SOC122 (2025): TEST 1 REVISION NOTES

WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY?
A science of human societies/ human behaviour
The study of human social life, groups and societies
Subject matter of sociology is our own behavior as social beings.
Scope of Sociology is, however, varied and wide; hence the existence of "many sociologies"
such as: Sociology of the Family: Focusing on love and marriage; why do people fall in love, get
married, divorce etc? ; courtship in different societies, human sexuality, etc.
Medical Sociology: Understanding health and illness: Assessing the impact (socio-economic) of
various illnesses in a particular society; the effects of social factors on both the experience and
occurrence of 'illness'; various ways in which different societies construe health and illness e.g.
viewing disease as evil spell by certain cultures [cf.: initial explanations of HIV/AIDS].

Crime and Deviance: Why societal members break societal norms; theoretical explanations of
crime; crime and punishment/rehabilitation; the criminal Justice System - Police, Courts and
Prisons; social Control etc.
Social Problems: Focusing on how social, economic, political and structural changes in pose new
challenges for human societies such as crime, unemployment, poverty, and disease; theoretical
explanations of social problems etc.

Despite the existence of many sociologies, however, all sociologists are bound together and set
apart from lay persons by the Sociological Perspective or what C. Wright Mills calls the
"Sociological Imagination" that is central to the discipline of sociology. This is the point of
view that sociologists use to understand human behavior; to understand what makes people do
the things they do. The sociological perspective/imagination makes sociology not just a routine
process of acquiring knowledge but a unique discipline with a specific method of studying
human behavior. What then is the Sociological Imagination?

The Sociological Imagination or Perspective involves:

Seeing the general in the particular:

Sociologists are interested in patterns of social behavior rather than on individual cases. They
study particular individual cases only in search of general social patterns.

Seeing the strange in the familiar:

The sociological imagination enables us to "think ourselves away from the familiar routines of
our daily lives in order to look at them a new" [Giddens, 1993:18]. To make sociological
observations we need to give up the familiar idea that human behavior is simply a matter of what
people decide to do. In the words of Peter Berger (1963:23), "things are not what they seem."

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Example:

Consider the case of a young Motswana male smoking "marijuana": How would a lay person
interpret such behavior?
What about a Sociologist?
It has a symbolic value for the individual i.e., it is part of day-to-day rituals; here the ritual rather
than the mere smoking of the substance is much more important to the individual. It is a drug
that acts as a stimulant. It shields the individual from the harsh realities of life.

Purpose of Sociological Studies:

To develop and enhance/further theoretical knowledge about human societies. That is to
build/construct theories about society.
Practical policy making and reform:
Sociological research provides clearer or better understanding of social reality. Such knowledge
is essential to the formulation of effective implementation of policies to address such
realities/problems. As Giddens (1993:22) states, "practical policies which are not based on
informed awareness of the ways of life of those they affect have little chances of success."
Sociological research helps to foster greater cultural awareness on the part of different groups in
society. It provides the means of seeing the social world from a diversity of cultural perspectives.
This way groups/societies are able to dispel prejudices [or ethnocentric views] that they hold
toward one another. Sociological research also facilitates the assessment of the effects of policy
initiatives.
Sociological research can also increase self-knowledge/self-enlightenment about societal groups.
The more we know about the conditions of our own actions and the workings of our society, the
more we are likely to influence the circumstances of our own lives. That is raised self-knowledge
can lead to better response to government and other official policies and to the formation of
policy initiatives by a group.

THE ORIGINS OF SOCIOLOGY

Scientific Sociology or "the objective systematic study of human behavior and society"
(Giddens, 1997:7) dates back to the early 1800s. The basis of its origins was the series of
sweeping changes brought about by the French Revolution of 1789 and the emergence of the
Industrial revolution in Europe in the 19th. century. Out of the ever-growing complexity and
diversity of modern industrial society arose the need for a science of society. The major social
trends that led to the birth of scientific sociology included:

The growth of a factory based industrial economy

The emergence of great cities in Europe.
Political changes such as a rising concern with individual liberty and rights.

