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 But 𝑎𝑥 = 0 , 𝑣𝑥 = 𝒖𝒙 = 𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽-----------------(3)
 The vertical components of the velocity
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 → 𝒗𝒚 = 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝒈𝒕 --------------------------------(4)
Horizontal Range and Maximum Height
 When the projectile reaches the maximum height (the peak), 𝑣𝑦 = 0,
 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡 → 0 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡
𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝒕= (time to reach maximum height)
𝒈
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2
At 𝑦 = ℎ, 𝑡 = → ℎ = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃( ) − 2 𝑔( )
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔
𝒖𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽
𝒉= 𝟐𝒈
----------------------------------------------------------------------(5)

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Cont’d
The Range(R) is the horizontal displacement of the projectile covered in a total time
of flight.
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 2𝑡, Where 𝑡 = then 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑡 = -----------------------(6)
𝑔 𝑔
2𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
When 𝑥 = 𝑅, 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑅= (𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)( )
𝑔 𝑔
𝒖𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽
But 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 , 𝑹= ( 𝒈 ) ----------------------------(7)
The range (R) is maximum,
when 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 1 → 2𝜃 = 900 → 𝜃 = 450
𝒖𝟐
𝑹𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝒈

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Cont’d
Example 1
A rocket is fired with an initial velocity of 100m/s at an angle of 550 above the
horizontal. It explodes on the mountain side 12s after its firing. What is the x-and y-
coordinates of the rocket relative to its firing point?
Solution: We are given that

and the vertical position (y) of the rocket

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Particle Dynamics and Planetary Motion
 The study of the motion of particles in terms of the forces associated with that
motion is called particle dynamics. That is they have causes.
 Force: any interaction that changes the motion an object. A force moves or tends to
move, stops or tends to stop the motion of the object.
 The force can also change the direction of motion of an object.
 It can also change the shape or size of a body on which it acts.
 Net force: is defined as the vector sum of all the forces acting on the object.
 The object accelerates only if the net force (𝐹Ԧ𝑛𝑒𝑡 ) acting on it is not equal to zero.

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Cont’d
The Concept of Force as A Measure of Interaction
 Any of the four basic forces gravitational, electromagnetic, strong nuclear
and weak forces govern how particles interact.
The fundamental interactions are characterized on the basis of the following four
criteria:
 the types of particles that experience the force,
 the relative strength of the force,
 the range over which the force is effective, and
 the nature of the particles that mediate the force.

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Cont’d
Type of Forces
Forces are usually categorized as contact and non-contact.
Contact Force: It is a type of force that requires bodily contact with another object.
And it is further divided into the following.
 Muscular Forces. Which one is contact force
 Frictional Forces
 Normal Forces (Applied force, tension force, spring force and Air resisting Force)
Non-contact Force: It is a type of force that does not require a physical contact with
the other object. It is further divided into the following types of forces:
 Gravitational Force
 Magnetic Force
 Electrostatic Force

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Cont’d
Newton’s Laws of Motion and Applications
 Laws of motions are formulated for the first time by English physicist Sir Isaac
Newton in 1687.
 Newton developed the three laws of motion in order to explain why the orbits of
the planets are ellipses rather than circles, at which he succeeded.
 Newton‘s laws continue to give an accurate account of nature, except for very small
bodies such as electrons or for bodies moving close to the speed of light.

24
Cont’d
1. Newton’s First law of Motion:
“Everybody continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless
it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed upon it.”
Sometimes called the Law of Inertia.
Essentially, it makes the following two points:
 An object that is not in motion will not move until a force acting upon it.
 An object in constant motion will not change its velocity until a force acts upon it.

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Cont’d

Another way of stating Newton's First Law of motion:

 A body that is acted on by no net force moves at a constant velocity (which
may be zero) and zero acceleration.
 So with no net force, the object just keeps doing what it is doing.
 This means the vector sum of total forces acting upon the object must add up
to zero. An object sitting on a floor has a gravitational force pulling it
downward, but there is also a normal force pushing upward from the floor, so
the net force is zero. Therefore, it doesn‘t move.

26
Cont’d
2. Newton's Second law of Motion:
“The acceleration acquired by a point particle is directly proportional to the net force
acting on the particle and inversely proportional to its mass and the acceleration is
always in the direction of the net force.”
Mathematically, σ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 … … … … … … … … . .(1)
Where σ 𝐹 is the net force acting on the particle, 𝑚 is the mass of the particle and 𝑎
is the acceleration of the particle.
note that when the net forces on an object sum up to zero, we achieve the state
defined in Newton's First Law: the net acceleration must be zero.

