Vector Geometry

1. Introduction to Vector Geometry

 1.1 Definition of a Vector
• A vector is defined by two essential attributes: its magnitude (or norm), which
represents the length of the arrow, and its direction, which indicates the
orientation of the arrow in space.

• In practical terms, you can visualize a vector as a directed line segment, where
the size of the segment represents the quantity's magnitude, and the direction
shows where the effect of the vector is applied.
 1. Introduction to Vector Geometry

Common examples:
Displacement of a point from one location to another.
Force applied to an object, where the direction of the force is crucial to determine
its effect.
Mathematically, a vector in a two-dimensional space (2D) is noted as
v⃗=(x,y) , and in a three-dimensional space (3D), it is noted as v⃗=(x,y,z).
 1. Introduction to Vector Geometry
 1.2 Vectors in the Plane and Space:
• Vectors in the Plane (2D):A vector v⃗ in the plane is described by its two
components (x,y), where x and y represent the projections of the vector on
the X and Y axes, respectively.

• For example, if we have a vector v⃗=(3,4), it can be visualized as an arrow

starting from the origin (0,0) and ending at the point (3,4). The length (norm)
of this vector can be calculated using the formula:
 1. Introduction to Vector Geometry

• Vectors in Space (3D): A vector in space is represented by three components

(x,y,z), which indicate the projections on the X, Y, and Z axes.

• For example, a vector w⃗=(2,−1,4) is an arrow that starts from the origin (0,0,0)
and ends at the point (2,−1,4) in three-dimensional space.

• The norm of a vector in 3D is given by:

 2. Basic Vector Operations
• Vector Addition:

• The addition of two vectors u⃗=(u1,u2) and v⃗=(v1,v2) in a two-dimensional

space (2D) results in a new vector w⃗=u⃗+v⃗, where:

w⃗=(u1+v1,u2+v2)
• In three-dimensional space (3D), the addition is performed component-wise: if
u⃗=(u1,u2,u3) and v⃗=(v1,v2,v3) , then:

w⃗=u⃗+v⃗=(u1+v1,u2+v2,u3+v3)
 2. Basic Vector Operations
 Vector Addition:

• Geometric Interpretation: To add two vectors geometrically, place the tail of

the second vector at the head of the first vector. The resultant vector is the
arrow starting from the tail of the first vector to the head of the second vector.
This is known as the triangle law of vector addition.
 2. Basic Vector Operations

 Vector Subtraction:

The subtraction of two vectors u⃗ and v⃗ results in a new vector w⃗=u⃗−v⃗, where:

w⃗=(u1−v1,u2−v2)(in 2D)

w⃗=(u1−v1,u2−v2,u3−v3)(in 3D)

• Geometric Interpretation: Vector subtraction can be visualized by reversing

the direction of the vector being subtracted and then performing vector
addition.
 2.2 Scalar Multiplication
• Definition:
Multiplying a vector v⃗=(x,y) in 2D or v⃗=(x,y,z) in 3D by a scalar k
results in a new vector kv⃗ where each component is scaled by k:
kv⃗=(kx,ky)(in 2D)
kv⃗=(kx,ky,kz)(in 3D)
• Effects of Scalar Multiplication:
• If k>1 the vector is stretched, increasing its magnitude.
• If 0<k<1 the vector is compressed, reducing its magnitude.
• If k<0, the vector's direction is reversed, and its magnitude is scaled by k .
• Geometric Interpretation: Scaling a vector changes its length but
does not affect its direction unless the scalar is negative.
 2.3 Properties of Vector Operations
• Commutativity of Addition: u⃗+v⃗=v⃗+u⃗
This means that the order in which you add vectors does not change the result.
• Associativity of Addition: (u⃗+v⃗)+w⃗=u⃗+(v⃗+w⃗)
This property allows grouping vectors in any order when adding.
• Distributivity of Scalar Multiplication: k(u⃗+v⃗)=ku⃗+kv⃗
Scalar multiplication distributes over vector addition.
• Zero Vector: Adding the zero vector 0⃗=(0,0) in 2D or (0,0,0) in 3D to any vector
v⃗ leaves v⃗unchanged: v⃗+0⃗=v⃗
• Negative Vector: The negative of a vector v⃗=(x,y)is −v⃗=(−x,−y), and: v⃗+(−v⃗)=0⃗
 3. Dot Product
 3.1 Definition and Formula

• The dot product of two vectors u⃗=(u1,u2)and v⃗=(v1,v2) in 2D is a scalar (a single

number) given by: u⃗⋅v⃗=u1v1+u2v2

• In three-dimensional space (3D), for u⃗=(u1,u2,u3and v⃗=(v1,v2,v3, the dot product

is: u⃗⋅v⃗=u1v1+u2v2+u3v3

• Properties of the Dot Product:

• The dot product is commutative: u⃗⋅v⃗=v⃗⋅u⃗

• If u⃗⋅v⃗=0, the vectors u⃗ and v are orthogonal (perpendicular).

