4th Quarter Reviewer in Science 10

Theory of Plate Tectonics and the Formation of  Consists of most Europe, Russia, and parts of
Continents Asia
 The plate is sandwiched between the North
MAJOR PLATES
American and African Plates on the north and
1. Pacific Plate west sides.
 Straddles Iceland where it tears the country
Continents & Oceans: Pacific Ocean
into 2 separate pieces at a rate of 2.5 cm per
Size: 102, 900, 000 year.
 The Eurasian plate moves about 1 quarter to
Minor Plate: Australian & Nazca Plate ½ inch per year.
 Largest – lies under the Pacific Ocean
 West coast of North America to the east
coast of Japan and Indonesia
 Forms most of the Pacific Ring of Fire –
has the most violent and catastrophic
earthquakes and volcanoes
4. African Plate

Continents & Oceans: Africa and Atlantic Ocean

Size: 61, 300, 000

Minor Plate: Somalian & Arabian Plate

2. North American Plate  It looks like a larger boundary of the African
continent itself
Continents & Oceans: US, Canada, Arctic and Atlantic
 Contains the whole continent of Africa and
Ocean
the surrounding oceanic crust of the Atlantic
Size: 75, 900, 000 Ocean

Minor Plate: Cocos Plate

 North America + part of the Atlantic Ocean

 Greenland, Cuba, and the Bahamas
 The interior of the plate contains a giant
granitic craton
 The North American (Laurentian) craton is 4 5. Antarctic Plate
billion years old
Continents & Oceans: Antarctica

Size: 60, 900, 000

Minor Plate: Somalian & Nazca Plate

 Holds the entire continent of Antarctica

including its surrounding oceanic crust
3. Eurasian Plate  Surrounded by parts of the African, Australian,
Continents & Oceans: Europe, Russia, & Asia Pacific, and South American plates
 Antarctica major plate moves about 1 cm per
Size: 67, 800, 000 year
Minor Plate: Arabian, Amur, & Indian Plate
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 Antarctica was once grouped as part of the

supercontinent Gondwana with Australia and
India.
- 100 M years ago, Antarctica broke apart to
its current location at the south pole.
They can be classified:

1. Continental Plates – contains mostly continental

landmasses
2. Oceanic Plates – forms a portion of a ocean
bottom.
6. Indo-Australian Plate

Continents & Oceans: Australia, India, Oceania, &

Indian Ocean

Size: 58, 900, 000

Minor Plate: Somalian & Sunda Plate

 Combines Australian and Indian Plates

PLATE TECTONIC THEORY
 The plate stretches from Australia to India
 Includes the oceanic crust of the Indian Ocean It is a scientific theory that explains how major landforms
 The northeast side of the Australian plate are created as a result of Earth’s subterranean
converges with the Pacific Plate movements.
 Australia, India, and Antarctica were once
The theory solidified in the 1960s, transformed the earth
connected as the supercontinent Gondwana
sciences by explaining many phenomena – including
- India drifted apart moving northwards.
mountain building events, volcanoes, and earthquakes.

Earth’s outermost layer or lithosphere – made up of the

crust and upper mantle is broken into large rocky plates.

- These plates lie on top of a partially molten layer

of rock called the asthenosphere.
7. South American Plate - Due to the convection of the asthenosphere and
lithosphere, the plates move to each other at 2 to
Continents & Oceans: South America & Atlantic 15 centimeters (1-6 inches) per year.
Size: 43, 600, 000 Earth’s surface is divided into a number of shifting slabs or
Minor Plate: Nazca Plate plates about 80.5 km or 50 miles thick.

 Includes the continent of South America and a The Plate Tectonic Theory explains how the crust was
large portion of the Atlantic Ocean formed, moved, and transformed over the years.
 West side of South America experiences Earth would be very different without tectonic plate
devastating earthquakes due to the movements
convergent plate tectonic boundaries.
 Eastern edge lies in the Atlantic Ocean at a - Landscaped would be older do to the lack of
divergent plate boundary. tectonic renewal.
 These 2 plate boundaries pull apart from each
other creating some of the youngest oceanic
crust on the planet.
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He hypothesized that the continents were once a single

landmass, Pangea – which moved or drifted away slowly
to their present positions.

He also observed that the southern hemisphere

manifested similar patterns of rock and fossils known as
the Gondwana sequence.

Pangea existed about 240 million years ago.

Lithosphere – 10 – 200 km thick, includes the uppermost
mantle and the crust. - 200 million years ago, the supercontinent began
breaking up.
- It’s rigid and breaks under stress so it’s broken up - Over millions of years, Pangea separated into
into tectonic plates. pieces, and these slowly assumed their positions
- It is thinner at oceanic ridges and thicker beneath as the continent we recognize today.
older oceanic and continental regions.