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Cont’d
Example 2
A 3kg object undergoes an acceleration given by𝑎Ԧ = 2𝑖Ƹ + 5𝑗Ƹ 𝑚/𝑠 2 . Find the
magnitude of the resultant force.
Solution
We are given that 𝑚 = 3𝑘𝑔 , 𝑎Ԧ = 2𝑖Ƹ + 5𝑗Ƹ 𝑚/𝑠 2
We are asked to find the magnitude of 𝐹Ԧ 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
𝐹Ԧ = (3𝑘𝑔) 2𝑖Ƹ + 5𝑗Ƹ 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝐹Ԧ = 6𝑖Ƹ + 15𝑗Ƹ 𝑁
The magnitude of the force is
𝐹Ԧ = 62 + 152 = 16.15𝑁

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Cont’d
3. Newton's Third law of Motion in choice
States that “For every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction.”
consider two bodies A and B that are interacting and let 𝐹𝐴𝐵 is the force applied on
body 𝐴 by body 𝐵, and 𝐹𝐵𝐴 is the force applied on body 𝐵 by body 𝐴.
These forces will be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. In mathematical
terms, it is expressed as:
𝐹𝐵𝐴 = −𝐹𝐴𝐵 Or 𝐹𝐴𝐵 + 𝐹𝐵𝐴 = 0
Note that:
 Action and reaction forces are always exist in pair
 A single isolated force cannot exist
 Action and reaction forces act on different objects

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Cont’d

Exercise
1. Find the force needed to accelerate a mass of 40𝑘𝑔 from velocity 𝑣Ԧ𝑖 =
4𝑖Ƹ − 5𝑗Ƹ + 3𝑘෠ 𝑚/𝑠to 𝑣Ԧ𝑓 = 8𝑖Ƹ + 3𝑗Ƹ − 5𝑘෠ 𝑚/𝑠 in 10𝑠.
2. If a man weighs 900𝑁 on earth, what is his weight on Jupiter where the
acceleration due to gravity is 25.9𝑚/𝑠 2 ?

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Cont’d
Forces of Friction
 Frictional force refers to the force generated by two surfaces that are in contact and
either at rest or slide against each other.
 These forces are mainly affected by the surface texture and amount of force
impelling them together.
The angle and position of the object affect the amount of frictional force.
 If an object is placed on a horizontal surface against another object, then the
frictional force will be equal to the weight of the object.
 If an object is pushed against the surface, then the frictional force will be increased
and becomes more than the weight of the object.

31
Cont’d
Generally friction force is always proportional to the normal force between the two
interacting surfaces. Mathematically
𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡 ∝ 𝐹𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝐹𝑓 = 𝜇𝐹𝑁
Where the proportionality constant µ is the coefficient of friction.
 Forces of friction are very important in our everyday lives. They allow us to walk or
run and are necessary for the motion of wheeled vehicles.

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Cont’d
Two types of frictional force
1. Static friction: exists between two stationary objects in contact to each other.
Mathematically static friction is written as
𝑓𝑠 = 𝑓𝑠,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁
Where 𝜇𝑠 is the coefficient of static friction
2. Kinetic friction: arises when the object is in motion on the surface. The
magnitude of the force of kinetic friction acting between two surfaces is
𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁
Where 𝜇𝑘 is the coefficient of kinetic friction

33
Cont’d
 The values of 𝜇𝑠 and 𝜇𝑘 depend on the nature of the surfaces, but 𝜇𝑘 is generally
less than 𝜇𝑘 (which implies that 𝑓𝑘 < 𝑓𝑠 ). Typical values range from around 0.03 to
1.0.
 The direction of the friction force on an object is parallel to the surface with which
the object is in contact and opposite to the actual motion 𝑓𝑠 and 𝑓𝑘 of the object
relative to the surface.
 The coefficients of friction are nearly independent of the area of contact between
the surfaces.

