MEAT refers to the edible flesh of animals that is consumed as food.

This includes various types of muscle tissue, fat, and

connective tissues from domesticated and wild animals. Meat can be classified based on the type of animal from which it is derived
(MasterClass, 2021).

Types of Meat:
1. Red Meat - Refers to meat that is darker in color and typically has a higher myoglobin content. Common sources include beef,
lamb, pork, and other meats (MasterClass, 2022).

2. White Meat - Generally refers to lighter-colored meats that are lower in myoglobin. Common examples include poultry and
certain types of fish (MasterClass, 2022).

A. BEEF AND PORK

A1. KINDS AND MARKET FORM OF BEEF, PORK, AND OTHER MEAT

KINDS
1. BEEF- Meat from cattle, typically referring to older bovine animals. Bovine refers to animals belonging to the family Bovidae,
which includes cattle and other closely related species (Hardecke, 2024).

Kinds of Beef Definition

a. Steer Young castrated male cattle (before development of secondary sex characteristics), usually slaughtered
for meat (Hardecke, 2024).
b. Heifer Young female cattle that have not born a calf (Hardecke, 2024)
c. Cow Mature female cattle, primarily used for breeding or dairy, but can also be used for meat (Hardecke,
2024). Refers to female cattle that has calved
d. Stag Male cattle castrated after maturity, typically tougher meat (Hardecke, 2024). Stags
appear “bullish”. They are coarse at the head, crest and shoulder.
e. Bull Uncastrated male cattle, meat is less tender and used for processed products (Hardecke, 2024).

Highest grades of beef are:

• Produced by steers and heifers
• Those that are purposely bred and fed for meat production
• Slaughtered between 1 and 3 years old

2. PORK- Meat from domestic pigs, is widely consumed and versatile in cookery (Joseph, 2024). Mostly consumed worldwide,
especially Asian countries. Rich in protein, vitamins and minerals

3. CARABEEF- Meat from carabao or water buffalo, darker in color, and often used in traditional Filipino dishes (Scott, 2024). It is
significantly higher protein, cholesterol, total pigment and myoglobin content but lower moisture content than beef (Arganosa,
et al.,1973)

4. CHEVON- A meat typically from goat at 14 months old, also known as goat meat. It is leaner and has a distinctive flavor (Joseph,
2024). It's best cooked over low heat, around 145–160 degrees Fahrenheit, to preserve tenderness and juiciness. Considered
to be one of the healthiest red meats, lower in saturated fat and cholesterol, and higher in iron (Hallal, F.,2022).

OTHER MEATS:
5. VEAL- Meat from young calves, tender and pale in color, often from dairy breeds (Scott, 2024). These cows are sometimes
referred to as veal calves, named for the type of meat that they become when sold on the market. Slaughtered when younger
than 9 months (usually 8-16 weeks).

6. MUTTON- Meat from mature sheep that is older than 1 year, ideally 3 years old, has a stronger flavor, intense red color and
contains a considerable amount of fat. It is much more popular in the Middle East and Europe than in the United States.
Producers can harvest mutton from a ewe (female) or whether (castrated male). Since the animal is older, it contains more fat
and muscle, resulting in a stronger flavor and denser, tougher texture.

7. LAMB- Meat from young sheep (typically less than 1 year old), generally more tender and milder in flavor (Joseph, 2024). There
is little fat on lamb, and the meat can vary in color from a tender pink to a pale red.
➢ Spring Lamb - a 3 months of age sheep. It is extremely tender but has a milder flavor then lamb.

8. GAME- A meat from a wild animal and not raised in the farm for mass consumption (Jones, J.,2024). e.g. deer and wild pig

9. VENISON - Meat from deer, lean and gamey in flavor (Joseph, 2024).
 10. EXOTIC MEATS - Exotic meats refer to meats that are less commonly consumed compared to traditional options like beef,
pork, and chicken. These meats often come from wild or non-domesticated animals. They are considered delicacies in some
regions and are often valued for their uniqueness (Lawrence, 2015).

11. DOG MEAT – Consumed in some countries, particularly in parts of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. It may be prepared in various
dishes, including stews, barbecues, and soups (Fredrik, 2024). Azucena - Filipino Dog Meat Dish

12. BISON OR BUFFALO MEAT – Leaner than beef and has a richer, sweeter flavor. It is commonly consumed in North America
(Fredrik, 2024).

13. CROCODILE OR ALLIGATOR MEAT – Has a firm texture similar to chicken or fish. It is commonly consumed in parts of the
Southern United States, Africa, and Asia (Fredrik, 2024).

14. RABBIT MEAT – Tender and lean, with a flavor that is often compared to chicken, but slightly gamier (Fredrik, 2024).

15. WILD BOAR MEAT – Darker and leaner than domestic pork, with a more intense, gamey flavor. It is often consumed in Europe
and North America (Scott, 2024).

16. KANGAROO MEAT – Lean, tender, and has a slightly gamey flavor. It is commonly consumed in Australia and is prized for its
low-fat content and high levels of protein and iron (Fredrik, 2024).

MARKET FORMS:
1. FRESH MEAT- Sold right after slaughter without undergoing chilling or other preservation, typically sold at room temperature
(Daque, 2021). Fresh meat has a much firmer texture, better flavor, and carries more nutrients (Tietsort, 2024).

2. CHILLED MEAT Stored at temperatures just above freezing (1°C to 4°C) to prolong shelf life without freezing (Daque, 2021)It
offers the convenience of immediate use without the need for thawing. This can be a time-saver for busy households (Meat
King, 2024).

3. FROZEN MEAT- Stored at temperatures below freezing (-18°C or lower) to preserve it for a longer duration (Daque, 2021). It
significantly extends its shelf life. It can be stored for months, making it a practical choice for those who like to stock up or plan
meals in advance (Meat King, 2024).

4. CURED MEAT- Has been treated with curing agents and solutions such us chemical additives like sodium nitrite and sodium
nitrate to preserve meat and prevent spoilage and bacterial growth (Master Class, 2021). Example: Tocino

5. PROCESSED MEAT- Any meat that has been preserved by smoking, curing, salting or adding preservatives. Common
examples are bacon, sausages, hot dogs, canned meat and other cured meats like salami (Daque,S. 2021).

6. DRIED MEAT- Meat that has been dehydrated or dried for preservation, such as jerky, biltong, or dried fish (Smoker, 2023).

7. SMOKED MEAT- Meat that has been preserved and flavored through smoking processes. This includes bacon, ham, and
smoked sausages (Smoker, 2023).

8. CANNED MEAT- Meat preserved and processed for a long shelf life, such as corned beef and canned spam (Beauchamp,
2024).

A2. STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF MEAT

➢ The structure and composition of meat will cover the basic anatomy of the livestock once it has been butchered and cut. Meat
comprises three types of tissues, all giving a particular characteristic to the overall palatability of the meat once used in a dish.
➢ The types of tissues include: a.) Muscular, b.) Connective (includes bones), and c.) Fatty tissues.

A. MUSCULAR
- The muscular or lean tissue comprises hundreds to thousands of muscle fibers, which are well supplied with nerves and
microscopic blood vessels or capillaries. This is where the meat contains its myoglobin (in the muscle cells) and the
hemoglobin (in the blood cells) (Tortora & Derrickson, 2017). The lean tissue also contains small amounts of connective
tissues, fats, and approximately 18% protein.
- MUSCLE FIBERS are the principal units of lean meat that compose the muscle bundle or the FASCICULI. Each muscle
fiber is covered in a membranous sheath called SARCOLEMMA, and each muscle bundle is enclosed in a connective tissue
called the PERIMYSIUM. In between the muscle fibers lies a delicate tissue called the ENDOMYSIUM, while vitamins,
enzymes, myoglobin, and protein can be found in the SARCOPLASM.
- In the matrix of each muscle fiber, substructures called MYOFIBRILS are present. Myofibrils or fibrillae are dark and light
longitudinal striations of smaller structures called myofilaments. These substructures are made of MYOFIBRILLAR
PROTEINS: actin, myosin, tropomyosin, and troponin; myosin is the most dominant myofibrillar protein. Two types of
myofilaments are present: the thin and the thick. The thin contains the actin, tropomyosin, and troponin, while the thick
 contains the myosin. During muscle contractions, the two contractile proteins, actin and myosin, form to make actomyosin
and revert to actin and myosin during muscle relaxation (Tortora & Derrickson, 2017).