 3. Dot Product
 3.2 Geometric Interpretation

• The dot product can be interpreted in terms of the lengths of the vectors and the
angle θ between them. It is given by the formula:
where u⃗∥ and v⃗∥are the norms (magnitudes) of the vectors u⃗ and v⃗, and θ is the
angle between the two vectors.
• Norm of a Vector: The norm u⃗∥ of a vector u⃗=(u1,u2) is:
and in 3D,
• Interpretation of cosθ: If θ=0°, cosθ=1, and the vectors are collinear in the
same direction. If θ=90°, cosθ=0, and the vectors are orthogonal.
 3. Dot Product
 3.3 Applications of the Dot Product
• Orthogonality: The dot product is used to determine if two vectors are orthogonal.
If u⃗⋅v⃗=0, then the vectors are perpendicular.
• Projection: The projection of a vector u⃗ onto a vector v⃗ is given by:

 This formula is useful for finding the component of u⃗ that is aligned with v⃗.
 Applications in Physics and Engineering: The dot product is used to calculate
the work done by a force. If a force F⃗ moves an object over a distance d⃗, the work
W is given by:
 4. Cross Product
4.1 Definition in Space
• The cross product (or vector product) of two vectors u⃗=(u1,u2,u3)
and v⃗=(v1,v2,v3) in three-dimensional space (3D) is a vector
w⃗=u⃗×v⃗ given by: w⃗=(u2v3−u3v2,u3v1−u1v3,u1v2−u2v1)

• The result of the cross product is a vector that is perpendicular to

both u⃗ and v⃗. The direction of w⃗ is determined by the right-hand
rule: if you point your right hand’s fingers in the direction of u⃗ and
curl them toward v⃗, your thumb points in the direction of w⃗.
 4. Cross Product
4.2 Geometric Interpretation and Applications
• Magnitude of the Cross Product: The magnitude of the cross
product u⃗×v⃗ is given by: u⃗×v⃗∥= u⃗∥∥v⃗∥sinθ where θ is the angle
between u⃗ and v⃗, and 0°≤θ≤180°
• The magnitude u⃗×v⃗∥ represents the area of the parallelogram
formed by the vectors u⃗ and v⃗ .
• Orthogonality: Since the cross product results in a vector
perpendicular to the original two vectors, it is useful for finding a
normal vector to a plane defined by u⃗ and v⃗ .
 4. Cross Product
 4.3 Applications of the Cross Product
• Calculating Area: The cross product is often used to calculate the
area of a parallelogram. If u⃗ and v⃗ are two adjacent sides of a
parallelogram, then: Area= u⃗×v⃗∥
• Physics Applications: The cross product is used in physics to
describe quantities such as torque and angular momentum. For
example, if a force F⃗ is applied at a position r⃗ , the torque τ⃗ is given by:
τ⃗=r⃗×F⃗
• Here, τ⃗ is a vector that indicates the rotational effect of the force.
 5. Geometric Applications of Vectors
 5.1 Equations of Lines and Planes
• Equation of a Line:
• A line in 3D can be defined by a point P0⃗=(x0,y0,z0) and a direction
vector d⃗=(a,b,c) . The parametric equation of the line is:
r⃗(t)=P0⃗+td⃗=(x0+at,y0+bt,z0+ct) where t is a real parameter.
• Equation of a Plane:
• A plane can be defined by a point P0⃗=(x0,y0,z0) and a normal vector
n⃗=(a,b,c). The Cartesian equation of the plane is:
a(x−x0)+b(y−y0)+c(z−z0)=0
• This can also be written as: ax+by+cz=d where d=ax0+by0+cz0.
 5. Geometric Applications of Vectors
 5.2 Conditions of Parallelism and Orthogonality
• Parallelism:
• Two vectors u⃗ and v⃗ are parallel if one is a scalar multiple of the other:
u⃗=kv⃗ for some scalar k.
• Two lines are parallel if their direction vectors are parallel. Similarly, two
planes are parallel if their normal vectors are parallel.
• Orthogonality:
• Two vectors u⃗ and v⃗ are orthogonal if their dot product is zero: u⃗⋅v⃗=0.
• A line is orthogonal to a plane if the line's direction vector is orthogonal to
the plane's normal vector. Similarly, two planes are orthogonal if their
normal vectors are orthogonal.
 5. Geometric Applications of Vectors
 5.3 Position Problems
• Intersection of Two Lines:
• To determine if two lines intersect, solve a system of equations obtained by
equating their parametric equations. If a unique solution exists, the lines intersect;
otherwise, they are parallel or skew (do not intersect).
• Distance Between a Point and a Line:
• The distance d between a point P⃗=(x1,y1,z1) and a line defined by a point
P0⃗=(x0,y0,z0) and a direction vector d⃗=(a,b,c) is given by:

where AP⃗ is the vector from P0⃗ to P⃗.

 6. Vector Transformations and Practical
Applications
 6.1 Geometric Transformations
• Translations:
• A translation shifts a point or object by a vector v⃗=(a,b,c) in space. If a point
P⃗=(x,y,z) is translated by v⃗, the new position P′⃗′ is:
P′⃗=(x+a,y+b,z+c).
• Translations are useful in architecture for moving elements or structures within
a design.
 Example:
• Suppose you are designing a series of columns in a building. If the original
position of a column is at (2,3,0) and you want to move it 5 units along the x-axis,
2 units along the y-axis, and 4 units upward along the z-axis, the translation
vector is v⃗=(5,2,4).
• The new position P′⃗ of the column will be: P′⃗=(2+5,3+2,0+4)=(7,5,4).
 6. Vector Transformations and Practical
Applications
• Rotations:A rotation rotates a point or object around a specified axis by a
certain angle θ. In 2D, rotations are often described using a rotation matrix:

• In 3D, rotations are more complex and typically involve defining a rotation
axis and using matrices or quaternions for precise transformations.
• Rotations are critical in design for adjusting the orientation of architectural
components.
6. Vector Transformations and Practical
Applications
 Rotation Example:
• Imagine you have a rectangular panel on a wall that you want to
rotate by 45° around its center in a 2D plane. Using the rotation
matrix:

• If a point on the panel is originally at (x,y)=(4,2), the new coordinates

(x′,y′) after rotation are:
 6. Vector Transformations and Practical
Applications
 Reflection Formulas
1. Reflection Across the xxx-Axis:
1. If a point (x,y) is reflected across the x-axis, the new coordinates
become: (x′,y′)=(x,−y)
2. Example: Reflecting the point (3,4) across the x-axis gives (3,−4).
2. Reflection Across the yyy-Axis:
1. If a point (x,y) is reflected across the y-axis, the new coordinates
become: (x′,y′)=(−x,y)
2. Example: Reflecting the point (3,4) across the y-axis gives (−3,4).
 6. Vector Transformations and Practical
Applications
1. Reflection Across the Line y=x:
1. If a point (x,y)is reflected across the line y=x the new coordinates
become: (x′,y′)=(y,x)
2. Example: Reflecting the point (3,4) across the line y=x gives (4,3).
2. Reflection in 3D Space:
1. For a point (x,y,z) reflected across the xy-plane, the new coordinates are:
(x′,y′,z′)=(x,y,−z)
2. Example: Reflecting the point (2,5,−3) across the xy-plane gives (2,5,3).
 7. Applications in Architecture and Design
• Using Vectors in Structural Analysis:
• Vectors are used to represent forces acting on structures, such as tension and compression
in beams. Understanding the direction and magnitude of these forces helps engineers
ensure the stability of buildings.
• Modeling and Visualization:
• Vectors are essential in computer-aided design (CAD) software, where they help in modeling
the geometry of architectural elements and performing transformations such as scaling,
rotation, and translation.
• Geometric Transformations in Design:
• Architects use vector transformations to explore different layouts, optimize space, and
simulate the effects of natural forces like wind and gravity on structures.
• Practical Example:
• When designing a bridge, engineers use vectors to calculate the load distribution and to
ensure that the structure can handle the forces it will experience.