34
Cont’d
Example
A 25.0-kg block is initially at rest on a horizontal surface. A horizontal force of 75.0 N
is required to set the block in motion. After it is in motion, a horizontal force of 60.0
N is required to keep the block moving with constant speed. Find the coefficients of
static and kinetic friction from this information.
Solution
We are given that 𝑚 = 25𝑘𝑔, 𝑓𝑠 = 75𝑁, 𝑓𝑘 = 60𝑁
We are asked to find 𝜇𝑠 & 𝜇𝑘 𝑓𝑠 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁 but 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑓𝑠 75𝑁
𝜇𝑠 = = 2
= 0.31
𝑚𝑔 (25𝑘𝑔)(9.8𝑚/𝑠 )
𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁 but 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑓𝑘 60𝑁
𝜇𝑘 = = 2
= 0.245
𝑚𝑔 (25𝑘𝑔)(9.8𝑚/𝑠 )

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Cont’d
Application of Newton’s Laws of Motion
 Applying Newton‘s laws to objects that are either in equilibrium (𝑎Ԧ = 0) or accelerating
along a straight line under the action of constant external forces.
Procedure when dealing with problems involving Newton‘s laws:
1. Draw a sketch of the situation.
2. Consider only one object (at a time), and draw a free-body diagram for that body, showing
all the forces acting on that body. Do not show any forces that the body exerts on other
bodies. If several bodies are involved, draw a free-body diagram for each body separately,
showing all the forces acting on that body.
3. Newton's second law involves vectors, and it is usually important to resolve vectors into
components. Choose an x and y axis in a way that simplifies the calculation.
4. For each body, Newton's second law can be applied to the x and y components separately.
That is the x component of the net force on that body will be related to the x component
of that body's acceleration: 𝐹𝑥 = m𝑎𝑥 , and similarly for the y direction.
5. Solve the equation or equations for the unknown(s).
36
 cont’d
Example 1

37
Cont’d

38
Cont’d

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Cont’d
Example 2
A bag of cement of weight 300 N hangs from three ropes as shown in the figure
below. Two of the ropes make angles of 𝜃1 = 53.0° and 𝜃2 = 37.0° with the
horizontal. If the system is in equilibrium, find the tensions 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 , and𝑇3 in the
ropes.
Solution
Draw two free body diagrams
a)

b)

40
Cont’d
σ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
Since the system is in equilibrium,σ 𝐹Ԧ = 0 →
σ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
From free body diagram (a) σ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑇2 𝑐𝑜𝑠37𝑜 − 𝑇1 𝑐𝑜𝑠53𝑜 = 0
0.8𝑇2 = 0.6𝑇1 (a)
෍ 𝐹𝑌 = 𝑇1 𝑠𝑖𝑛53𝑜 + 𝑇2 𝑠𝑖𝑛37𝑜 − 𝑇3 = 0

0.8𝑇2 + 0.6𝑇1 = 𝑇3 (b)

From free body diagram (b)
σ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑇3 − 𝑊 = 0 → 𝑇3 = 𝑊 = 300𝑁 (c)
Substituting (c) in (b) 0.8𝑇2 + 0.6𝑇1 = 300 𝑁 (d)
0.6𝑇1
But 0.8𝑇2 = 0.6𝑇1 → 𝑇2 = = 0.75𝑇1
0.8

41
Cont’d
Substituting for 𝑇2 in (d) gives 0.8𝑇1 + 0.6(0.75𝑇1 ) = 300 𝑁
𝑇1 = 240𝑁
𝑇2 = 0.75𝑇1 = 0.75(240𝑁)
𝑇2 = 180𝑁

Uniform Circular Motion

Uniform Circular Motion is motion of objects in a circular path with a constant
speed. Objects moving in a circular path with a constant speed can have acceleration.
∆𝒗
𝒂=
∆𝒕
There are two ways in which the acceleration can occur due to:
 change in magnitude of the velocity
 change in direction of the velocity

42
Cont’d
Hence, in case of uniform circular motion:
 Velocity is always tangent to the circular path and perpendicular to the radius of the
circular path.
 Acceleration is always perpendicular to the circular path, and points towards the
center of the circle. Such acceleration is called the centripetal acceleration.