B. CONNECTIVE
- Moving on to connective tissues, these are the tissues that bind the muscle tissues together and to the bone. There are
four types of conjugated protein in the connective tissues: collagen, elastin, reticulin, and ground substance.
B1. COLLAGEN - Collagen is a white, flexible, but non-stretchable type of myofibrillar protein that serves as the most crucial in
meat because of its comprehensive functions, such as attaching meat to the bones. It is found in the tendons, melts in hot water,
and turns into gelatin during cooking. This is the reason why bone broths, when reduced enough, can solidify into a gel in lower
temperatures and form an aspic (a savory jelly) (Maxwell, 2022).
B2. ELASTIN: - Elastin is a protein with a yellow tint, mainly characterized by its rubbery trait, which is evident in the cartilages
of meats. Heat barely affects elastin primarily because of the presence of the amino acids DESMOSINE and ISODESMOSINE.
B3. RETICULIN - A protein commonly associated with the fatty acid called myristic acid.
B4. GROUND SUBSTANCE - An amorphous (shapeless) gel-like substance made of proteins and glycoproteins wherein
collagen and elastin can be found

C. FATTY TISSUES
- Fats are found around or in between muscles and connective tissues in the form of adipose tissues (Tortora & Derrickson,
2017). The fatty acids in meats are mainly saturated, which can be found in the fat depots of triglycerides, otherwise known
as body fat. Examples of these are such as oleic, palmitic, and stearic. Besides triglycerides, meats contain lipids like
sphingomyelin, cholesterol, glycolipids, and phospholipids.
- Fat contributes to the juiciness and flavor of meat.
- Connective tissues contain a significant amount of neutral fats that create marbling in meat.

MARBLING- refers to the distribution of fats throughout the meat in the connective tissues between the muscle tissues. The greater the
marbling, the more the meat has that "melt-in-your-mouth" trait in cuts like the infamous A5 Wagyu and Kobe Beef (Cooking Tips –
Rangers Valley, 2024).

The amount of fat in meat depends on:

o Age of the animal- older animals tend to have a higher fat content.
o Feed of the animal- well-fed animals typically have a higher fat content.
o Amount of exercise- limited exercise leads to increased fat accumulation.
o Specie- pigs are known to accumulate fat more easily than many other animal species

D. BONE - Bones are mainly composed of bone tissues. Organ meats do not contain bones.

E. BLOOD VESSELS AND NERVE TISSUE - These are distributed within connective tissues and bones.

Composition of Pork and Meat

▪ Protein — Muscles contain 15 to 20 percent protein. The lean meat contains 20 to 22 % proteins
▪ Fat — The fat content of meat varies from 5 to 40 %
▪ Carbohydrate — glycogen (animal polysaccharide) & glucose
▪ Water — About 70 to 75 % of meat muscles is composed of water
▪ Vitamin — Vitamin A, D, E and K
▪ Minerals — It is a good source of phosphorus, iron and copper
▪ Pigments — Myoglobin (oxygen transporter in muscles) and hemoglobin

A3. CHARACTERISTICS OF MEAT ACCORDING TO AGE and SOURCE

1. CHARACTERISTICS OF MEAT ACCORDING TO AGE

Very Young Nearing Maturity Mature

Lean Meat
• Color Pink Rose Dark red
• Texture Fine grain, relatively firm Relatively coarse and firmer Coarse and firm
Fat
• Color Creamy tinged with pink White or creamy White or creamy
• Texture Fine grain, relatively firm Fairly fine and firmer Coarse and firm
Distribution of Marbling Thin to none - More marbling
Flavor Flavorful More flavorful More flavorful
Bone White tinged with pink, White, less flexible White, rigid
flexible
 A. LEAN MEAT - The red color of lean meat is primarily due to the presence of myoglobin, an iron containing protein that binds
oxygen in muscle tissue. As animals age, their myoglobin levels generally increase, leading to a darker red color in the meat.
This is because older animals have more developed muscle tissue and higher oxygen demands (‘The Color of Meat and Poultry’,
2013).
- Animals that are very young or young have less developed muscle tissue and are typically less active. This results in a fine
grain and tender texture in their lean meat. In contrast, mature animals become more active, thus their muscle fibers become
thicker and more pronounced, leading to a coarser texture in the lean meat.
B. FAT - Fat in younger animals is typically white or pale yellow but as animals age, their fat may become more yellow due to the
accumulation of carotenoids from their diet.
- The texture of fat can vary depending on the animal's breed and diet. Generally, fat from younger animals tends to be softer
and more delicate, while fat from older animals can be firmer (Hatfield, A., 2019).
C. DISTRIBUTION OF MARBLING - Marbling refers to the distribution of intramuscular fat within the lean meat. Older animals
generally have more marbling than younger animals due to their longer lifespan and increased fat deposition (Alfaro, D., 2022)
The animal's diet also influences marbling. Grain-fed animals tend to have more marbling than grass-fed animals because their
diet is higher in fat and calories.
D. FLAVOR - As animals age, their meat develops a more intense and complex flavor. This is due to the breakdown of muscle
proteins and the accumulation of flavor compounds. The fat in meat contributes significantly to its flavor. Older animals tend to
have more fat, which melts during cooking, releasing flavorful compounds and enriching the dishes taste (Hatfield, A., 2019).
E. BONE - The bones of younger animals are softer and less dense than those of older animals because as animals age, their
bones become harder and more robust. The flavor of the bone can too be influenced by age so older animals tend to have a
more pronounced bone flavor (Tatum, J.D. et al., 2017).

2. CHARACTERISTICS OF MEATS ACCORDING TO SOURCE

Beef from Veal Carabeef Beef from old Beef from bull Pork
Young cow cow
Fat Creamy Loose & White or white Creamy white, Creamy Soft and oily
greasy white gray firm
Color of Pale Pale grayish Dark reddish Lighter Dark copper Pale gray to
Muscle red brown red pinkish
Consistency Frim Moderately Loose, soft and Firm Dry, loose Soft, firm
of Muscle firm to lose less sticky
Odor Peculiar Slightly sour Disagreeable Milky Peculiar Impulsive urine
odor

A. FAT - The meat fat composition can contribute to the beginning of cardiovascular disease. However, fat is necessary for human
nutrition and energy production because it contains essential fatty acids (FAs), which must be found in food. Fat enhances the
flavor of food, aids in vitamin absorption, and is crucial for both human and animal immunological responses. Meat's fat content,
both nutritionally and aesthetically, is influenced by the fatty acid composition, such as animals’ species, breed, sex, and diet,
causing various changes in carcass, as well as in tissues and chemical meat composition.
B. COLOR OF MUSCLE - According to Ramanathan et al., 2020, one of the most crucial food quality factors is color, which directly
influences how well a product is received by consumers. Foods are frequently rejected or chosen based more on sight than on
taste or smell since appearance generally makes the initial impression about a cuisine. For instance, red has been positively
connected with an arousal signal that tells people that the food is good and healthy.
C. CONSISTENCY OF MUSCLE - The total biochemical and functional characteristics of muscle tissue, and its quality as fresh
meat, are determined by the composition of fiber types. The consistency of muscle, or its texture, has a huge impact on how
meat cooks and how it tastes. The amount of connective tissue in muscle also plays a role. More connective tissue can make
the meat tougher, but it also breaks down during slow cooking methods, resulting in a richer, more flavorful broth. Thus, fresh
meat quality may be modulated by altering the muscle fiber profile in living animals as a result of genetic selection or
environmental influences.
D. ODOR - The kind of animal and its breed are among the most important variables. Due to differences in their metabolic
processes, muscle composition, and fat content, different animals emit different smells. Moreover, the meat's odor is greatly
influenced by the animal's nutrition. It is possible for animals fed one diet to smell differently from animals fed another. Meat's
aging process also has a big impact on its smell. Meat ages due to enzymatic and microbiological processes that break down
proteins and lipids, changing the meat's odor. Meat odor is also influenced by storage factors such as humidity, temperature,
and light exposure. Odors in meat can be caused by germs growing due to improper storage. The natural scent of meat can be
changed by hormones and antibiotics, which can also affect the odor of meat. Because these characteristics affect the quality
and perception of meat products, it is important for producers and consumers to understand them.

PORK

FAT - Pork contains varying amounts of fat, typically ranging from 10 to 16% but potentially higher depending on factors like trimming.
Like other red meats, pork contains both saturated and unsaturated fats. Marbling, or intramuscular fat, is the fat within the muscle itself.
It contributes to the juiciness and flavor of meat, and meat with adequate marbling is less likely to be tough. Clarified pig fat, also known
as lard, is sometimes used as a cooking fat (U.S. Pork Center of Excellence, 2015).
MUSCLE COLOR - Pork color can be categorized as pale (P), red (R) or dark (D). Consumers generally prefer reddish-pink pork over
pale (P) pork. This preference stems from the fact that pale pork is more susceptible to turning gray or green during display in grocery
stores, making it less appealing to consumers (U.S. Pork Center of Excellence, 2015).

MUSCLE COLOR - Muscle firmness or wetness can be described as soft and exudative (SE), firm and normal (FN), or firm and dry (FD).
Soft and exudative meat is less desirable due to its tendency to lose shape and drip moisture. This often results in drier, tougher meat
after cooking, making it unsuitable for sausage production. Soft and exudative meat is frequently associated with pale color, a condition
known as PSE (pale, soft, and exudative). Both firm and normal (FN) and firm and dry (FD) meat are considered acceptable by the meat
industry and consumers (U.S. Pork Center of Excellence, 2015).