As a new discipline, sociology was expected to provide principles of social behavior that were
useful in explaining and understanding the widely diverse societies of the world emergent from
the changes of the 18th and 19th centuries. It would replace early social thought which consisted
mostly of utopian philosophical speculation.

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 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN SOCIOLOGY

A theory is a structure or framework that guides research and within which scientific
investigation operates. It explains the relationship between two or more specific facts. There are
two distinctive types of scientific theory:
Sociologists share three major theoretical paradigms that enable them to analyse effectively
virtually any dimension of society. These are:

i) Structural Functionalism

ii) The Social-Conflict Paradigm

iii) Symbolic Interactionist Paradigm

I. The Structural Functionalist Paradigm

Presents the conservative stance towards society. Based on the assumption that society is a
complex system of interrelated parts working together to promote stability. Functionalists also
assume that societal members share a set of agreed-upon values, customs and expectations
concerning appropriate behaviour. That is, society is characterised by a normative consensus.
The paradigm emphasises stability/ order/ harmony/ equilibrium/ social cohesion/ social
solidarity in society. Based on structural functionalism:
Society is composed of social structures (or relatively stable patterns of behaviour).
Each social structure has social functions or consequences for the operation of society as a
whole.

Major proponents of the paradigm include Comte, Spencer, Durkheim, Talcott Parsons and
Merton. The functionalist paradigm has been criticised for minimising the importance of social
conflict and social change and for overlooking divisions based on class, race, ethnicity, and
gender.

II. The Social Conflict Paradigm:

Notable scholars in the conflict tradition include Karl Marx and W.E. B. DuBois. The paradigm
is based on the assumption that society is a complex system characterised by inequalities and
conflict that generate change. Rather than try to identify how social patterns can be functional to
society as a whole, this paradigm investigates how social patterns are useful to some people and
harmful to others.

Based on the conflict perspective, society is characterised by incompatible interests among

individuals occupying different (class) positions in society, e.g., the rich versus the poor,
employers versus workers. The perspective has been criticised for:
Ignoring social unity based on interdependence and shared values

Being explicitly political and thus abandoning the goal of scientific objectivity.

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III. The Symbolic Interaction Paradigm:
Based on the assumption that society is a product of everyday interactions between individuals.
Unlike functionalism and social conflict paradigms that share a macro-level orientation (they
focus on broad social structures that characterise society as a whole), symbolic interactionism
has a micro- level orientation. It focuses on everyday face-to-face patterns of social interaction in
specific settings.

Broadly speaking symbolic interactionism holds that: People act according to their own
interpretation of reality; according to the meanings things have for them. People learn the
meaning of a thing from the way others react to it, either positively or negatively. That is, social
meanings arise interactionally. People re-evaluate and interpret their own behaviour according to
the meaning and symbols they have learned from others. That is, meanings are handled in, and
modified through, an interpretative process used by the person in dealing with things
encountered.
Symbolic interactionism was popularised by scholars such as: George Herbert Mead, Erving
Goffman; George Homans and Peter Blau. Other proponents include Horton Cooley, W.I.
Thomas and Herbert Blumer.

SOCIAL INTERACTION AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE

The concepts of social interactions and social structure focus on how different aspects of human
behavior are related to one another.
Social Interaction is the ways in which people respond to one another/act and react in relation to
others.
Social Structure, on the other hand, refers to the way in which society is organized into
predictable relationships. It guides human behavior by channelling actions in certain directions
based on culture. Social structure does not determine human behavior; it only guides it.
Sociologists use the term negotiated order to refer to a social structure that derives its existence
from the social interactions through which people define and redefine its character.