43
Cont’d
𝑟Ԧ𝑖 = 𝑟Ԧ𝑓 = 𝑟
The angle ∆𝜃 in the figure (a)
and (b) are the same
∆𝑣 𝑣 ∆𝑟Ԧ 𝑣
By SAS similarity = → ∆𝑣Ԧ =
∆𝑟Ԧ 𝑟 𝑟
∆𝑣Ԧ ∆𝑟Ԧ 𝑣 𝑣2
𝑎Ԧ = → =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 𝑟 𝑟
𝒗𝟐
𝒂𝒄 = (Centripetal acceleration)
𝒓
Period(T):-Time required for one complete revolution
For a particle moving in a circle of radius r with a constant speed
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟
𝑣= →𝑇=
𝑇 𝑣
44
Cont’d
Activity
An athlete rotates a discus along a circular path of radius 1.06m.If the maximum
speed of the disc us is 20m/s, determine the magnitude of the maximum centripetal
acceleration.
Solution
𝒗𝟐
𝒂𝒄 =
𝒓

45
Cont’d
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
 Gravity is the weakest of the four basic forces found in nature,
 Newton was the first scientist to precisely define the gravitational force, and to
show that it could explain both falling bodies and astronomical motions.
 But Newton was not the first person to suspect that the same force caused both our
weight and the motion of planets.
 His forerunner Galileo Galilei had contended that falling bodies and planetary
motions had the same cause.
 Some of Newton‘s contemporaries, such as Robert Hooke, Christopher Wren, and
Edmund Halley, had also made some progress toward understanding gravitation.

46
Cont’d
 The gravitational force is always attractive, and it depends only on the masses
involved and the distance between them.
 Newton’s universal law of gravitation states that every particle in the universe
attracts every other particle with a force along a line joining them.
 The force is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
 Gravitational attraction is along a line joining the centers of mass of these two
bodies. The magnitude of the force is the same on each, consistent with Newton‘s
third law.

47
Cont’d
𝐺𝑚𝑀
𝐹Ԧ = 2 𝑟Ƹ
𝑟
Where 𝑟 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝐺 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 6.674 × 10−11 𝑁𝑚2 /𝑘𝑔2
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝑀 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
 We are unaware that even large objects like mountains exert gravitational forces on
us. In fact, our body weight is the force of attraction of the entire Earth on us with a
mass of 6 𝑥 1024 𝑘𝑔.
 Recall that the acceleration due to gravity g is about 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2 on Earth. We can now
determine why this is so. The weight of an object mg is the gravitational force
between it and Earth. Substituting mg for F in Newton‘s universal law of
gravitation gives
𝐺𝑚𝑀
𝑚𝑔 = 2
𝑟
48
Cont’d
𝐺𝑀
Then 𝑔= 𝑟2
2 5.98×1024 𝑘𝑔2
−11 𝑁𝑚
Substituting all, we get 𝑔 = (6.67 × 10 𝑘𝑔2
)( 6.38×106 𝑚 2 )
𝑚
We obtain a value for acceleration of a falling body: 𝑔 = 9.8 𝑠2
 The distance between the centers of mass of Earth and an object on its surface is
very nearly the same as the radius of Earth, because Earth is so much larger than
the object.
 This is the expected value and is independent of the body’s mass. Newton‘s law of
gravitation takes Galileo‘s observation that all masses fall with the same
acceleration a step further, explaining the observation in terms of a force that
causes objects to fall, in fact, in terms of a universally existing force of attraction
between masses.

49
Cont’d
Kepler’s Laws, Satellites Motion and Weightlessness
 Three theorems describing orbital motion.
1. Kepler’s First Law (Law of Orbits) States that the orbit of each planet in the
solar system is an ellipse, the Sun will be on one focus. The points F1 and
F2represented in figure are known as the foci of the ellipse.
This law says all planets orbit the sun in a path that resembles an ellipse, with the sun
being located at one of the foci of that ellipse.

50
Cont’d
2. Kepler’s Second Law (The Law of Areas) States that “the radius vector
connecting the centers of the Sun and the Planet sweeps out equal areas in equal
intervals of time.” The Figure below shows the two sectors of the ellipse having
equal areas corresponding to the same time intervals.
The second law describes the speed (which is constantly changing) at which any
given planet will move while orbiting the sun. A planet moves fastest when it is
closest to the sun and slowest when it is furthest from the sun. Yet, if an imaginary
line were drawn from the center of the planet to the center of the sun, that line would
sweep out the same area in equal periods of time.

51
Cont’d
3. Kepler’s Third Law (The Law of Harmony) States that “the square of the
orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the average distance
between the centers of the planet and the sun.”
Unlike Kepler's first and second laws that describe the motion characteristics of a
single planet, the third law makes a comparison between the motion characteristics
of different planets. The comparison being made is that the ratio of the squares of the
periods to the cubes of their average distances from the sun is the same for every one
of the planets.