ODOR - According to Wayland (2023), fresh raw pork should have a mild odor, possibly with a slightly sweet or musty aroma. The scent
should be pleasant, not pungent or reeking of ammonia, indicating the meat is safe for consumption. While visual cues are important,
spoiled pork may emit a sour or unpleasant odor, signaling spoilage.

A4. IDENTIFICATION OF CUTS IN BEEF CARCASS AND PORK

o Primal Cut: Eight fundamental cuts that divide one whole side of beef.
o Sub-Primal Cut: Primal cuts cut into smaller pieces – cuts of meat we typically find in markets or butcher shops.

BEEF

The beef carcass can be split into:

1. Beef Front Quarter – contains four primal cuts: the brisket, foreshank, rib, and chuck (square chuck) and subprimals: short rib,
7-bone rib, neck blade, shoulder, cross rib, brisket point, and brisket plate. This part of the animal is heavily exercised, resulting
in an abundance of connective tissue which means moist heat cooking is required on the majority of it (‘Meat Cutting and
Processing for Food Service’, 2019).
2. Beef Hind Quarter – contains four primal cuts: the flank, the long loin, the hip, and the sirloin tip, plus subprimal cuts: short loin,
sirloin butt, inside and outside round, and hind shank. This part contains parts that can be prepared using dry heat cooking
methods (‘Meat Cutting and Processing for Food Service’, 2019).

BEEF CARCASS CUTS:

TAGALOG ENGLISH CHARACTERISTICS DISHES
TERM TERM
The beef chuck cut comes from the animal’s upper shoulder and lower neck. Nilagang baka
PAYPAY CHUCK That makes chuck a good choice for braised dishes like beef stew or pot roast,
both of which tenderize tough cuts
KADERA CHUCK RIB Chuck ribs are a cut of beef that comes from the chuck primal, which is the Kaldereta
shoulder area of the cow. They are typically quite tough and have a strong
beefy flavor. Refers to the Sirloin area, located near the back.
 PUNTAY BRISKET Located in the chest area. There are two components: point (or deckle) and Beef pares,
PECHO flat. The point is attached directly to the rib cage and is a thicker cut with dense Corned beef
meat and large hunks of fat. The flat has some fat but is mostly meat and
connective tissue.
TADYANG RIBS Beef ribs are larger in size than pork ribs and tend to have more meat on the
bones. They also tend to be more marbled from the higher fat content, which
helps add to the meat’s tenderness and flavor
BULALO SHANK Located beneath the brisket, shank meat is cut from the leg above the knee Bulalo
to the shoulder or hip.
KENCHI/ FORE/HIND Beef shank is a cut of meat that comes from the lower leg of the cow. It is a Sizzling Bulalo,
KENCHE SHANK tough and sinewy muscle. Kare-kare
Fore shank- lower part of the front leg.
Hind shank- lower part of the hind leg
TAPADERA RUMP located at the back of the animal. Tapa, Bistek
TAGILIRAN SHORT RIBS Short ribs are a cut of beef taken from the brisket, chuck, plate, or rib areas of Crispy Tadyang,
beef cattle. They consist of a short portion of the rib bone and the surrounding Sinigang
meat, which varies in thickness. There are two major types of cuts: the
“flanken”, which is cut across the bone and leaves the bone just.
KALITIRAN BLADE COD Derived from the shoulder region of the animal, blade accounts for around Mechado
5.5% of the carcass. It contains several muscles with layers of fat and
connective tissue and performs well as a slow braise or roast.
SOLOMILYO TENDERLOIN A long and lean muscle, this is the most tender cut of beef available. The Tenderloin Steak
tenderloin is the source of tenderloin steak or filet mignon, and is a component
of the T-Bone and scotch fillet steaks.
KAMPTO/ FLANK a cut of beef steak taken from the abdominal muscles of the cow, located just Beef Mami
KAMTO behind the plate and in front of the rear quarter. It is a long, flat cut with a
significant grain, and is known for its bold flavor and chewiness
PIERNA ROUND It consists of two parts which is the topside and sliver side. Topside comes Morcon
CORTA from the inside of the hind leg, between the thick flank and the silverside. While
the silverside comes from the outside of the rear leg and sits between the
knuckle and the topside.

Wholesale and Retail Cuts of Beef and Their Local Names: 5. Less Tender Cuts:
o Round, round steak Pierna corta
1. Hind Quarter (More desirable meat, higher price): o Rump, rump roast Tapadera
o Round Pierna corta o Chuck, chuck rib roast Paypay
o Rump Tapadera
o Whole loin Kadera 6. Tough Cuts:
o Flank Kampto/Kanto o Shank (fore and hind) Kenchi
o Hind shank Kenchi o Flank Kamto
o Plate, short ribs Tadyang
2. Forequarter (Cuts between the 12th and 13th ribs): o Brisket Puntay pecho
o Rib Kostillas o Neck Buto-buto
o Chuck Batok, Paypay, Kasim o Oxtail Buntot
o Brisket Puntay pecho
o Short plate Kabilugan
o Foreshank Kenchi

3. Retail cuts
From the loin end:
o Sirloin steak Tagilirang hulihan

From short loin

o Club steak Tagilirang unahan
o Porterhouse/T-bone steak Tagilirang gitna
o Tenderloin steak Solomillo

4. Beef Cuts by Tenderness:

Tender Cuts (Least exercised muscles):
o Whole loin Kadera
o Loin end or sirloin Tagilirang hulihan
o Short Loin
Club steak Tagilirang unahan
Porterhouse/T-bone Tagilirang gitna
Tenderloin Solomillo
o Ribs
Short ribs Kostillas
Rib roast
PORK

Pork is popular and a versatile meat. Due to its size, it can be merchandised and delivered as whole, in sides, or broken down
into four primals: pork shoulder, pork leg, pork loin, and pork belly. The majority of the pork comes from choice butcher hogs that are
about six months old at the age of slaughter (‘Meat Cutting and Processing for Food Service’, 2019).

PORK CARCASS CUTS:

TAGALOG ENGLISH CHARACTERISTICS DISHES
TERM TERM
Tenga (pork ears) have a soft bone running through them. So a part of it is Inihaw na Tenga
TENGA EAR
tender, but the rest of it is fatty and some skin ng Baboy
MASKARA HEAD The maskara or pig’s head is one of the most versatile parts of the pig. The Sisig
cheeks are meaty; so in some countries, people cure and smoke them to make
jowls or bacon.
KASIM SHOULDER Kasim or pork shoulder (aka pork butt, though it’s not actually the butt) cuts Adobo
are marbled with fat and connective tissues (litid).
TAGILIRAN LOIN Pork loin is a lean and tender cut of pork that comes from the loin section of Salpicao
the pig. It's a popular choice for grilling, roasting, and frying
LOMO TENDERLOIN People often bunch the tenderloin (lomo) with the rest of the loin. But this pork Salpicao
cut is actually VERY DIFFERENT. Pork tenderloin describes the muscle that
runs along the pig’s central spine. It’s all meat (it’s also known as pork filet),
so it’s very lean, tender, and delicate.
TADYANG RIBS Below the loin and tenderloin, you’ll find the ribs or tadyang. The ribs are Crispy tadyang
usually categorized into spareribs and baby back ribs. Spareribs come from
the belly of the pig and contain a lot of flavorful meat. Meanwhile, baby back
ribs—which do not come from baby pigs—are taken from near the loin.
LIEMPO BELLY Pork belly or liempo refers to the pork cuts taken from the belly or sides of the Fried Liempo
pig. Alternating layers of fat and lean meat make up the belly, so it’s the most
flavorful part of the pig
PIGUE/PIGI HAM The leg (pigue) of the pig provides a lot of lean meat that, when sold, can Hamon
either be fresh or cured. It’s also called ham because, well, this is where ham
comes from.
PATA FORE/HIND This cut isn’t very fatty, but it makes up in flavor from the skin and tissue that Paksiw na Pata
SHANK surround the dark meat. The pata can also substitute kasim and pigue in a
variety of dishes.

Cuts according to:

1. Tender Cuts
o Loin (pork chop when sliced; Canadian bacon when cured) lomo
o Ham pigue or hita
o Bacon or belly liempo
 2. Less Tender Cuts
o Shoulder/ Boston Butt Paypay
o Picnic ham kasim
o Neck buto-buto
o Spareribs Buto sa tadyang
o Pig-feet or knuckles pata
o Tail buntot
o Jowl kalamnan
o Head ulo

A5. CHANGES IN MEAT AFTER SLAUGHTER

After an animal is slaughtered, changes start occurring in its muscles, which greatly impact the quality and characteristics of the
meat. Such “post-mortem changes” are dependent upon conditions before slaughter, treatment of the carcass, and environment where
storage will take place.