Elements of Social Structure

Status: Refers to a socially defined and recognized position that an individual occupies within a
society. A person usually holds more than one status simultaneously and hence the term status
set. A status set consists of all the statuses a person holds at any given time.
Although a person may simultaneously hold many statuses in a society, one status has
exceptional importance for social identity, often shaping a person's entire life. This status is
termed a master status. Every status involves a number of rights, duties and expectations that
guide social interaction.
There are two major categories of status. These are ascribed status and achieved status.

Ascribed status refers to social position that someone receives at birth (e.g., a person's sex and
age), or involuntarily assumes later in life (e.g., teenager, senior citizen, widow, widower etc.).

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Achieved status, on the other hand, is a social position someone assumes voluntarily and that
reflects personal ability and effort (e.g., husband, wife, computer programmer, thief, athlete,
University student etc.).

Role: A social role is a set of expectations for people who occupy a give social position or status.
It is a set of culturally defined rights and duties for every status.
Roles are significant components of social structure. They allow us to formulate our behavior
mentally so that we can shape our actions in appropriate ways.

There several terms associated with the concept of role:

Role Expectation: Refers to the culturally suggested or expected behaviour of a person who
occupies a status in society; how that individual ought to act.
Role Performance: Is the actual behavior of a person who occupies a status. It could vary from
role expectation because real culture only approximates ideal culture.
Role Set: A number of roles attached to a single status
Role Conflict: Refers to the incompatibility among roles corresponding to two or more different
statuses It can be reduced by: a) defining some roles as more important than others; b) setting
priorities, and/or c) Insulating roles from one another.
Role Strain: Refers to the incompatibility among roles corresponding to a single status.
Role Exit: Is the process by which people disengage from social roles that have been central to
their lives.

COMMUNICATION

Refers to the process by which people transmit information, ideas, attitudes and mental states to
one another. It plays a vital role in the social structure of society because it facilitates social
interaction.
Communication can be both verbal and non-verbal. Verbal communication involves the use of
spoken messages or verbal symbols.

Non-verbal communication systems include:

Body Language: Physical motions and gestures that provide signals e.g. adjusting one's hair,
rearranging one's clothes could send the message: NOTICE I AM AN ATTRACTIVE PERSON.
Paralanguage: Non-vocal cues surrounding speech E.g. voice pitch, volume, pacing speech,
silent pauses and sighs. The message is in how something is said rather than in what is said.
Example: Silence could communicate scorn, hostility, defiance as well as respect, kindness and
acceptance.

Proxémics: The way we employ social and personal space. E.g. students who occupy front rows
tend to be most interested ; those in rear more prone to mischievous activities while those at
aisles are primarily concerned with quick departure.
Touch: Physical contact - E.g. touching, stroking, hitting, holding and greeting (handshakes) -
convey our feelings to one another Touch can also signify an invasion of privacy.

Artifacts: Objects such as clothing, make up, hairpieces, eyeglasses, beauty aids, perfume and
jewellery - can tell other our gender, rank, status, and attitude.

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Groups: Refer to a number of people who have a high degree of common identity (similar
norms, values and expectations) and who interact regularly and consciously.

Play a vital part in society's social structure. Much of our social interaction takes place within
groups and is influenced by norms and sanctions established by groups. Groups also serve as an
intermediate link between the individual and the larger society.

Social Institutions: Are organized patterns of beliefs and behavior centered on basic social
needs. They are organized in response to particular needs such as procreation (family),
preserving law and order (government) preserving moral order (religion) etc.
Include Government/Polity, the economy, the family, education, religion, health care and the
Mass Media.

GROUPS AND ORGANIZATIONS

Social Group: Two or more people who identify and interact with one another. Examples
include Tenants' Associations Youth Clubs, Christian Union. Groups play a key role in the
transmission of culture in society. A group is more than a collection of people. Some closely
related concepts include:

Related Concepts

1.Category: A collection of people who have some status in common (E.g. "mothers," "Roman
Catholics", "soldiers" etc) but do not socially interact.
2.Aggregates: People who are in the same place at the same time but who interact little if at all
and have no sense of belonging together.
3. Crowd: A large number of people in proximity interact to a greater or lesser extent.