52
Cont’d
 Observe that the 𝑇 2 /𝑅 3 ratio is the same for Earth as it is for mars. In fact, if the
same 𝑇 2 /𝑅 3 ratio is computed for the other planets, it can be found that this ratio is
nearly the same value for all the planets (see table below). Amazingly, every planet
has the same 𝑇 2 /𝑅 3 ratio.

Planet Period (yr) Average 𝑇 2 /𝑅3

Distance (au) (𝒚𝒓𝟐 /𝒂𝒖𝟑 )
Mercury 0.241 0.39 0.98
Venus 0.615 0.72 1.01
Earth 1.00 1.00 1.00
Mars 1.88 1.52 1.01
Jupiter 11.8 5.20 0.99
Saturn 29.5 9.54 1.00
Uranus 84.0 19.18 1.00
Neptune 165 30.06 1.00
Pluto 248 39.44 1.00
53
Cont’d
Work, Energy and Linear Momentum
 Work is defined as transfer of energy due to an applied force.
 If one object transfers (gives) energy to a second object, then the first object does
work on the second object. The energy of a moving object is called kinetic
energy.
 Potential energy is a state of the system, a way of storing energy as of virtue of its
configuration or motion, while work done in most cases is a way of changing this
energy from one body to another.
 When only conservative forces act within an isolated system, the kinetic energy
gained (or lost) by the system as its members change their relative positions is
balanced by an equal loss (or gain) in potential energy.
 This balancing of the two forms of energy is known as the principle of
conservation of mechanical energy.
54
Cont’d
For work to be done on an object, three essential conditions should be satisfied:
 Force must be exerted on the object
 The force must cause a motion or displacement
 The force should have a component along the line of displacement
Therefore 𝑊 = 𝐹.Ԧ ∆𝑟Ԧ = 𝐹Ԧ ∆𝑟Ԧ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
with unit of 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒(𝐽) 1𝐽 = 1𝑁. 1𝑚
Where 𝜃 is angle between 𝐹Ԧ and ∆𝑟.
Ԧ
 Work done by applied force is positive when the projection of 𝐹Ԧ onto ∆𝑟Ԧ is in the
same direction as ∆𝑟.
Ԧ

55
Cont’d
 Consider the Mass-spring system where the force applied varies with position
constantly.
 A block on a horizontal, frictionless surface is connected to a spring
 If the spring is either stretched or compressed a small distance from its un-
stretched (equilibrium) configuration, it exerts on the block a force that can be
expressed as:
𝑭𝒔 = −𝒌𝒙(𝐇𝐨𝐨𝐤 ′ 𝐬 𝐋𝐚𝐰)
𝑥 −position
𝑘 −force constant
𝐹𝑠 −restoring force

 The negative sign in the equation signifies that the force exerted by the spring is
always directed opposite to the displacement from equilibrium.

56
Cont’d
 Work done by the restoring force if the block undergoes an arbitrary displacement
from 𝑥𝑖 to 𝑥𝑓 is the area enclosed by the above graph.
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑊 = (𝐹 𝑥∆𝑋), 𝐹𝑠 = −𝑘∆𝑋
but
2 𝑠
1 2 1 2
𝑊 = 𝑘𝑥 𝑖 − 𝑘𝑥 𝑓
2 2
If the work is done by an applied force
1 2 1 2
𝑊𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 = 𝑘𝑥 𝑖 − 𝑘𝑥 𝑓 because 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 = 𝑘∆𝑋
2 2

57
Cont’d
Example
A particle is subject to a force 𝐹𝑥 that varies with position as in figure below. What is
the total work done by the force over the distance, 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 15.0 𝑚?

Solution
1 1
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑥 ∆𝑥 = ∆𝐴 = 5 3 + 5 3 + 5 3 = 30𝐽
2 2

58
Cont’d
Work- Energy theorem
One of the possible outcomes of doing work on a system is that the system change its
speed. An object of mass m is displaced from initial position 𝑟Ԧ𝑖 to a final position 𝑟Ԧ𝑓
under an action of the net force σ 𝐹Ԧ , the work done by the net force is 𝑊
𝑟Ԧ𝑓
= ‫ ׬‬σ 𝐹Ԧ . 𝑑𝑟Ԧ
𝑟Ԧ𝑖
𝑟Ԧ𝑓
Since the force is in direction of displacement 𝑊 = ‫𝑟׬‬Ԧ σ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟
𝑖
𝑑𝑣
σ Ԧ
From newton’s second law 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎Ԧ = 𝑚 𝑑𝑡