POST MORTEM- means changes after death

1. AFTER DEATH- muscle is pliant, soft, gel-like, and extensible and sticky when touched. Meat here is in excellent condition for
cooking because it is more tender. However, on a commercial scale, cooking of meat in this stage is not possible nor practical,
because meat at this stage should not be frozen
2. INCREASED ACIDITY (pH drops)- Immediately after slaughter, the blood circulation in the animal would cease. Consequently,
the energy metabolism would change from aerobic to anaerobic at this stage. The glucose is converted into lactic acid. It is
therefore evident that the pH would then decrease. The rate at which the pH drops relative depends on a number of factors like
the available reserve of glycogen or the temperature of the carcass. High rate of fall for pH may result in PSE (pale, soft,
exudative) or DFD (dark, firm, dry) meat
3. RIGOR MORTIS- Once the energy is depleted, muscle proteins begin to bind during a process referred to as rigor mortis. Rigor
mortis is a postmortem change that causes the stiffening of body muscles due to chemical changes in their myofibrils, caused
by the depletion of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in a dead body. During rigor mortis, the muscle fibers shorten and become
rigid, hard, and inflexible. Meat should not be cooked in this state because it is very tough. It is best to allow rigor mortis to pass
as the meat gradually tenderizes and develops a desirable flavor.
Rigor mortis has three distinct stages:
▪ Pre-rigor: The muscle fibers continue to shorten, so they are not that extensible. This is when the meat is at its most tender.
▪ Rigor maximum: The muscle fibers continue to contract until stiff muscles are attained. It is the toughest texture.
▪ Rigor resolution: The stiff muscle fibers start to extend again almost to their normal length. This stage undergoes slow softening
of the meat.
4. TENDERIZATION- After a few days, a process called tenderization occurs where the rigidity of actin and myosin weakens, if
the meat is held at temperatures above freezing. This then is the optimal time to cook, age, or freeze the meat if cooking cannot
be done after rigor mortis.
5. BACTERIAL AND ENZYMATIC DETERIORATION- Leads to meat spoilage. The rate of spoilage depends on:
a. Conditions of Slaughter: The animal should not be allowed to lie on the floor, where sources of contamination are high.
Water used for washing and the utensils should be clean to avoid contamination.
b. Health of the animal prior to slaughter: Unhealthy animals are more prone to spoilage than healthy ones. If an animal is
stressed, it uses up energy through an adrenaline response. This means that after slaughter, there is less energy available,
and the pH doesn't fall as much (remaining higher than 5.7). This can affect the quality of the meat, leading to "dark cutting
beef," which is dark, firm, and has a higher water-holding capacity.
c. Storage, Temperature and Humidity: The rate of with temperature spoilage increases.
d. pH of the Meat: The rate of spoilage increases with ph. Basic pH = spoilage.
6. AGING: Meat is held at temperatures above freezing to promote aging, which helps tenderize the meat. Meat aging is a process
where the muscle proteins and connective tissues are broken down by enzymes, thereby enhancing the tenderness and flavor
of the meat and breaking down myofibrillar proteins and collagenases. Aging can occur in the following ways:
7. PUTREFACTION – bacterial deterioration that leads to meat spoilage.

Other Post-Mortem Changes

Color changes: The color of the meat may alter due to oxidation of myoglobin, as it is protein that imparts red coloration to the meat.
Flavor changes: The flavor of the meat might be due to the final deposition of the breakdown products of these muscle proteins and fats
inside it.
Water-holding capacity: Meats may suffer a change in its water-holding capacity as it undergoes denaturation of proteins with loss of
moisture.

A6. QUALITIES DESIRED IN MEATS: TENDERNESS, JUICINESS AND FLAVOR

- The sensory properties such as taste, flavor, and tenderness are among the most important determinants of meat purchase by
consumers (Park et al., 2022).
- If the meat is tough and does not meet consumers’ demands, it will not be bought by them and vice versa, tender meat will
satisfy customers and will result in repeated purchase of the same product. Meat texture is used to describe meat tenderness;
this term also describes firmness or coarseness of a meat surface.
- Juiciness pertains to the quality of containing a lot of juice and being enjoyable to eat
 1. Factors influencing tenderness:
a. Amount and type of connective tissues: meats with more elastin are less tender; lesser elastin as found in younger animals,
chicken than pork, less exercised cut and in females and castrated animals. The amount of connective tissue in meats and its
solubility (the degree to which it is dissolved during the cooking process) can directly influence the tenderness of meat muscle.
As an animal ages, it has more connective tissue and therefore experiences cross-linking, an increase in connective tissue that
becomes highly insoluble. This is why older animals are usually tougher and younger animals are more tender.
b. Quality and distribution of muscle fibers: dense, coarse muscles are tougher; parallel circumferential arrangement of muscles
are tougher. Muscle fiber orientations can contribute to increased toughness or tenderness (Iowa State University Digital Press,
2019).
c. Amount and distribution of fat: marbled meats are more tender. Fat is a source of energy that is stored in muscle tissue. The
meat is hard due to insufficient muscle fattening by young animals, and then the muscles become more tender with the increase
of intramuscular fat with the advancing ages (Dominguez et al., 2015).
d. Aging: holding at temperatures 10-3.3 ̊C, 70% humidity for 3-6 weeks, increases tenderness. During aging, the natural enzymes
in the meat break down the proteins and connective tissue, increasing the tenderness of meat (Kim et al., 2018).

2. Factors influencing juiciness:

a. Aging results in increased water holding capacity, making meals juicier. The breakdown of muscle proteins and connective
tissues during aging creates a more porous structure, allowing the meat to absorb and retain moisture effectively.
b. Marbling increases intramuscular fat improving juiciness. Marbling could directly affect a consumer’s consumption decisions,
and has to be maintained and controlled. When fat is heated, it melts and lubricates the muscle fibers in the meat, helping to
keep it moist.
c. Specie: beef tends to be less juicy than pork due to factors like muscle fiber type, collagen content, fat distribution, and cooking
methods.
d. Age of animal: older animals are less juicy. As animals age, their muscle fibers undergo changes that can affect their ability to
retain moisture during cooking.
e. Type of muscle in carcass: compact muscles, primarily composed of white fibers, are generally less juicy due to their denser
texture and lower fat content. Red muscle fibers, rich in myoglobin, tend to be more tender and juicier due to higher fat content.
White muscle fibers, low in myoglobin, are often less juicy.
f. Immediately after slaughter, the decline of pH causes less juiciness. This is due to the acidification processes, which can lead
to protein denaturation and changes in water holding capacity. These changes can result in moisture loss and a drier, less juicy
texture.
g. Method of storage:
➢ Quick Freezing: Retains fluids, minimizing juice loss.
➢ Thawing: Improper thawing results in juice loss.
➢ Freezer Burn: Freezing for a long period without wrapping causes juice loss.
h. Method of cooking:
Juiciness is decreased by:
➢ Cutting in small sizes
➢ Cooking by dry heat
➢ Repeated heating

3. Factors influencing flavor:

a. Age - Older animals generally have a higher concentration of intramuscular fat, often referred to as marbling. This fat melts
during cooking, contributing to the juiciness and flavor of the meat (Purslow, P., 2017).
b. Ripening –
Post-Slaughter Aging: Meat undergoes a process called "aging" after slaughter. During this time, enzymes naturally break down
muscle proteins, tenderizing the meat and enhancing its flavor (‘Meat Aging Process’).
Dry Aging: This technique involves hanging the meat in a controlled environment, allowing for a more concentrated flavor
development and increased tenderness.
c. Cooking Temperature –
High Heat – Cooking meat at high temperatures can lead to rapid protein coagulation and moisture loss, resulting in a drier, less
juicy product.
Low and Slow – Cooking meat at lower temperatures and for longer durations allows for more even heat penetration and less
moisture loss, contributing to juiciness.
d. Breed: - Different breeds of animals have distinct genetic predispositions for muscle composition, fat content, and flavor profiles
(Purslow, P., 2017). For example, Wagyu beef, renowned for its intense marbling and rich flavor, is a breed specifically selected
for its juiciness and tenderness.
e. Other Factors:
Fat Content – Higher fat content generally leads to increased juiciness as the fat melts and bastes the meat during cooking (Purslow,
P., 2017).
Moisture Retention – Cooking techniques that help retain moisture, such as braising or steaming, contribute to juiciness.

A7. MEANS OF TENDERIZING MEAT

Tenderizing is the process of softening a cut of meat by breaking down its interior fibers to make it easier to eat and digest. This process
is helpful when cooking tough cuts of steak or recipes that involve a thin slice of meat.
1. Use of proteolytic enzymes - A reaction by breaking down more of the meat proteins.
➢ Bromelain – An enzyme found in pineapple, only works on collagen fibers by breaking them down.
 ➢ Papain - A plant enzyme from papaya, acts by breaking down proteins and tissues. Can be activated when simmering.
2. Use of Marinades - Adding acids in marinades increases the collagen’s solubility or its ability to dissolve.
3. Mechanical means - Using hammer; like equipment to tenderize meat, causing the muscle fibers and connective tissues to
separate.
4. Cooking - Longer time or a slow-phased cooking helps in tenderizing meats.
5. Freezing - The growth of ice crystals is causing fibers to separate or shorten the fibers, resulting in tenderized meat.
6. Ripening or Aging - At lower temperatures, meats can retain their quality. Enzymes break down the proteins, resulting in a more
tender and enhanced flavor in meat again.