Group Relationships : A relationship emerges when two people become linked together by a
relatively stable set of expectations due to prolonged association. People are bound within
relationships by two types of bonds:

Expressive Ties: Are social links formed when we emotionally invest in and commit ourselves to
other people. Individuals derive a sense of security, love, acceptance, companionship and
personal worth from such ties.
Instrumental Ties: Are social links formed when we co-operate with others to achieve a goal.

TYPES OF GROUPS

Drawing from the distinction between expressive and instrumental ties we can distinguish two
types of groups:

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A Primary Group: Is a small social group in which: Relationships are both personal and
enduring. There is face to face association and co-operation. People share many activities, spend
a great deal of time together, and feel they know one another well. Members think of the group
as an end in itself rather than as a means to other ends.
Members engage each other as unique individuals.
Example: The Family

A Secondary Group: is a larger formal, group and impersonal group based on some special
interest and activity. It has the following characteristics: Relationships involve little personal
knowledge and weak emotional ties
Are usually short term
Are goal oriented
Are typically impersonal; members hardly develop a deep concern for one another's overall
welfare.

Sociologists also distinguish between in- and out-groups. An in-group is a social group with
which we identify and toward which we feel a sense of loyalty. An out-group, on the other hand,
is a social group with which we do not identify and toward which we feel a sense of competition
or opposition. In -groups are the "we-groups" while out-groups are the "they-groups".

Another type of group is what is referred to as reference group. It designates a social group that
serves as a point of reference for people making evaluations and decisions. A reference group
can be either a primary or a secondary group. Whenever our membership group does not match
our reference group we may experience feelings of relative deprivation (or discontent associated
with the gap between what we have and what we believe we should have). Reference groups can
be both negative and positive.

Group Dynamics

To understand human behaviour as manifested through social groups, we need to understand

what happens within groups (or group dynamics). This can be achieved by understanding the
following aspects of groups:

Group Size: Has an important effect on the operations of social groups. It influences the nature
of interaction. The smaller the group, the more the opportunities for members to know one
another well and establish close ties. On the contrary, the bigger the group, the higher the
number of relations.
We can distinguish between three types of groups based on size:

Dyads: Social groups with two members . According to George Simmel, dyads are less stable
than groups with larger numbers and social interaction within them is typically intense.
Triads: Social groups with three members. Simmel sees them as more stable. But any two
members can form a majority coalition that threatens the life of the group.

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Larger Groups: Social groups with more than three persons. Tend to be more stable because the
lack of interest by one member does not directly threaten the existence of the whole group. They
also tend to develop a more formal social structure - a variety of statuses and roles, and often
rules and regulations - which stabilizes their operations.

Group Leadership: Two types of leadership tend to evolve in small groups

Instrumental Leadership: Emphasises the completion of tasks. That is, leadership is devoted to
appraising the problems at hand and organizing people's activity to deal with it.
Expressive Leadership: A social-emotional specialist who focuses on overcoming interpersonal
problems in the group, defusing tension and promoting solidarity. That is, emphasizes the
collective well-being of group members.

Leaders are further distinguished by the extent to which they involve other group members in
decision making:
Authoritarian Leaders: Focus on instrumental concerns, make decisions on their own and
demand strict compliance from subordinates [e.g. in police and military]
Democratic Leaders: Are more expressive and seek to include everyone in the decision-making
process.
Laissez-Faire Leaders: Downplay their position of power, allowing the group to function more
or less on its own.
Group Conformity: Is another important dimension of group dynamics. It refers to the desire to
follow cultural patterns adopted by the group. Every group exerts powerful social pressures on
its members to conform to its norms. This makes members indebted to the group and to be loyal
to it.