Asthenosphere – beneath the lithosphere, from about

100 – 350 km.

- It is part of the upper mantle that exhibits plastic

(or ductile) behavior.
- The tectonic plates slide around on top of this
layer.
- Composed of similar material to the rest of the Many scientists were skeptical about Wegener’s
upper mantle – mainly peridotite, a rock rich in continental drift theory because they believed the Earth
silicate minerals. was a solid mass.

Mesosphere – below the asthenosphere and extending to - In the 1940s and 1950s, the ideas of
about 2, 900 km. paleomagnetism, convection currents, and
seafloor spreading confirmed Wegener’s
- It is a region of strong, rigid rocks that deform
hypothesis.
slowly under the intense heat and pressure.
- Composed of silicate minerals that change in Scientists think several supercontinents like Pangea have
structure with depth due to increasing pressure. formed and broken up over the course of the Earth’s
lifespan.
Outer Core – spans from 2, 900 to 5, 150 km deep.
- Includes Pannotia which formed about 600 million
- The convection currents within this liquid layer
years ago.
creates the Earth’s magnetosphere through a
- Rodinia which existed more than a billion years
dynamo effect.
ago.
Inner Core – extends from 5, 150 km to the center of the
300 years ago, early theories indicate that 2 opposite
Earth at 6, 371 km.
coasts, the east coast of South America and the west coast
It’s been suggested that the inner core itself may have an of Africa, seemed to fit together.
inner-inner core with distinct physical properties. PALEONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
Continental Drift Theory and Evidence of Plate Fossils – remains or traces of plant life and animal life
Movement preserved in rocks or sediments.
Alfred Wegener - Scientists explained that when the supercontinent
separated, some animals were left on each part.
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- Fossils of the same species were found in several Scientists discovered massive coal deposits in Antarctica,
continents. which could demonstrate that fauna and flora once
- These tell us when and where plants and animals demonated the now-ice covered region of the planet.
once existed.
Coal forms in warm, swampy climates, yet large coal
- Some life “rode” on diverging plates, became
deposits have been found in Antarctica.
isolated, and evolved into new species.
- Others dispersed to new areas as continents - The location of these deposits is that as the
reconnected, oceans narrowed, or chains of continents drifted they passed through different
volcanic islands formed. climate zones.
EVIDENCE FROM GLACIATION Different Landforms
Glaciers are large bodies of ice that move over Earth’s Landforms
surface.
 Natural physical features found on the Earth’s
 It is formed as snow accumulates over time and surface.
turns into ice – a process that can take more than  Formed by natural forces like water, wind, ice, and
a hundred years. Earth’s tectonic plates.
 Once a glacier has formed, it moves very slowly, at  Some are formed in a single day, while others take
a rate of years, or even decades; some are frozen millions of years to form.
solid and don’t move at all.  Tectonic activity and plate motion have constantly
shaped the planet’s outer crust throughout its
Rock deposits left behind by glaciers have also been used
history.
as evidence to support the continental drift theory.
Ex. Mountain ranges, hills, plains, and plateaus
- Glacial deposits have been found in South
America, Africa, India, Australia, and Antarctica. Aeolian Landforms
- Scientists concluded that these areas were once
part of a giant landmass located near the South  Made by wind’s chemical and mechanical action.
Pole.  Term is derived from Aeolus, the Greek God of the
winds.
EVIDENCE FROM STRUCTURE AND ROCK TYPE 1. Dunes
Some mountains have been formed from rocks that are - Mounds or small hills made up of sand,
found in Earth’s crust and which have been crumpled by measuring between 1-10 m high.
forces within Earth. - Dome-shaped, crescent-shaped, star-shaped,
linear-shaped, or parabolic.
- These mountains are made of folded rocks of the - Most common type of dune is the Barchans.
same age and type have been found across 2. Loess
different places. - Silt-sized sediment created by the
accumulation of windblown dust.
Scientists have concluded that the mountains were once
- Has a yellowish or brownish appearance and
part of a mountain range.
“cat steps”
- The mountain range broke apart when the - Thickness varies between a few centimeters
continents separated. and about 100 m.
- Common in Europe, Mississippi Valley, and
EVIDENCE FROM PALEOCLIMATES
Asia.
Paleoclimatology is the study of the extended climatic 3. Mushroom Rock
conditions of past geologic conditions. - Also known as rock pedestal.
- A naturally occurring rock that is formed
because of earthquakes or glacial action.
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- Mushroom Rock State Park in Kansas - Usually formed by the actions of rivers and
glaciers.
Erosional Landforms
- V-shaped when carved out by flowing water.
 It is created from exclusively erosional and - U-shaped when carved out by glaciers.
weathering activities.
Glacial Landforms
1. Mesas
- Elevated areas of land with a flat top and sides  The result of the actions of the glaciers.
that are usually steep cliffs.  Glaciers are huge, slow-moving bodies of ice.
- Also called table mountains  Were created by the movement of large ice sheets
- Usually surrounded by a resistant rock known during Quarternary glaciations.
as cap rock. 1. Alpine Glaciers
2. Butte - Formed in high mountains
- Flat-topped hill and steep sides and is formed - Can form bowl-shaped dents in the ground,
in arid to semi-arid desert conditions. which are called cirques.
- Covers smaller amount of area. 2. Continental Glaciers
- Its name originated from a French word that - Formed in cold polar regions
means “hillock” or small hill. - Are large ice sheets that cover a vast area.
3. Canyon
Fluvial and Coastal Landforms
- Sometimes called gorge
- A deep ravine between cliffs that is often  Those that underwent sedimentations, erosion, or
carved from the landscape by a river, wind, or deposition on the river bed.
glacier.  Glaciofluvial or fluvioglacial – bodies of water
- Not produced by tectonic activities or natural associated with these landforms interacted with
disasters but by water and wind erosion over glaciers or ice caps.
a long period of geological time. 1. Delta
- A low-lying triangular area located at the
Mountainous Landforms
mouth of rivers where it meets an ocean,
 Those that rise higher than the rest of their seas, or estuaries.
surroundings. - Contains rich soil which has been washed
 Exhibits slopes, summit areas, and local reliefs. away and deposited by running water.
1. Volcanoes 2. Peninsula
- Can be identified from its opening at the top - Also called byland or biland.
called the vent. - Piece of land that projects into a body of
- Controlled by geological processes that form water and connected to the mainland by an
them and continually act on them for their isthmus.
formation. - Formed by lithospheric movement, water
2. Hills elevation, and erosion.
- Elevated portions of land that are formed by 3. Meander
geological activities such as faulting. - Bend in a sinuous watercourse of the river.
- Usually covered with grass and are used as - Formed when moving water in a stream
grazing lands for goats, cattle, and carabaos. erodes out banks and widens its valley.
- Smaller than mountains, only about 300 m - Concave (inner bank) and convex (outside
high, with sloping sides unlike the steepness bank)
of the latter. 4. Cliffs
3. Valley - High rocky coasts that plunge to the edge of
- Also known as dale the sea.
- A low-lying area of land situated between hills - They are the results of erosional actions of
or mountains. water and wind.
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- Ideal nesting habitats for many species of sea -