TENDERIZING TOOLS:
1. Meat tenderizer: Also known as a meat mallet or meat pounder, a meat tenderizer looks like a hammer with blunted spikes.
You can pound the steak with the mallet to break down the muscle fibers.
2. Meat cuber: A meat cuber is a meat processing tool with a crank that allows you to tenderize large portions of meat. Simply
place the cut of meat into the machine and turn the handle so the internal spikes can begin tenderizing the meat.
3. Meat tenderizer powder: Use a meat tenderizer powder that contains enzymes that break down the muscle in the cut instead
of a mechanical tool.
4. Jaccard: device that contains several blades that, when pressed against the surface of the meat, cut through the muscle fibers.

AGING:
Dry Aging: Meat is hung in temperature and humidity-controlled coolers for a period of 2-4 weeks where the meat’s natural enzymes act
as a tenderizer, breaking down the connective tissue making it more tender and giving it a more distinctive flavor. This process takes
more time and is more expensive and thus is not used as frequently as wet aging.
Wet aging: Meat is aged in vacuum bags under carefully controlled refrigerated conditions. Because the packaging retains moisture, wet
aging results in increased juiciness and tenderness. Wet aging is the most predominant method used today and the process typically
takes from 1 to 2 weeks.

A7. EFFECTS OF COOKING ON MEAT

Heat plays a role in transforming raw meat into a palatable and digestible meal. It triggers a series of complex changes, impacting
the texture, flavor, and nutritional value of the meat.
1. Change in Pigment - Myoglobin, the protein responsible for the red color of meat, undergoes a chemical change when exposed
to heat. It transforms from a bright red color to a grayish-brown hue (metmyoglobin), a process known as denaturation.
2. Changes in Meat Protein –
- Heat causes muscle proteins to coagulate, resulting in the firming and solidifying of the meat. This process is responsible for
the characteristic texture of cooked meat.
- Excessive heat, especially dry heat, can toughen and shrink proteins, leading to a dry and chewy texture. This is why it's
important to cook meat at the appropriate temperature and for the correct duration (‘Prepare And Cook Meat’, 2024). Heat
causes muscle fibers to shorten, contributing to the shrinkage of the meat during cooking.
3. Changes in Fats
- Heat melts down fat, releasing flavorful compounds and contributing to the overall richness and juiciness of the meat. As fat
melts and escapes out of meat, shrinkage and reduction in volume is observed.
4. Moisture Loss - As proteins coagulate and fibers shorten, moisture is expelled from the meat, resulting in a decrease in its
overall moisture content, weight, and volume. So because moist heat penetrates meat quickly, to avoid over cooking, meat
should be simmered, never boiled (Tzer-Yang Yu et al., 2017).
5. Changes in Connective Tissues
- The breakdown of connective tissue and the softening of muscle fibers contribute to the increased tenderness of cooked meat
making it more digestible than raw meat (Franziska Spritzler, 2020).
- When exposed to moist heat at low temperatures over an extended period, the collagen in connective tissue breaks down into
gelatin. Gelatin is the soluble protein that contributes to the tender texture of cooked meat.
6. Flavor Development - Heat converts collagen into gelatin, which contributes to the rich, savory flavor of cooked meat. And as
mentioned, converting collagen to gelatin requires more heat and time, as such, the longer cooking time of meat develops better
flavor whereas short cooking time does not fully develop its flavor (Rhonz, R., 2017).

A8. METHODS OF COOKING MEAT AND STAGES OF DONENESS OF MEATS

Dry Heat Cooking Methods (for more tender cuts):
1. Pan-broiling: Pan-broiling involves cooking in an uncovered pan over direct heat, with any fat that cooks out of the meat drained
off.
2. Pan-frying: Pan-frying is similar to pan-broiling, but the meat is cooked in a small amount of fat.
3. Stir-frying: Stir-frying resembles pan-frying, except the food is stirred almost continuously. Cooking is done at high heat with
small or thin pieces of meat.
4. Deep-fat frying: Meat is fully immersed in fat during cooking, a process known as deep-fat frying.
5. Grilling: Meat is cooked by direct heat, either over an open flame or an electric element. Grilling imparts a charred flavor and is
ideal for steaks, burgers, and ribs.
6. Broiling: Similar to grilling, broiling uses heat from above, typically in an oven. It’s well-suited for thinner cuts of meat and creates
a caramelized crust.
7. Roasting: Meat is cooked in an oven, usually starting at high temperatures for browning, then at lower temperatures to finish.
It’s ideal for larger cuts, like roasts and whole poultry.
8. Sautéing: Meat is quickly cooked in a pan over medium-high heat with a small amount of oil or butter, making it suitable for
smaller, tender cuts like chicken breasts or tenderloins.
 9. Smoking- Meat is smoked to enhance or maintain its taste. It relies on indirect, low heat. When meat is cooked indirectly, it is
not placed directly on a heat source. Rather, it is placed away from direct heat, typically in a separate room.
Moist Heat Cooking Methods (for tougher cuts):
1. Boiling: This method involves covering a less tender cut of meat with liquid and simmering in a covered pot until the meat is
tender and fully cooked. It’s important to keep the liquid temperature below 195°F to avoid toughening the meat proteins.
2. Poaching and Simmering: Used for less tender cuts of meat, simmering is typically applied to whole cuts and involves gentle
cooking in liquid below the boiling point. Poaching is the process of letting a food simmer in a liquid where it just starts to quietly
simmer.
3. Stewing: Similar to simmering but used with smaller pieces of meat, stewing involves slow cooking in liquid to develop flavor
and tenderness.
4. Steaming: Steaming is one of the moist heat cooking methods, which cooks the beef to tender and flavorful by leaving above
boiling water. It is one of the healthiest methods as there is no extra fat used and unlike boiling, nutrients don't get dissolved
5. Braising: This technique combines wet and dry heat, where the meat is first seared at high heat and then cooked slowly in a
covered pot with a small amount of liquid. Braising is ideal for tougher cuts, like pot roast.

STAGES OF DONENESS OF MEAT:

BEEF:
PORK:

B. CHICKEN AND FISH

B1. CLASSIFICATION AND MARKET FORMS

POULTRY- refers to several kinds of fowl that are used as food and the term includes chicken, turkey, ducks, pigeon, and quail. These
are usually domesticated raised mainly for meat and/or eggs.
1. TYPES OF CHICKEN

BROILER- is a young chicken, usually 7-12 weeks, very tender with 5% fat. Genetically selected for rapid growth and meat production.
Smooth-textured skin and flexible breastbone cartilage. Tender meat suitable for all cooking methods. Slightly smaller than a fryer (1.5-
2 lbs)

FRYER- Similar to broilers, but slightly larger. Fryers are also young chickens, and they are tender with a good amount of fat, making
them suitable for frying.

ROASTER- 3-5 months old (typically less than 12 weeks). Older than broilers and fryers, with slightly less flexible breastbone cartilage.
Tender meat, but may benefit from longer cooking times. Can be cooked by various methods, including roasting, pan-frying, and grilling.

STEWERS/HEN- 10 months to 1 year. Mature hens that have passed their prime for egg laying. Tougher, stringier meat best suited for
long, slow cooking methods like stewing
** Breastbone Cartilage: This cartilage becomes less flexible with age, indicating a tougher bird.
Skin Texture: Younger chickens have smooth-textured skin, while older chickens have coarser skin.
Meat Color: Older chickens have darker meat due to increased myoglobin content, which is a protein that carries oxygen in muscle tissue.

CAPON- surgically castrated, 8 months; very tender, good fat covering. Smooth, pliable skin, known for its large breast and good flavor.
Due to castration, capons grow more slowly and develop more body fat, resulting in tender and flavorful meat. Ideal for roasting, braising,
and poaching
ROOSTER- Adult male chicken (over 10 months in age). Tough and darkened meat, best suited for longer, slower cooking methods.
Coarse skin, toughened and dark meat, and a nonflexible breastbone tip. Low bodyfat and lean, ropey muscles.

STAG- a male chicken, usually under 10 months of age, with course skin, with somewhat toughened and darkened flesh.

CORNISH GAME HEN- Young, immature chickens under 2 lbs., usually less than 5 weeks of age. Generally bought and prepared as
one bird per person and served whole. Cornish game hens are from Cornish chickens, while Rock Cornish game hens are from
crossbreeding different species.

2. TYPES OF DUCKS

DUCKLINGS- less than 8 weeks; Ducklings are tender and flavorful, making them versatile for various cooking methods. They are often
preferred for roasting, frying, or broiling due to their delicate texture.

DUCKS- Domesticated ducks are typically moister and more tender than wild ducks, providing a milder flavor. Wild ducks are lean due
to their active lifestyle. They are often cooked using moist methods like braising or quick roasting to compensate for their lower fat content.
Ducks have a higher fat content than chicken, which needs to be rendered for optimal cooking. They have a more developed flavor.

PEKING DUCKS- Peking ducks are specifically bred for meat production, known for their rapid growth rates. They are often force-fed
to ensure tender meat and a high fat content. Peking ducks are specifically bred for the renowned Peking duck dish, known for its
crispy skin and tender meat.

