Group theory

Additional exercises

The exercises below have been ordered according to the last section of the book that is needed
in order to be able to do the entire exercise, but often the first few parts are already good
problems for earlier sections of the book.

Section 1.1 (definition of a group, order)

1. Prove the following important result.

Lemma Let G be a group, and x an element of G of finite order n.

(a) The set {xk with k in Z} has exactly n elements, namely e, x, x2 , . . . , xn−1 .
(b) For k in Z, we have xk = e if and only if k is divisible by n.

2. Let G be a group, and x an element of G. Show from the definitions that xm xn = xm+n for
all m and n in Z.

3. Let G be a group and x an element of G. Show that (xm )n = xmn for alle m and n in Z.
Hint: prove this using Exercise ?? by means of induction on n for n ≥ 0, then deduce the
case where n < 0 by multiplying the required formula with (xm )a for a suitable a > 0.

4. The IBAN of an account with a Dutch bank is a string N Lc1 c0 B1 B2 B3 B4 a1 a2 . . . a10 with
a1 , a2 , . . . , a10 in {0, 1, . . . , 9}, B1 B2 B3 B4 in {A, B, . . . , Z} relating to the name of the bank,
and c1 c0 one of the strings 02, 03, . . . , 98, computed from the other data as follows. Rearrange
the IBAN to B1 B2 B3 B4 a1 a2 . . . a10 N Lc1 c0 and convert this to a string d23 d22 . . . d0 of decimal
digits by replacing the Bi as well as the N and L according to the rule A 7→ 10, B 7→ 11,
. . . , Z 7→ 35. Note that c1 = d1 , c0 = d0 . Given B1 B2 B3 B4 a1 a2 . . . a10 , there is a unique
string c1 c0 as above such that d23 1023 + d22 1022 + · · · + d2 102 + d1 10 + d0 ≡ 1 modulo 97.

(a) Compute c1 c0 for the fictional IBAN N Lc1 c0 BAN K0123456789. Hint: working with
groups of two adjacent digits may be easier because 102 ≡ 3 modulo 97.

In order to analyse some of the detectable errors made while entering an IBAN (i.e., they do
not result in a valid IBAN), we need some more information.

(b) Compute m = ϕ(97), and show that 10 in the group (Z/97Z)∗ has order m. Hint: if
m/p
the order of 10 does not equal m, then 10 = 1 for some prime divisor p of m. Why?
(c) Show that the following errors can be detected:
• changing any single element of the string;
• interchanging any two digits, or any two letters, of the string.
(d) Show that not all cyclic shift errors of length 3 among the last 10 digits (so replacing
ai−1 ai ai+1 with ai+1 ai−1 ai or ai ai+1 ai−1 ) can be detected.
(e) In fact, classify the errors in the previous part that cannot be detected. What does this
tell you about the detectability of interchanging a letter and a digit that are adjacent
in an IBAN?

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 Section 1.2 (dihedral groups)

1. In a group G are given elements x and y with yx = xy −1 .

(a) Show with induction on n that y n x = xy −n for all n ≥ 0.

(b) Deduce that y n x = xy −n for all n in Z. Hint: if n < 0, then y m x = xy −m by the first
part if we let m = −n. Multiply with powers of y in order to obain y n x = xy −n .

Section 1.3 (symmetric groups, permutations)

1. Verify the following rules for m-cycles with m ≥ 2:

(a) (a1 a2 . . . am )−1 = (am . . . a2 a1 );

(b) (a1 a2 . . . am ) = (a1 a2 . . . ak )(ak ak+1 . . . am ) for k = 2, . . . , m − 1;
(c) σ(a1 a2 . . . am )σ −1 = (σ(a1 ) σ(a2 ) . . . σ(am )) for every permutation σ.

2. Prove that disjoint cycles commute.

3. Determine (with explanations) the number of elements in S7 of order 4, and the number of
elements in S10 of order 12. Hint: Argue on the cycle decomposition into disjoint cycles of
length at least 2, as in Section 1.3.

Section 1.4 (matrix groups)

1. Let p be a prime number.

(a) Explain why a in Z/pZ has order 1 if a = 0 and order p otherwise.

The set of matrices   

 1 a b 
H= 0 1 c with a, b, c in Z/pZ

0 0 1
 

is a group under the usual multiplication of matrices (with addition and multiplication of
the coefficients in Z/pZ). Note that H has p3 elements.

(b) Compute the order of each element of H. Hint: find and prove a formula for
 n
1 a b
0 1 c
0 0 1

for all n ≥ 1.

Section 1.6 (homomorphisms and isomorphisms)

1. Let G, H and K be groups, and ϕ : G → H as well as ψ : H → K homomorphisms. Show

that the composition ψ ◦ ϕ : G → K is also a homomorphism.

2. Let G and H be groups, and ϕ : G → H an isomorphism. Let ψ : H → G be the (set-

theoretical) inverse map. Prove that ψ is also an isomorphism.