birds. 1. The Rockies
 The Rockies were a barrier between the
Plain
west coast and the rest of North America.
 Flat and broad land areas that have no great  There are railways and roads running
measures in elevation when measured to the sea through them.
level.
Mountains may exist in isolation or in groups –
 Grasslands, prairies, and steeps are created by
a chain of mountains form a mountain range.
sedimentation of eroded soil from the hills and
mountains or by flowing lava deposited by winds,
water, and ice.

Plateaus

 Also known as table lands or flat-topped

mountains 2. The Appalachians
 Portions or lands elevated thousands of feet  These are a great mountain system in
above their surroundings. Easten North America – nearly parallel to
 Weathering of land areas also produces this type the Atlantic coast.
of landform.  The mountains are about 2, 400 km long
 Covers about 45% of Earth’s land surface. and varies from 160 to more than 480 km
in width.
Mountain Ranges
 Its altitude varies between about 460 and
 May exist in isolation or groups. nearly 2, 100 meters.
 A chain of mountains forms a mountain range.
 Converging plates may carry continents that
collide with each other.
- The pressure causes the surface to crumple
and fold, forming mountain ranges.

Different Mountain Ranges

3. The Andes
Mountain – a landform that rises at least 300 m (1000 ft)  It is the second highest mountain range in
from its surrounding area. the World.
 It runs the length of the continent of
- Most mountains form in areas where Earth’s South America.
plates move toward one another – when the crust  They stretch 4, 500 miles (7, 200 km) from
is subjected to immense forces. north to south, along the west coast of
- It may exist in isolation or groups. the continent.
- Mountain range – a chain of mountains.

Converging plates may carry continents that collide into

each other.

- This pressure causes the surface to crumple and

fold, forming mountain ranges.