3. SQUABS- an immature domestic pigeon, usually four weeks old

- The word “squab” likely originates from Scandinavian languages, with the Swedish word skvabb meaning “loose, fat flesh.”
- Squabs are a delicacy in many cuisines due to their tender, flavorful meat.
- Squabs are not classified by their own types but are instead derived from various pigeon breeds raised for meat production.
Breeds such as King pigeon, Carneau, Giant Runt, and Egyptian Swift are selected for squab farming due to their meat
quality, size, and texture, which make them ideal for different culinary applications.

4. TYPES OF TURKEY

BLACK TURKEY- Lustrous, metallic black feathers with a green tint. The meat of this turkey is known to be high-quality, exceptionally
flavorful, with an earthy taste. This is mainly attributed to its active lifestyle and the unique breeding methods that go along with it.

BOURBON RED- Known for its dark-red set plumage mixed with white wing and tail feathers. Used to be very popular in the 30’s and
40’s until larger, meatier varieties of turkeys were produced. The meat is known for its rich flavor, being very tender and lean.

ROYAL PALM TURKEY- Small-sized turkey variety, known for its white plumage with stark contrasts of gray-to black edgings on the
feathers. The tail is pure white with concentric rings of black going across its circumference. Very rarely eaten due to the small size,
and is mostly kept for exhibition uses, although they are known to have a good flavor.

BRONZE- Feathers have a copper, metallic sheen. Renowned for rich flavor, with it having a slightly stronger flavor than other varieties
of turkeys. This is due to its active lifestyle, as well as its overall size.

WHITE HOLLAND- Not very popular today after the advent of the broad-breasted white (which is a cross breed between the broad
breasted bronze turkey and the White Holland). Meat is known to be high-quality, and has a slightly gamey flavor.

SLATE- The bird is rarely eaten nowadays, as it has not been selected from production attributes. Recently, however, its survivability
has appealed to the masses along with its superior flavor, making its popularity slowly gain momentum.

BROAD BREASTED WHITE- The most widely used breed of turkey. Known for their all-white plumage and size, the degree of meat
they produce has made them very popular for consumers around the world with its tender, succulent meat. However, it has been argued
that the emphasis on the turkey’s size has reduced the overall flavor profile as a whole, making other strands of turkeys more attractive.
Have a lot of health problems, cannot fly, and suffer from heart disease, respiratory failure, and joint damage.

MARKET FORMS:

1. Live poultry- the chicken is alive; when selecting this form, choose those that are alert, well-feathered, and well-formed.
2. Whole poultry- hunted birds; similar to live form but not really alive.
3. Dressed poultry- this refers to slaughtered poultry with head, feet, and viscera intact; the blood and feathers are moved.
4. Drawn poultry- a type of dressed poultry but with the visceral organs, feet, and head are removed.
5. Ready to cook- slaughtered birds that have been defeathered, visceral organs, feet, head removed and ready for cooking.
6. Poultry parts- the chicken was cut in several pieces that is usually packed in one package (thighs, wings, breast, liver, and
gizzard.
DARK MEAT- drumsticks, thighs, wings, neck, back and ribcage
WHITE MEAT- breasts
VARIETY MEATS:
a. Breast: The most lean and tender part of the chicken.
 b. Drumsticks: The lower leg portion, known for its flavor and juiciness.
c. Thigh: The upper leg portion, containing both dark and white meat.
d. Leg: A combination of the thigh and drumstick.
e. Wings: Used for making wings, soups, or stocks.
f. Back: Often used for making stock.
g. Neck: Can be used for making soup or stock.
h. Giblets: Edible internal organs of poultry, including the gizzard, liver, and heart.

B2. STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF CHICKEN

Similar to red meats but has distinct dark and white meat. Dark meat are those muscles which are active, has more fat and
connective tissues, high myoglobin. White meat has less fat, no myoglobin and does not react with the curing agents.

A. SKELETON: chicken have a lightweight skeleton with hollow bones, which helps them fly. Their bones are also good for moving
around easily.
B. MUSCLES: the meat we eat comes from muscles. These muscles are divided into different parts;
- BREAST-the biggest part of the chicken, flat muscle on front of the chicken
- WINGS- the wings have many muscles that help the chicken fly and steer.
- THIGHS- the strong muscles on the back legs, used for walking and running.
- DRUMSTICK- the lower part of the chicken lag, used for walking and running.
C. SKIN: the skin covers the muscles and protects the chicken. It can have different amounts of fat depending on the type of
chicken and how old it is.
D. INTERNAL ORGANS: these are the parts inside the chicken, like the heart, lungs, liver, and intestines. They are removed when
the chicken is prepared for eating

Muscle, connective tissue, fat, and bone make up meat and poultry. Although different cuts may include more or less water, the muscle
is mostly composed of 20% protein and 75% water (although different cuts may have more or less water). The remaining 5% of the
muscle is made up of a mixture of fat (mostly found around the skin), minerals (calcium, iron, phosphorous), and vitamins (B vitamins,
vitamin A, D, E)
B3. DEFECTS OR PROBLEMS IN POULTRY COOKERY (SITUATION AND CAUSE)

SITUATION CAUSES
-This occurs when gas-fired oven is used in cooking
- The carbon monoxide and nitric acid of the flame when cooking
Pink color is more obvious that is seen in white meat particularly
reacts with the Hb (Hemoglobin) of the chicken blood. That forms
in younger birds
carboxyhemoglobin and nitric oxide hemoglobin which are pink in
color even after heating.
-Freezing and thawing release Hb (Hemoglobin) from the red cells
in the bone marrow. The bones of slaughtered young chicken are
Meat and bone darkening in cooked frozen poultry
porous and allows seepage of the pigment in the meat that is
next to the bones.
This is due to elastin which is insoluble even at 100°C or higher
Difficulty in separating bones of thighs bones of thighs and
and it is also due to the presence of 2 amino acids which are the
drumsticks of chicken and turkey even after extensive cooking
desmocine and isodesmocine
-This is due to oxidative rancidity because poultry fat is mainly
Rancidity polyunsaturated.
- Turkey fat is more unstable than the chicken fat.
-This is due to the rancidity, cross- contamination of feed and
Off-Flavors or odor
odors absorbed during stages.
- Bruising occurs when chicken is mishandled that cause trauma
Bruised Chicken: Discoloration, Reduced Quality during processing or transport. This can lead to ruptured blood
vessels, resulting in the characteristic discoloration.
- Over-brining or marinating in acidic solutions for too long can
break down proteins excessively, that leads to a mushy texture.
Has an unappealing mushy or grainy texture.
Improper thawing frozen chicken in warm water can also affect its
texture due to moisture loss.
The most likely cause of meat to be dry is overcooking. As meat
cooks for too long or for too high temperature its muscle fibers
shorten in both length and width and eventually squeeze out the
Meat is dry and tough and ruby texture
juices they normally hold. Once the food gets overcooked, it often
becomes tough and dry. When meat is overcooked at high
temperature, the proteins start to tighten
Undercooked means “NOT COOK ENOUGH “or some parts of
the poultry remain raw. This can happen if you cooked your
Insides are undercooked chicken for to short or not letting the ice melt before cooking it. If
you eat undercooked chicken, you can get a foodborne illness,
also called food poisoning.
Cross contamination is defined as the transfer of bacteria or other
microorganisms from one substance to another. Cross
Cross Contamination
contamination occurs when raw, contaminated chicken touches
other foods or kitchen equipment.
Chicken was not thawed properly and sometimes overcrowding
Some parts of the chicken are not cooked while cooking will crisp up the skin but will not cook the chicken
properly

B4. SAFE HANDLING OF POULTRY

- Foodborne illnesses are a significant public health concern, and poultry is a common source of contamination. Many consumers
are aware of the risks of consuming raw or undercooked poultry. This can lead to cross contamination, where bacteria spread
from raw poultry to other foods or surfaces. Here are some safe poultry handling.