Where 𝑣𝑖 is speed of the object when it is at 𝑟Ԧ𝑖 and 𝑣𝑓 is at speed of 𝑟Ԧ𝑓 59

Cont’d
1 2 1 1
𝑊= 𝑚𝑣 𝑓 − 2 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑖
, where 𝑘 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2 2
𝑊 = ∆𝐾 = 𝑘𝑓 − 𝑘𝑖 (𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 − 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚)
 The work-kinetic energy theorem states that: In the case in which work is done on a
system and the only change in the system is in its speed, the work done by the net
force equals the change in kinetic energy of the system.
Exercise
1. A 0.600-kg particle has a speed of 2.00 m/s at point A and kinetic energy of 7.50 J
at point B. What is (a) its kinetic energy at A? (b) its speed at B? (c) the total
work done on the particle as it moves from A to B?
2. A 6.0 kg block initially at rest is pulled to the right along a horizontal, frictionless
surface by a constant horizontal force of 12N. Find the speed of the block after it
has moved 3.0m.

60
Cont’d
Potential Energy
Potential energy is related with conservative forces.
 Consider a system consisting of a book and the Earth, interacting via the
gravitational force.
 -We do some work on the system by lifting the book through a height ∆𝑦 = 𝑦𝑏 −𝑦𝑎
 -This work done on the system must appear as an increase in energy of the
system. But, the book is at rest before we perform the work and is at rest after we
perform the work. Thus, there is no change in the kinetic energy of the system.
 Since the energy change of the system is not in the form of kinetic energy, it must
appear as some other form of energy, and this energy is called gravitational
potential energy

61
Cont’d
 If the object is lifted with a constant velocity, the upward applied force is equal in
magnitude to the downward gravitational force.
𝐹Ԧ𝑎𝑝𝑝 = 𝑚𝑔𝑗Ƹ
𝑊 = 𝐹Ԧ𝑎𝑝𝑝 . ∆𝑟Ԧ
= 𝑚𝑔𝑗Ƹ . (𝑦𝑏 − 𝑦𝑎 )𝑗Ƹ = 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑏 − 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑎
𝑊 = ∆𝑈𝑔 ,
∆𝑈𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑏 − 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑎
The gravitational potential energy (𝑈𝑔) is define
∆𝑈𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔𝑦
Equation 4.8 is Valid only for objects near the surface of the Earth, where g is
approximately constant The gravitational potential energy depends only on the
vertical height of the object above the surface of the Earth. The surface of the earth is
chosen as a reference position for zero potential energy (𝑦 = 0).

62
Cont’d
Conservation of mechanical energy
Consider the book-earth system as shown below, as the book falls 𝑦𝑏 to 𝑦𝑎 , the work
done by the gravitational force on the book is:
𝑊𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑘 = 𝑚𝑔𝑗Ƹ . (𝑦𝑏 − 𝑦𝑎 )𝑗Ƹ = 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑏 − 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑎
From work-kinetic energy theorem,
𝑊𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑘 = ∆𝐾𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑘
𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑏 − 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑎 = − 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑏 − 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑎 = − 𝑈𝑓 − 𝑈𝑖 = −∆𝑈𝑔
∆𝐾𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑘 = −∆𝑈𝑔
∆𝐾𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑘 + ∆𝑈𝑔 = 0
𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 + 𝑈𝑓 − 𝑈𝑖 = 0
𝐾𝑓 + 𝑈𝑓 = 𝐾𝑖 + 𝑈𝑖 (Conservation of mechanical energy)
The mechanical energy of an isolated, friction-free system is conserved. An isolated
system is one for which there are no energy transfers across the boundary.
63
Cont’d
Mechanical energy: - It is defined as the sum of kinetic energy and potential
energy.
Therefore, the mechanical energy of an isolated system can be written as:
𝑬 = 𝑲+𝑼 = (Where U represents the total of all types of potential energy)
𝐾𝑓 +𝑈𝑓 = 𝐾𝑖 +𝑈𝑖 ----------------------------------------- (4.9)
For the an object of mass m falling in a gravitational field

64
Cont’d
Example: A 3.00-kg crate slides down a ramp. The ramp is 1.00m in length and
inclined at an angle of 30.0°, as shown in the figure below. The crate starts from rest
at the top, experiences a constant friction force of magnitude 5.00 N, and continues
to move a short distance on the horizontal floor after it leaves the ramp. Use energy
methods to determine the speed of the crate at the bottom of the ramp.