Formal Organizations

Are large secondary groups that are designed and organized to achieve goals efficiently.
Examples Botswana Telecommunication Corporation, Water Utilities Corporation, General
Motors, Botswana Postal Services etc. They fulfil enormous variety of personal needs that shape
the lives of every member of society. Formal organizations develop lives of their own, somewhat
independent of their particular members. That is, people come and go, but the statuses they fill
and the roles they perform remain largely unchanged over many years.

Etzioni (1975) distinguished between three types of formal organizations:

Normative Organizations: Are voluntary associations that people enter and leave freely, E.g.
Girls Scouts, PTAs, Wildlife Society etc. People join them in order to pursue goals they consider
morally worthwhile. Membership gives personal satisfaction and social prestige.
Coercive Organizations: Organizations that people join against their will E.g. being committed
to mental hospital, sentenced to prison or being drafted into armed forces. These have a
distinctive physical character; make use of locked doors, barred windows and security personnel
because members usually resist confinement.
Utilitarian Organizations: Provide material benefit to members. Membership is largely a matter
of personal choice.

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 BUREAUCRACY

To achieve their goals larger organizations must establish formal operating administrative
procedures. This requirement is met by bureaucracy (or the organizational model rationally
designed to perform complex tasks efficiently). Bureaucracy is a social structure made up of a
hierarchy of statuses and roles that is prescribed by explicit rules and procedures and based on
a division of function and authority. As used here the term is different from its common usage
which tends to have a negative connotation [Often the term is used synonymously with red
tape]. Elements of bureaucracy are found almost in every occupation in an industrial society.

Max Weber, known for his works on the significance of the bureaucratic structure, identified six
key characteristics of bureaucracy:
Specialization; an elaborate division of labor: all individuals do not engage in many of the same
activities; they perform distinctive tasks often corresponding to organizational offices.
Hierarchy of Offices: Offices not only have different responsibilities but are also arranged in a
hierarchy.
Written rules and regulations: According to Weber, tradition carries little weight in bureaucratic
organizations. Instead, rationally enacted rules and regulations guide the work of employees.
Technical competence: Is the criterion for hiring and promotion. Employees are expected to
have the necessary technical competence; emphasis is more on what you can do rather than who
you are.
Impersonality: Officers are expected to act in response to impersonal rules rather than personal
feelings in performing duties.
Formal, written communication: Bureaucracy demands that people communicate deliberately
and in writing. Overtime the correspondence accumulates into vast records and files.

Bureaucratic functioning also depends on the organizational environment. This refers to a range
of factors external to the organization that affect its operation. Key among these are:
Technology: Level of technology and changes in technological development effect the
operations of an organization.
Politics: Changes in law dramatically affect the well being of organizations.
The Economy: The state of the economy affects the well being of organizations especially
financially.
Population Patterns: E.g. size and composition of surrounding populace. Average age,
education and social diversity shapes both the available work force and the market (outlet) for an
organization's products or services.
Other Organizations: Organizations must be aware of other related organizations within their
environment to remain viable and competitive.

Bureaucratization as Process

Sociologists use the term bureaucratization to refer to the process by which an organization, or a
social movement becomes increasingly bureaucratic. This suggests that bureaucracy is a matter
of degree and the Weberian model with its six characteristics described earlier therefore must be
applied carefully when describing organizations. The six must be seen as characterizing an ideal
type rather than as offering a precise definition of an actual bureaucracy. An organization can be

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more or less bureaucratic; it can be more or less rule oriented, or more or less hierarchical etc.
(Nickinovich, 1992).