1. Preventing-cross contamination. Cross-contamination is a major concern when handling poultry. Raw poultry can harbor
harmful bacteria such as Salmonella and Campylobacter, which can easily spread to other foods and surfaces.
To prevent cross-contamination:
➢ Store raw poultry in plastic bag to prevent juices from dripping onto other foods.
➢ Keep raw poultry separate from other items in the refrigerator.
➢ Immediately wash surfaces and hands if raw poultry juices come into contact with other foods

2. Proper storage. Refrigeration and freezing are crucial for preserving the quality and safety of poultry.
➢ Refrigeration- fresh poultry can be refrigerated in its original wrapping for up to two days. Cooked poultry should be refrigerated
within two days for cut-up pieces and three days for whole poultry (without stuffing)
➢ Freezing- if you don’t plan to cook fresh poultry within two days, freeze it to prevent spoilage. Wrap poultry tightly in heavy-duty
foil or freezer bags to prevent freezer burn
 3. Maintaining hygiene. Hygiene is paramount when handling poultry
➢ Wash hands thoroughly with hot, soapy water before and after handling raw poultry.
➢ Don’t let raw poultry or juices touch ready-to-eat foods in the refrigerator or during preparation.
➢ Sanitize counters, cutting boards, and other surfaces that have come into contact raw poultry with a bleach solution before using
them for other foods

4. Thawing poultry safely. Thawing poultry at room temperature is unsafe as it allows bacteria to multiply rapidly.
➢ Thaw poultry in the refrigerator or in cold water.
➢ If thawing in cold water, change the water every 30 minutes and sanitize the sink or bowl afterwards.
➢ Microwave thawing is possible but cook the poultry immediately after thawing

5. Cooking poultry to the right temperature. Thorough cooking is essential for killing harmful bacteria in poultry.
➢ Use a meat thermometer to ensure poultry reaches an internal temperature of at least 165 degrees Fahrenheit (74 ℃)
➢ Insert the thermometer into thickest part of the thigh for whole turkey and the thickest part of the breast for chicken and other
smaller poultry

6. Safe serving and leftover storage. Safe serving and leftover storage practices are crucial to prevent foodborne illness.
➢ Wash hands with soap and water before serving or eating food.
➢ Serve cooked poultry on clean plates with clean utensils.
➢ Never put cooked foods on a dish that has held raw poultry unless its washed with soap and hot water.
➢ Hold hot foods about 60 degrees Celsius and cold foods below 4 ℃
➢ Never leave foods, raw or cooked, at room temperature for more than two hours.
➢ Store leftovers in clean containers and refrigerate them promptly.
➢ Use cooked poultry stored in the refrigerator within 72 hours and frozen poultry within one to two months for optimal quality.

B5. TYPES OF FISH AND SHELLFISH

1. Fin Fish- These are fishes with fin and internal skeletons. These types of fish vary according to their water source, fat content
and body structure.

Types of Fin Fish according to:

A. Habitat (water source):
- Freshwater fish- Fishes that are found in fresh water bodies. They are mild, subtle and versatile in flavor (Timoti’s, 2021).
- Saltwater fish- Fishes found sea water. They tend to be brinier or more fishy taste (Timoti’s, 2021)
B. Fat content
- Lean fish- Fishes that are low in fat typically less than 5% fat
- Fatty fish- Fishes that contains high fat content typically more than 10% fat
C. Body structure
- Round-bodied fish- Fishes that are cylindrical in shape, having its backbone on the upper edge of their body.
- Flat-bodied fish- Fishes that are flat and oval in shape and their backbone running horizontally through the center of their body
D. Size of Fish
- Big fish- in a small pond refers to a setting where you are more powerful/important/influential than your, rather small, peer group
- Small fish- in a big pond refers to having lesser power/importance than your peers in a much larger group.

2. Shellfish- have a shell but no spine or bones. It has a hard shell on the outside of the soft tissue examples are the mollusks
and crustaceans. Examples: Lobster, Crab, Shrimp, Mussels
A. Mollusk: Soft sea animals categorized into three
o Bivalves- contains a pair of hinged shells. Ex. Clams and oysters
 o Univalve: single shelled sea creature
o Cephalopods: squid, octopus, cuttlefish
B. Crustaceans: Fish with segmented shells and jointed legs, hard carapace. Examples: crab, cray fish, lobster, prawns, and shrimp

B6. QUALITIES and CHARACTERISTICS OF FRESH FISH AND SHELLFISH

Most often “quality” refers to the aesthetic appearance and freshness or degree of spoilage which the fish has undergone. It
may also involve safety aspects such as being free from harmful bacteria, parasites or chemicals. It is important to remember that “quality’’
implies different things to different people and is a term which must be defined in association with an individual product type.

SKIN – A shiny skin with slime on the surface is a good sign that the fish is fresh and good quality.
FINS – The fins should be clearly defined and perky, not scraggy or broken.
GILLS – A moist, shiny and pink or red gill is a great sign that the fish is fresh and good quality. Stay away from fish that has brown or
faded gills.
SMELL – Remember fresh fish should smell of the sea not fish. Also make sure that the fish smells appetizing and not of a smelly odor
that you hope will disappear when you cook it.
FEEL – A good quality fish will always feel firm. Some fish will feel softer than others however if the fish feels flabby or goes slack then
this is a sign that the fish has gone stale.
EYES – Fresh fish should have bright clear eyes. Stay away from fish that have cloudy, sunken or red blotched eyes.

B7. STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF FISH AND SHELLFISH

1. Vertebrate or Backbone – the primary skeletal structure providing support and protection for the spinal cord.
- Skeletal system: Fish have an internal skeleton made of cartilage (in cartilaginous fish like sharks) or bone (in bony fish). The
vertebral column provides support and protection for the spinal cord
2. Red or Lateral Muscle – types of muscle in fish; red muscle is used for endurance swimming, while lateral muscle is responsible
for quick, powerful movements.
- Muscular system: Fish possess well-developed muscles, particularly along the sides of their bodies. These muscles enable
efficient swimming by contracting in a wave like motion
3. Dorsal Fin – a fin located on the back, aiding in stability and balance while swimming.
4. Visceral Cavity or Belly – the body cavity containing internal organs, involved in various functions such as digestion.
- Digestive system- Fish have a specialized digestive tract that includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and anus,
adapted to their diet, whether carnivorous, herbivorous, or omnivorous.
5. Myotomes – segmented muscle blocks that facilitate locomotion.
6. Mycommata – thin connective tissue membranes that separate myotomes, providing structural support.
7. Respiratory System- Fish extract oxygen from water using gills, which are located on either side of the head. Water flows over
the gills, where oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide is expelled.
8. Circulatory system- Fish have a closed circulatory system, with a two-chambered heart that pumps blood through the gills for
oxygenation and then throughout the body.
9. Nervous system- The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system, while peripheral nerves control sensory and
motor functions. Fish have well developed senses, particularly smell and lateral line systems for detecting movement and
vibrations in water.

COMPOSITION
1. Water Content: Fish typically have a high-water content, ranging from 60% to 80% depending on the species. This high-water
content influences the texture and flavor of fish.
2. Protein: Fish are an excellent source of high-quality protein, containing essential amino acids necessary for human health. The
protein content generally ranges from 15% to 25%of the fish's weight.
3. Lipids (Fats): Fish contain varying amounts of fat, primarily in the form of triglycerides. Fat content can vary widely among
species, with fatty fish (like salmon and mackerel) having higher lipid levels (up to 30% or more) compared to lean fish (like cod
and haddock).
4. Vitamins and Minerals: Fish are rich in essential vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, and B-complex) and minerals (including iodine,
selenium, and zinc), which are vital for various physiological functions.
5. Omega-3 Fatty Acids: Many fish, particularly fatty varieties, are high in omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA), which are beneficial
for cardiovascular health and cognitive function.
6. Collagen and Connective Tissue: Fish contain collagen, primarily found in skin and connective tissues, contributing to the texture
and mouthfeel of cooked fish.

B8. MARKET FORMS OF FISH AND SHELLFISH

1. Live- This are transported and marketed alive and also sold just as they come from the sea.
2. Dressed- Has been scaled and eviscerated where the head, tails, and the fins are removed. This preparation enhances shelf
life by reducing spoilage risks associated with entrails (FAO, 2015). Dressed fish typically yield about 48% edible portions due
to the removal of inedible parts (NC Sea Grant, 2021). They are marketed as "pan-ready," appealing to consumers looking for
convenience. This form is particularly popular in retail settings where ready-to-cook options are expected (SPO, 2015)
3. Drawn- It is also known as gutted fish. Drawn whole fish have had their entrails removed while retaining the head and tail,
allowing for longer storage (FAO, 2015). This form minimizes spoilage risks and offers an edible yield of approximately 67%
(NC Sea Grant, 2021).
4. Whole- It is taken from the water and sold as is without being treated, processed, or removal of parts. This form typically yields
about 45% edible portions due to the need for scaling and evisceration (NC Sea Grant, 2021)
 5. Daing- It is usually called as the dried fish. These has been dehydrated or water removed to inhibit the growth of microorganisms
and are air or heat dried and salted which last longer.
6. Steaks- This are cross-sectioned sliced, each containing a section of backbone. The cross section of backbone generally
included 2.3 cm thick.
7. Fillets- Fillets are the sides of the fish cut lengthwise away from the backbone. This are also the boneless side of fish with or
without skin.
A. Single Fillets- It is a fillet cut from one side of a fish. This is a type most generally available on the market.
B. Butterfly fillets- The two sides of the fish cut lengthwise away from the backbone and held together by the uncut flesh and
skin of the belly.
8. Sticks- This are small elongated chunks of uniform size and thickness cut from the meaty portion of the fish, usually 1 inch wide
and 3 inch long.
9. Flakes- It is the fish meat separated from the whole fish. The process typically involves separating the meat from the bones and
other inedible parts.
10. Deboned- This is where the flesh is separated from the bones and usually without its intramuscular and backbones.