Long chains of mountain ranges combine to form 4. The Alps

mountain belts.  It is a vast mountain system in south
central Europe, extending over 750 m (1,
- These can extend for several hundred kilometers, 200 km) through parts of Europe.
often across continents.
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The Matterhorn, on the Swiss-Italian border, is

a famous example of sharp-peaked type of
mountain, known as a “horn”.

8. The Drakensberg Mountains

 Highest mountain range in Southern
Africa.
5. The Atlas Mountains  They are very distinctive and almost
 Is a mountain range across a northern unique amongst mountain ranges over
stretch of Africa through Morocco, the world.
Algeria, and Tunisia.  It is part of the Great Escarpment and
 These ranges separate the Mediterranean separates the extensive high plateaus of
and Atlantic coastlines from the Sahara the South African interior from the lower
Desert. lands along the coast.

6. The Ethiopian Highlands 9. The Urals

 Has mountain and plateaus divided by the  Low level mountain range that runs
Great Rift Valley, which runs southwest to roughly north and south through western
northeast. Russia.
 It is surrounded by lowlands, steppes, or  They are usually considered as the natural
semi-desert. boundary between Europe and Asia.
 The source of the River Nile is somewhere  The western slope of the Urals is
high up in these mountains. composed of middle Paleozoic
sedimentary rocks that are about 350 m
years old.

7. The East African Mountains

 Mountain region in East Africa,
encompassing Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, 10. The Himalayas
Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda,  The Himalayas is translated as Land of
and Burundi. Snow.
 These are related to the Great Rift Valley.  It’s the tallest mountain range on Earth.
 The highest point on Kilimanjaro is Uhuru  The world’s highest mountain on dry land
Peak, on the volcano Kibo 5, 895 m. is Mt. Everest.
- The top of Kibo is a 1.5 m wide  The Himalayas include the highest
crater. mountains in the world, with more than
110 peaks rising to elevations of 24, 000
feet or more above sea level.
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11. The Great Dividing Range

 Also known as the Eastern Highlands – Alpine-Himalayan Belt
Australia’s biggest mountain range.
 The range stretches more than 350 km  Reveals the collision of the African Plate and Indo-
from the northeastern tip of Queensland. Australian Plate with the southern margin of the
Eurasian Plate.
 The seismic belt extends from the Mediterranean
area eastward through Turkey and the Middle
East, north of India, and onto the Indonesian
Islands.
 It includes volcanoes of Sicily, Italy, the Aegean
Sierra Madre Sea, Asia Minor, the Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia,
and Indonesia.
 The Philippines’ longest mountain range.
 Located along the northeastern coast of Luzon Circum-Pacific Belt
island.  Consists of many of the world’s active volcanoes.
The Dynamic Earth - Mount St. Helena in Washington, USA and Mount
Pinatubo in the Philippines.
Earth consists of 3 main layers: crust, mantle, and core.
What causes a Volcano to be active?
- The crust and the upper mantle make up the
lithosphere, which is the rigid part of the planet. Active Volcano

It’s usually associated with seismic activity, presence of

hot water spring, and changes in the elevation of the
volcano’s crater.

- It may erupt at any time.

Ex.

Mount Etna (Sicily, Italy)

The Earth’s lithosphere is broken into several tectonic Mount Nyiragongo (Democratic Republic of the Congo)
plates, moving at an extremely slow pace.
Mount Kilauea (Hawai’i, United States of America)
VOLCANOES
Most Active Volcanoes in the Philippines
Geologists estimate that there are more than 100, 000
active and inactive volcanoes on Earth.

The most active volcanoes are located into 2 volcanic

belts: the Alpine-Himalayan Belt and the Circum-Pacific
Belt, also known as the Ring of Fire.
Dormant Volcano
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If the volcano has not erupted but may erupt based on  Prepare an emergency supply kit consisting of
seismic indications of tectonic activity beneath the food, water, clothing, first aid supplies, mobile
volcano. phone, whistle, flashlight, & extra batteries.
 Have enough face masks for your household, as
Ex.
well as medicines for those who need them.
Four-Peaked Mountain (Alaska, United States of America)
During
Soufriere Hills (Montserrat)
 Follow the advice of local authorities.
 Waiting inside your house can be dangerous; it is
better to evacuate while there is still time.
 Bring survival kits.

Volcanic ash consists of powder-sized to sand-sized

particles that have been blown into the air by an erupting
Extinct Volcano volcano.