65
Cont’d
Solution
Since the non-conservative force (friction force) exists in the system,

66
Cont’d
Power
Power is defined as the time rate of energy transfer. If an external force is applied to
an object (which we assume acts as a particle), and if the work done by this force in
the time interval Δ𝑡 is 𝑊, then the average power during this interval is defined as
𝑊
𝑃𝑎𝑣 =
∆𝑡
The instantaneous power P is defined as the limiting value of the average power as
Δ𝑡 approaches zero:
𝑊 𝑊
𝑃 = lim = , but 𝑊 = 𝐹. ∆𝑟
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑡
𝑊 ∆𝑟Ԧ
𝑃= Ԧ
= 𝐹. Ԧ 𝑣Ԧ
= 𝐹.
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
𝑬 1𝐽 𝑚2
Generally 𝑷 = , SI unit of power 𝐽/𝑆 , 1𝑊 = = 1𝑘𝑔. 3
𝒕 𝑠 𝑠
 A unit of power in the U.S. customary system is the horsepower (ℎ𝑝):
1ℎ𝑝 = 746𝑊
67
Cont’d
Example: An older model car accelerates from rest to speed v in 10 seconds. A newer,
more powerful car accelerates from rest to 2v in the same time period. What is the
ratio of the power of the newer car to that of the older car?
Solution

Exercise
The electric motor of a model train accelerates the train from rest to 0.620 m/s in
21.0cs. The total mass of the train is 875 g. Find the average power delivered to the
train during the acceleration.

68
Cont’d
Linear Momentum
 Momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity
 The linear momentum of a particle or an object that can be modeled as a particle
of mass m moving with a velocity 𝑣Ԧ is defined to be the product of the mass and
velocity:
𝑝Ԧ = 𝑚𝑣Ԧ
 Momentum (𝑝) Ԧ is a vector quantity, and its direction is along the direction of the
velocity. Its SI unit is 𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠
 If a particle is moving in an arbitrary direction, must have three components 𝒑
= 𝒎𝒗 → [𝒑𝒙 = 𝒎𝒗𝒙 , 𝒑𝒚 = 𝒎𝒗𝒚 , 𝒑𝒛 = 𝒎𝒗𝒛 ]
 From newton’s law of motion
𝑑 𝑣Ԧ 𝑑(𝑚𝑣)Ԧ 𝑑 𝑝Ԧ
𝐹Ԧ = 𝑚 Ԧ
→𝐹= =𝐹= Ԧ
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐼Ԧ 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = ∆𝑃 = 𝑝Ԧ𝑓 − 𝑝Ԧ𝑖 = 𝐹∆𝑡
Ԧ
69
Cont’d
Conservation of Linear Momentum
Recall Newton‘s third law: 𝐹Ԧ12 = −𝐹Ԧ21 → 𝐹Ԧ12 + 𝐹Ԧ21 = 0
𝑑(𝑚𝑣Ԧ1 ) 𝑑(𝑚𝑣Ԧ2 ) 𝑑(𝑚𝑣Ԧ1 + 𝑚𝑣Ԧ2 )
+ =0→
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑚𝑣Ԧ1 + 𝑚𝑣Ԧ2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑝Ԧ1 + 𝑝Ԧ2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 → 𝑝Ԧ1𝑖 + 𝑝Ԧ2𝑖 = 𝑝Ԧ1𝑓 + 𝑝Ԧ2𝑓
𝑝Ԧ𝑥𝑖 = 𝑝Ԧ𝑥𝑓 , 𝑝Ԧ𝑦𝑖 = 𝑝Ԧ𝑦𝑓 , 𝑝Ԧ𝑧𝑖 = 𝑝Ԧ𝑧𝑓
This result, known as the law of conservation of linear momentum, can be
extended to any number of particles in an isolated system. We can state it as follows:
“Whenever two or more particles in an isolated system interact, the total
momentum of the system remains constant.”