B9. DETERIORATION AND CHANGES IN QUALITY AFTER DEATH, WHILE COOKING AND STORAGE
(FRESH)
The deterioration and changes in quality of fresh fish after death occur due to various biological and environmental factors.
Here’s a breakdown of the key processes involved in the deterioration of fish quality from the moment of death through cooking and
storage.

CHANGES AFTER DEATH:

1. RIGOR MORTIS
- This is one of the earliest changes after death, where muscles stiffen due to the depletion of ATP. This affects texture and is
influenced by species, temperature, and the fish’s pre-death condition. The timing and duration of rigor mortis can significantly
impact the shelf life and sensory quality of fish.
- Once rigor sets in, the muscle contracts, the fish becomes stiff, inflexible and its texture hardens.
- Enzymatic Activity: Enzymes remain active after death and can lead to the breakdown of muscle proteins, contributing to
changes in texture and flavor.
- Microbial Growth: Bacteria that are naturally present on the fish or introduced during handling can proliferate rapidly, leading to
spoilage. Bacteria present on the surface and in the gut of fish start proliferating postmortem, contributing to spoilage. They
metabolize compounds in the fish, leading to the production of off-flavors, odors, and potential toxins like histamine, especially
in scombroid species.

2. AUTOLYSIS
- Once rigor mortis resolves, endogenous enzymes such as proteases begin breaking down muscle tissue. This causes softening,
loss of texture, and changes in flavor. Autolysis also contributes to the breakdown of proteins into amino acids, which can
accelerate spoilage.

3. LIPID OXIDATION
- Fatty fish are particularly prone to lipid oxidation, which results in rancidity and off-flavors. Oxidation is exacerbated by poor
storage conditions and exposure to oxygen, light, and elevated temperatures.

CHANGES DURING COOKING:

a. Protein Denaturation
During cooking, the proteins in fish and shellfish denature due to heat. This process causes the muscle fibers to shrink, expel
moisture, and coagulate, leading to a firming of the texture. Protein denaturation also leads to the release of juices, enhancing
the flavor of cooked seafood.
b. Texture Changes
Heat causes the muscle fibers of fish and shellfish to contract, resulting in a firmer texture. Fish, in particular, has less connective
tissue than land animals, so it cooks faster and can become dry or tough if overcooked. Shellfish, like shrimp and lobster, also
firm up but can become rubbery if overcooked
c. Flavor Development (Maillard Reaction and Caramelization)
Cooking induces chemical reactions like the Maillard reaction, where amino acids and sugars in the fish or shellfish interact,
resulting in a browned exterior and enhanced flavor. Additionally, if cooking at higher temperatures, some of the natural sugars
in seafood may caramelize, adding sweetness to the flavor profile.
d. Moisture Loss and Juiciness
As fish and shellfish cook, they lose moisture due to the evaporation of water and the contraction of muscle fibers. This can lead
to drying if the cooking process is prolonged. Properly cooked seafood retains moisture, providing a tender and juicy texture.
Overcooking, however, results in significant moisture loss and dryness.
e. Color Changes
During cooking, the flesh of fish and shellfish changes color due to the denaturation of pigments and proteins. For example, raw
fish flesh may change from translucent to opaque white or pink, while shellfish like shrimp and lobster turn from grayish-blue to
vibrant red or orange, as the heat causes astaxanthin pigments to become visible.
f. Fat Melting and Lipid Oxidation
Fish, especially fatty fish like salmon, contains oils that melt during cooking, which can enhance flavor and juiciness. However,
excessive heat can also oxidize the lipids, leading to off-flavors. Proper cooking techniques help prevent lipid oxidation while
ensuring the desirable melting of fats, which contributes to a rich mouthfeel.
 g. Nutrient Loss
Cooking fish and shellfish can result in the loss of some water-soluble vitamins, such as B vitamins, and certain minerals may
also leach out, particularly if the seafood is boiled or poached. However, cooking can improve the bioavailability of other
nutrients, such as proteins and some fat-soluble vitamins.
h. Aroma Changes
The cooking process also generates aromatic compounds, enhancing the overall sensory appeal of the seafood. The distinct,
pleasant aroma of cooking fish and shellfish is the result of volatile compounds being released as proteins and fats break down,
with different species having unique aromatic profiles.
i. Gel Formation (In Shellfish)
Shellfish like squid and cuttlefish contain proteins that can form gels when cooked. These proteins coagulate at a lower
temperature, giving rise to the chewy texture characteristic of these seafood types. The gelling is also influenced by factors such
as pH, salinity, and heat.
j. Collagen Breakdown
Fish contain a lower amount of collagen compared to meat, and during cooking, this collagen breaks down easily, contributing
to the tenderness of cooked fish. For shellfish, such as shrimp or lobster, collagen breakdown results in a firm, yet succulent
texture when cooked properly.

CHANGES DURING STORING:

1. MOISTURE LOSS- During storage, moisture loss occurs in improperly wrapped fish and shellfish, leading to a drier texture and
reduced quality. This is exacerbated by freezing without proper sealing, which can cause freezer burn and dehydration of the
surface tissue.
2. TRIMETHYLAMINE PRODUCTION (“FISHY” SMELL)- As fish and shellfish spoil, bacteria and enzymes convert
trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) to trimethylamine (TMA), which gives fish its characteristic “fishy” odor. This process is particularly
noticeable in saltwater fish, which contain higher levels of TMAO.
3. COLOR CHANGES- The flesh of fish and shellfish can change color during storage due to bacterial activity, enzymatic
breakdown, and oxidation. Fresh fish generally has a bright, appealing color that dulls as the fish spoils. For instance, the flesh
can turn grayish or brownish, signaling a loss of freshness.
4. PH CHANGES- After death, fish and shellfish experience a drop in pH due to the production of lactic acid as rigor mortis sets
in. Initially, this pH drop helps preserve the fish, but as bacterial activity increases, the pH rises again, contributing to spoilage
and degradation of muscle tissue.
5. FREEZING AND THAWING EFFECTS- Proper freezing halts bacterial growth and slows down enzymatic activity, preserving
fish and shellfish for extended periods. However, if frozen improperly or thawed multiple times, the structure of the muscle can
be damaged, leading to moisture loss, a mushy texture, and reduced quality.
6. ODOR DEVELOPMENT- The development of off-odors during storage is one of the most noticeable indicators of spoilage.
These odors are caused by bacterial metabolism and the breakdown of proteins, resulting in the production of compounds such
as ammonia and sulfur-containing gases

B10. DISTINCTION BETWEEN FINFISH ANDSHELLFISHAND DIFFERENTKINDS/TYPES OF SHELLFISH

Finfish and shellfish are two broad categories of aquatic animals that are often consumed as our food. The main difference
between them is their physical characteristics and skeletal structure. The difference between the two is that finfish are vertebrates,
meaning that they have a backbone, they typically have fins and scales and they breathe through gills. On the other hand, shellfish are
invertebrates, meaning they lack a backbone, characterized by their hard-outer shells which protect their soft bodies

Researched by: ALMAZAN, Rhea Joyce O. AWIDAN, Melanie B. BAUTISTA, Christina G. CALAYON, Mirasol D. CARPIO, Albert
Benjamin D. COMOM, Zaira Maye A. DAGUYEN, Sheena B. FELIMON, Medorelle P. GUMABAY, Flowryn C. MEDINA, Charisse A.
OMEDIO, Fatima L. PERALTA, Erica B. SONGCUAN, Cassandra Denise C. VALDEZ, Athena A. YUBOS, Blessy Jen S., ALIGMAYO,
Lyka O. BANDAO, Cloyce Shelly P. BAYOT, Mica Mae L. BUGALIN, Gracielle O. CIANO, Jenny T. DIGAN, Wena Mae B. GAAB,
Selvylyne F. HELAMOT, Nicole Ann A. LINDAOAN, Denice G. MANIO, Yna Mae K. PADICLAS, Jemael C. ROSARIO, Jherzy Gwyneth
P. TEPACE, Angelek Mae N. VICENTE, Caspherlyn P. WILLIAM, Rizza Mae L. ALMOITE, Jester Louise T. BANASAN, Julia O.
BERMOR, Vanjie U. CANOL, Chloe B. CHALIPO, Trija Joy M. COPETE, Jessielyn Joy T. DAO – INES, Shane Alanis W. FERNANDEZ,
Zymielenn Yunalesca M. LACSON, Nanding G. MENDOZA, Phoebe Cate B. PACUDAN, Nicolette A. QUINIO, Ronalyn P. SPEARS,
Jasmine C. VALENZUELA, Jazmin O. WACLIN, Jocelyn L. ALWOD,Cerise Daisy, D. BENBENEN, Angelica, W. CABAY, Reign Joy, D.
DACSAYAN, Keishin, A. ELLIO, Shirley, Q. GALVEZ, Belha, B. IDDO, Kyla, P. LUCIO, Khena May, C. MENIS, Ashlyn Camille, P.
PODOS, Geisha Li, G. SAGANDOY,Hydee, C. UNOS, Khim Lee, Q. VILLAMOR, Art, B. YAGYAGEN,Rachel, S.

Compiled by: SHANE MAY M. LOZANO, RND (Course Facilitator)