Limitations of Bureaucracy

Weber was aware of the problems inherent in a bureaucratic organization. Key among these are
the following:
Bureaucratic Alienation: Refers to the potential for bureaucracy to dehumanize those it is
expected to support. Bureaucracy through its characteristic of impersonality is likely to
depersonalize society, alienate individuals from one another and reduce the individual human
being into "a small cog in a ceaselessly moving mechanism".
Bureaucratic Ritualism: A term coined by Robert Merton to signify a preoccupation with
organizational rules and regulations to the point of thwarting an organization's goals. It occurs
when members of formal organizations become so intent on conforming to rules that they
overlook the overall negative consequences of going so. Bureaucratic ritualism creates red tape
that reduces performance and stifles creativity and imagination of the organization's members.
Bureaucratic Inertia: The tendency for bureaucratic organizations to perpetuate
themselves/persist overtime even after they have met their goals. The tendency is usually one
where organizations will redefine their goals in order to survive and continue to provide a
livelihood for their members. Diminished Personal Privacy: Bureaucracy is often a threat to
personal privacy. Growth of formal organizations has been accompanied by a decline in
individual privacy.
Oligarchy: The rule of the many by the few. According to Robert Michels, bureaucracies tend to
spawn/foster oligarchy. Associates become more complex, and develop formal organizations,

domination by a small elite becomes common. Oligarchy, Michels argues, discourages

democracy and individual freedom.

Humanizing Bureaucracy

Refers to fostering an organizational environment/atmosphere that recognizes and encourages the

contributions of everyone . This may involve:
Social Inclusiveness: Ensuring that no one feels "out of place" because of characteristics such as
gender, race or ethnicity. This is thought to improve employee performance.
Sharing of Responsibilities: Means that rigid, oligarchical structures are reduced by spreading
power and responsibility more widely. Open thinking increases organizational effectiveness.
Expanding Opportunities for Advancement: This reduces the number of employees stuck in
routine, dead-end jobs with little motivation to perform well.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

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A social institution is a major structural part of society that addresses one or more of its basic
needs. The major social institutions include:
The family
The educational system

The economic system

The political system
The religious system
The health and medical institutions
All social institutions have both positive and negative important consequences for society as a
whole.

THE FAMILY

Families vary considerably around the world. However, basically the family is a social group of
two or more people related by blood, marriage or adoption who live together. Family life tends to
be co- operative in the sense that family members tend to share economic resources and day to
day responsibilities.

We can distinguish between:

A family of orientation: the family into which a person is born, and which provides intensive
early socialization.
A family of procreation: a family within which people have or adopt children of their own.
Closely related to the concept of family is kinship. This refers to social relationships based on
blood, marriage and adoption. Kin can include parents, brothers and sisters; aunts and uncles;
grandparents; great aunts and great uncles; first, second and third cousins; and so on. The exact
membership of a kinship network is determined by particular cultural norms. In some societies,
kin includes more distant relatives than in others.

The Family in cross-cultural Perspective

Families are universal only in the most general sense. There are important dimensions of cross-
cultural variation:
a) Industrial societies recognise the nuclear family:
One, or more commonly, two parents and children
Or so-called the conjugal family (meaning that it is based on marriage).
b) Non-Industrial societies have the extended family as the major family form. Includes
parents, children and other kin [grand parents, aunts, uncles etc.]
Also called consanguine family meaning it includes everyone with ̳shared blood‘

Marriage Forms

Whom a person may marry is regulated by cultural norms:

Many societies observe the norm of endogamy: Is marriage between people of the same social
background or category - that is, of the same tribe, race, religion or social class.
Encourages group solidarity and helps to maintain traditional values and norms by uniting people

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of similar background.
Other societies endorse the contrasting pattern of exogamy: Marriage between people of
different social backgrounds or categories.
Major advantage is that it may forge useful alliances with other groups and is likely to encourage
cultural diffusion.
Note: In Botswana the two types of marriage tend to coexist hand in hand. In industrial societies
law and cultural norms prescribe a form of marriage termed monogamy:
This refers to a marriage that joins one female and one male.
But with widespread divorce and remarriage many people engage in a pattern of serial
monogamy (or a series of monogamous marriages).