70
Cont’d
Example 1
A 60-kg archer stands at rest on frictionless ice and fires a 0.50-kg arrow horizontally
at 50 m/s. With what velocity does the archer move across the ice after firing the
arrow?
Solution: let 𝑚1 be mass of archer and, 𝑚2 be mass of the arrow
If we consider the 𝑎𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤 as isolated system,
𝑝Ԧ𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 → 𝑝Ԧ𝑖 = 𝑝Ԧ𝑓
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓
𝑣1𝑖 = 𝑣2𝑖 = 0, because initially 𝑎𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤 is at rest
0 = 60𝑘𝑔𝑣1𝑓 + (0.5kg)(50m/s)
−25
𝑣1𝑓 = = −0.42𝑚/𝑠
60

71
Cont’d
Collision in One-dimension
 when two particles collide. We use the term collision to represent an event during
which two particles come close to each other and interact by means of forces.
 If the two particles form an isolated system, the momentum of the system must
be conserved.
 But, the total kinetic energy of the system of particles may or may not be
conserved, depending on the type of collision.
 Whether or not kinetic energy is conserved is used to classify collisions as either
elastic or inelastic.

72
Cont’d
Elastic collision: - An elastic collision between two objects is one in which the total
kinetic energy as well as total momentum of the system is conserved.
 𝑚1𝑣1𝑖 +𝑚2𝑣2𝑖 = 𝑚1𝑣1𝑓 +𝑚2𝑣2𝑓
1 1 1 1
 𝑚1 𝑣 21𝑖 + 𝑚 𝑣 2
= 𝑚 𝑣 2
+ 𝑚 𝑣 2
2 2 2 2𝑖 2 1 1𝑓 2 2 2𝑓
 then,
𝑚1 𝑣 21𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣 2 2𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣 21𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣 2 2𝑓
𝑚1 𝑣 21𝑖 − 𝑣 21𝑓 = 𝑚2 (𝑣 2 2𝑓 − 𝑣 2 2𝑖 )
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 − 𝑣1𝑓 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑣1𝑓 = 𝑚2 (𝑣2𝑓 − 𝑣2𝑖 )(𝑣2𝑓 + 𝑣2𝑖 ) (a)
Separate the terms containing 𝑚1 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑚2
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 − 𝑣1𝑓 = 𝑚2 (𝑣2𝑓 − 𝑣2𝑖 ) (b)
Dividing equation (a) by equation (b) gives
𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑣1𝑓 = (𝑣2𝑓 + 𝑣2𝑖 ) or 𝑣1𝑖 − 𝑣2𝑖 = −(𝑣1𝑓 − 𝑣2𝑓 )
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Cont’d
Inelastic Collision: - An inelastic collision is one in which the total kinetic energy
of the system is not conserved. But the momentum of the system is conserved.
Therefore, for inelastic collision of two particles:

Perfectly inelastic: - When the colliding objects stick together after the collision,
the collision is called perfectly inelastic. Consider two particles of masses m1 and m2
moving with initial velocities 𝑣1𝑖 and 𝑣2 along the same straight line, as shown in the
figure below.
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣𝑓
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖
𝑣𝑓 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2

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Cont’d
Example 2: A block of mass 𝑚1 = 1.6𝑘𝑔initially moving to the right with a speed of
4𝑚/𝑠 on a horizontal frictionless track collides with a second block of mass 𝑚2
= 2.1𝑘𝑔 initially moving to the left with a speed of 2.5𝑚/𝑠. If the collision is elastic,
find the velocities of the two blocks after collision.
Solution
From conservation of momentum.
𝑚1𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚2𝑣2𝑖 = 𝑚1𝑣1𝑓 + 𝑚2𝑣2𝑓
1.6𝑣1𝑓 + 2.1𝑣2𝑓 = 1.15
From conservation of kinetic energy
𝑣1𝑖 − 𝑣2𝑖 = − 𝑣1𝑓 − 𝑣2𝑓
𝑣1𝑓 − 𝑣2𝑓 = (𝑣2𝑖 − 𝑣1𝑖 )then

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Cont’d
Center of Mass
 The center of mass is the point at which all the mass can be considered to be
"concentrated".
 The center of mass of the system is located somewhere on the line joining the
particles and is closer to the particle having the larger mass.

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Cont’d
Example 1
A system consists of three particles with masses 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 1.0𝑘𝑔 and 𝑚3 = 2.0 𝑘𝑔
located as shown in the figure below. Find the center of mass of the system.
Given
𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 1.0𝑘𝑔
𝑚3 = 2.0 𝑘𝑔
𝑥1 = 1𝑚
𝑥2 = 2𝑚
𝑥3 = 0𝑚
𝑦1 = 0𝑚
𝑦2 = 0𝑚
𝑦3 = 2𝑚

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Thank You !

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