Not active for a long time. - Exposure to falling ash may cause a number of
health problems like nose and throat irritation,
Has not erupted over the last ice age, which ended cough, bronchitis-like illness, breathing
approximately 10,000 years ago, and is not expected to discomfort, eye irritation, minor skin problems,
erupt again in the future. and injuries/death.
Ex. After
Zuidwal Volcano (Netherlands)  Minimize exposure to ash.
Emperor-Seamount Chain (Hawai’i, United States of  Stay indoors as much as possible.
America)  Keep doors and windows closed.
 Wear goggles or eyeglasses to protect eyes from
Mount Kulal (Kenya) irritation.
 Use dust masks.
 Use damp curtains, blankets, or clothing to
prevent infiltration of ash into the house.
 Keep pets in closed shelters.
 Taking the necessary precautions, clear your roof
of ash.
 Observe traffic notifications and road safety
measures.

What to do BEFORE, DURING, and AFTER Volcanic Facts About Volcanoes

Eruption?
 All volcanic eruptions occur in basically the same
Before way.
 The hot molten or semifluid rock erupted from a
 Develop an emergency plan including evacuation
volcano or fissure, or solid rock resulting from
routes away from the volcano.
cooling of this is called lava.
 Familiarize yourself with LGU plans as well as
 Projectiles over 2.5 inches in diameter shooting
PHIVOLCS updates.
out of the vent are called volcanic bombs.
 Take note of hotlines and emergency numbers to
 The pulverized rock, minerals, and volcanic glass
call for help.
that shoot out of a volcano are called magma.

Types of Volcanoes
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1. Shield Volcanoes – large broad slopes, fluid lava  Shaking and vibration brought about by
flow earthquakes may break electrical wires, sparking
2. Composite Volcanoes – steep and symmetrical, fires.
explosive eruptions  Tsunamis can travel as fast as 800 km/h and can
3. Lava Domes – small and steep sides, oozes viscous carry large ships in inland harbor.
lava  Landslides and mudslides may occur after an
4. Cinder Cones – smallest, single vent, erupts earthquake, esp in mountainous regions where
cinders, ash, and rocks sliding rocks can gain speed and flow into nearby
villages.
Earthquake Epicenters
Plate Boundaries
Earthquake and volcanic eruptions are geological events
that occur mostly in the same regions and are both Plate Boundaries
thought to be associated with the movements of plates.
 Enormous sections of the Earth’s crust that
Earthquake roughly fit together and meet at places.
It is a series of seismic waves traveling through Earth and  These plate boundaries separated the rigid
is result of a sudden release of energy. interiors of plates and formed the various
landscapes on Earth’s crust.
An earthquake is a weak to violent shaking of the ground
- The plates lie atop a layer of partially
produced by the sudden movement of rock materials
below the earth’s surface.
molten rock called the asthenosphere.
 These are important because they are often
The earthquakes originate in tectonic plate boundary. associated with earthquakes and volcanoes.
The focus is the point inside the earth where the 3 types:
earthquake started.
1. Convergent Boundary
- Sometimes called the hypocenter
2. Divergent Boundary
The point on the surface of the earth directly above the 3. Transform Boundary
focus is called the epicenter.

 Focus – is the point within the Earth where an

earthquake rupture starts.
 Epicenter – is the geographic point at the surface
directly above the focus.

Tectonic Earthquakes

 Produced by sudden movement along faults and

plate boundaries.

Volcanic Earthquakes

 Earthquakes induced by rising lava or magma

beneath active volcanoes.

Earthquake Hazards

 That results in injury, death, and damage to

property can be reduced or eliminated if people
are warned of and prepared for earthquakes.
Convergent Boundary
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 It occurs due to subduction, a process in  Hot molten rocks from the mantle rises to the
which one plate is pushed under another due surface through the rift valleys in the mid-
to the spreading of the neighboring divergent ocean ridges.
plate boundaries.  The plates move apart to either side of the rift
 Also called Destructive boundaries. valleys.
 Also called Constructive Boundaries – new
material is added to the plates.
 Over time, the surrounding water will fill the
space between the broken mass of land.

Oceanic-Continental
o As the oceanic plate is pushed into and
subducted under a plate, a volcanic arc is
formed due to the uplift if the overriding
continental plate. Transform Boundary
o It may lead to the formation of undersea
 It is where plates slide past each other.
volcano.
 As the plates are carried in opposite
o An island volcano may be formed as the
directions, the rocks that line the boundary
erupted lava and volcanic debris pile up
are crushed.
on the ocean floor and submerged
 It creates a fault valley in undersea canyon.
volcano rises above sea level.
 No magma is formed

Continental-Continental
o It may lead to the formation of mountain
ranges.
o Since continental rocks are less dense,
they might resist the downward motion
and instead be pushed upward or
sideways.

Divergent Boundary