In some non-industrial societies polygamy is also a practiced marital pattern: Marriage that
unites three or more people.
Creates an extended family composed of two or more nuclear families linked by the person with
more than one spouse.

Takes two forms:

Polygyny: is most common. Joins one male with more than one female. Where practiced it were
usually a sign of wealth and a source of great social prestige. Polygyny is a violation of law in
some countries but is sanctioned through tradition or religions.
Polyandry: joins one female with two or more males. But is extremely rare in the world.

Residential Patterns

World societies also differ in the way families typically establish a residence:
In industrial societies the predominant pattern is neolocality (meaning ―new place‖). This is a
residential pattern in which a married couple lives apart from the parents of both spouses.
In less industrialized nations other patterns predominate. These may include:
Patrilocality (―place of the father‖): here married couples lives with or near the husband‘s
family. Matrilocality (―place of the mother‖): married couples lives with or near the wife‘s
family. This is a rare practice.

Patterns of Descent
Descent refers to the way in which kinship is traced over generations. It provides an answer to
the basic question: To whom am I related? There are several forms of descent:
Bilateral Descent: This is a recognized pattern in industrial societies. It represents a two-sided
descent – a practice linking children in kinship to the families of both parents.
In other societies, two other patterns of descent predominates:
Patrilineal Descent: Traces kinship through males. Property is passed across generations only to
males.
Matrilineal Descent: Tracing kinship only through females. Only mother‘s side of the family is
defined as kin.

Predominance of polygyny, patrilocality and patrilineal descent reflects the fact all world
societies are, to some varying degree, patriarchal. This is a pattern of authority in which

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husbands and fathers monopolize power in the family. Wives and mothers have considerable
power in many societies, but no society is known to be clearly Matriarchal.

The Life Course of a Typical Family

Sociologists commonly recognize four distinctive stages that together make up the life course of
the family. These are:
Courtship:
Today individual choice is predominant in courtship. However, there still exits certain societies
where arranged marriage is practiced. Courtship represents the dating period that precedes
marriage. This maybe characterized by romantic love – the experience of affection and sexual
passion toward another person.

Romantic love has the useful consequence of being a strong incentive to leave one‘s original
family of orientation to form a new family of procreation. But because it is based on feelings, it
is a less stable foundation for marriage than economic and social considerations. Disappointed
romantic expectations contribute to marriage conflict, which often end in divorce.

Settling in: Ideal and Real Marriage

Many cultures often sustain highly idealized images of married life. This often results in
disappointment when the true realities of marriage and the family begin to settle in.
Marriages based on romantic love are the worst hit here:
During courtship couples usually spend a limited amount of time with each other and often see
each other only at their best.

Romantic love usually involves some degree of fantasy where people fall in love with others not
necessarily as they are, but as they want them to be.
Marriage is usually accompanied by a sobering range of less-romantic responsibilities – the
monthly bills, new relationships with in-laws, domestic chores such as shopping, cooking and
cleaning.

The need to make sexual adjustments – marriage is in most cases never an extended sexual
honeymoon.
The possibilities of infidelity or sexual activity outside marriage. This may not square with most
societies‘ cultural ideal but a large proportion of married people do engage in extramarital sex.

Childrearing:
Birth of a child brings significant change to a marriage as new demands are made on each
spouse‘s attention, time and energy.
Parenting competes with other personal interests and needs. This had made some couples to
delay childbirth or to have no children at all.

The burden of childcare in most societies is left to women. But as more and more women join
men in the labour force, the phenomenon of latchkey kids (children with working parents who
are left to fend for themselves for a good part of the day) is becoming a common occurrence.

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The family in later life:
These are the years past Childrearing. They are often described as the empty nest (couples have
no children living in their household).
Departure of children brings important changes to the family:
Couples relationships becomes closer and more satisfying but serious adjustments need to be
made. A healthy marriage at this stage is a companionship.

Retirement also affects family E.g. where the wife was a homemaker and the husband worked
outside of the home retirement presents an opportunity to spend time together but may also cause
dramatic changes in established routines. Sometimes wives find the presence of their retired
husbands an intrusion.

Death of a spouse is the final, and most difficult, transition in married life. Bereavement and
loneliness accompanying the death of a spouse may be extremely challenging especially for men.

Transitional Problems in the Family

Major problems that plague the family include the following:

Divorce: Has become a common feature in most countries. They are several possible
explanations for the rise in divorce rates.

Romantic love being the basis for marriage: the reality about marriage is does not sustain the
fantasy associated with romantic love.
Increasing female participation in the labour force: this has reduced the extent to which women
are financially dependent on the husbands.

The burden of Childrearing for dual career families: divorce typically occurs during the first
eight years of marriage when many couples have young children.
Being divorced today is far less a basis for deviance and does not carry a powerful negative
stigma like it once did: Many people however still consider marriage rather than divorce to be
―normal‖. Divorces are much easier to obtain today than in the past: In some countries spouses
seeking divorce do not need to demonstrate that one or both had violated important cultural
norms. e.g., adultery, or physical or mental abuse of the other – cf. The no fault divorce in the
US.

Individualism is on the rise.

Divorce can lead to several problems for the individual:

It is fraught with disappointment and frustration, if not outright hostility.

It could lead to a feeling of a sense of personal failure, loneliness, a need to reorganize
friendships and to adjust relationships with parents and other family members who had become
accustomed to seeing the divorced as part of a couple.
Especially for women divorce can lead to financial hardships: Women usually suffer a reduction

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in their standard of living while experience an increase in the same as a result of divorce.
Complications in child custody: in certain instances long drawn legal battles for custody could
have immense adverse effects on children.
Financial support of children of divorced parents: Divorce not only tears children from familiar
surroundings and confronts them with disturbing changes; it also affects the source of their
financial support.

Remarriage:
Most people who divorce remarry. Remarriages, however are even more likely to end in divorce
because:
People who have already been through a divorce will find it easier to terminate another
unsatisfactory marriage.
The same attitudes and behaviours that caused the first divorce may undermine a subsequent
marriage as well.
Subsequent marriages are often more complex than original ones: Remarriages often create
blended families composed of both biological and step parents. Children may have two, one or
no parents in common. They may also be subject to new relationships. These factors lead to
greater internal stress and conflict thus increasing the likelihood of divorce.

Violence:
Family violence refers to the emotional, physical or sexual abuse of one family member by
another. Today the family is the most violent group in society. Family violence includes:
Spouse Abuse: Characterizes all social classes, races and ethnic groups. Financial problems and
unemployment worsen it. Most victims are women but husband beating may also occur. Besides
beating, marital rape is another form of spouse abuse.
Child Abuse: Is another significant problem affecting the family. Children do not typically reveal
their suffering to others. They often grow up thinking that they are somehow to blame for their
own victimization. The overwhelming majority of child abusers are men. The abusers in most
cases are said to have been themselves the victims of child abuse.

Alternative Family Forms

Today marriage and the family represent a range of legitimate lifestyles that include the
following: One-Parent families: These are most predominantly female-headed and are sometimes
created by divorce or death of a spouse. But more and more they are being formed by women
(and men) who desire parenthood without marriage.
Cohabitation: The sharing of a household by an unmarried couple. These are short-term usually
ending up in break-up or in marriage. In industrialized countries cohabiting couples rarely have
children but in developing countries like Botswana the contrary appears to be norm.
Singlehood: Although viewed by most people as a transitional phase, in recent decades it has not
been uncommon for some individuals to choose the freedom and independence of living alone;
remaining both single and childless. For some women it could reflect a lack of available men.
Gay and Lesbian Couples: It is a rare occurrence in African societies most of which abhor same
sex marriage. However, with the legalization of such marriages in South Africa the trend might
spread to other countries.

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