3. Let G be a group. On G we define a relation ∼ as follows: x ∼ y if and only if there exists

an isomorphism ϕ : G → G such that x = ϕ(y). Show that the relation ∼ is an equivalence
relation. [An isomorphism of a group G with itself is also called an automorphism of G.]

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4. Let G be a group and a a fixed element of G. Show that ϕ : G → G with ϕ(g) = aga−1 is
an isomorphism (i.e., it is an automorphism of G). [This map is given by conjugation by a.]

5. Find a group G, and an automorphism of G that is not given by conjugation. Hint: what
does conjugation by an element amount to if G is Abelian?

Section 1.7 (group actions)

1. Let G be a group, and A a non-empty subset of G. Show by means of an example that the
set {g in G with gAg −1 ⊆ A} is not always a subgroup of G. Hint: why is it a subgroup if A
is finite?

2. Let
H = {s + ti with s, t in R and t > 0} ⊂ C ,
the (complex) upper half plane.

(a) Show that G = {A in GL2 (R) with det(A) > 0} is a subgroup of GL2 (R), and that it
acts on H via ( ac db ) · z = az+b
cz+d . Hint: first verify that the result is in H.
(b) Show that H = G · i, i.e., H consists of one orbit for this action.
(c) Determine the stabiliser Gi of i.

Section 2.1 (subgroups)

1. Show that, for a homomorphism ϕ : G → H, the image ϕ(G) is a subgroup of H.

Section 2.3 (cyclic groups and cyclic subgroups)

1. Let ϕ : Z/15Z → Z/18Z be a homomorphism.

(a) Explain why 15ϕ(1) = 0 and 18ϕ(1) = 0 in Z/18Z.

(b) By the previous part we must have 3ϕ(1) = 0, so that ϕ(1) = 0, 6 or 12. Show that each
of these gives rise to a unique well-defined homomorphism ϕ. Hint: why is ϕ determined
completely by ϕ(1)?

2. Let m, n ≥ 2.

(a) Construct a surjective homomorphism ϕ : Z/mZ → Z/nZ if n|m, and an injective

homomorphism ϕ : Z/mZ → Z/nZ if m|n.
(b) Show that the converses hold: if there is a surjective homomorphism ϕ : Z/mZ → Z/nZ
then n|m, and if there exists an injective homomorphism ϕ : Z/mZ → Z/nZ then m|n.
Hint: if d = gcd(m, n), why is dϕ(a) = 0 for all a in Z/mZ?

Section 2.4 (generators, subgroups generated by sets)

1. Let n ≥ 2. Show that the permutation group Sn is generated by (1 2) and (1 2 . . . n),

i.e., Sn = h(1 2), (1 2 . . . n)i. Hint: first create the transpositions (a b) with a 6= b.

Section 3.1 (normal subgroups, quotient groups)

1. Let ϕ : G → H be a homomorphism, and assume that G is a finite group. Prove that in that
case |G| = |im(ϕ)| · | ker(ϕ)|. Hint: count elements in the fibres ϕ−1 (h) with h in im(ϕ).

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2. Let ϕ : G → H be a homomorphism, and N ≤ G.

(a) Show that ϕ(N ) ≤ H.

(b) Prove that if N E G and ϕ is surjective, then ϕ(N ) E H.
(c) Give an example of a homomorphism ϕ : G → H and N E G such that ϕ(N ) is not a
normal subgroup of H.

3. Let N1 and N2 be normal subgroups of a group G with the property that N1 ∩ N2 = {e}.
Prove that n1 n2 = n2 n1 for all n1 in N1 and n2 in N2 .

4. Show that hr2 i is a normal subgroup of D8 , and compute the group table of D8 /hr2 i.

5. Let H = hr2 , si ≤ D8 . Determine all normal subgroups of D8 that are contained in H.

6. Let G be a group, and H ≤ G. Prove the following statements.

(a) If H = hx1 , . . . , xm i, then gHg −1 = hgx1 g −1 , . . . , gxm g −1 i, and gHg −1 ⊆ H if and only
if gxi g −1 is in H for all i = 1, . . . , m.
(b) If G = hy1 , . . . , yn i, then gHg −1 ⊆ H for all g in G if and only if for every j = 1, . . . , n
both yj Hyj−1 and yj−1 Hyj are contained in H.
(c) If H = hx1 , . . . , xm i and G = hy1 , . . . , yn i, then gHg −1 ⊆ H if and only if yj xi yj−1 and
yj−1 xi yj are in H for all i = 1, . . . , m and j = 1, . . . , n.
(d) How can the earlier parts be improved if we assume that H is finite?

7. Let G be a group, and H ⊆ G. Prove that then H E G if and only if H ≤ G and H

is a union of conjugacy classes in G. (The conjugacy class in G of an element x of G is
{gxg −1 with g in G}.)

8. Let G = D8 , N1 = hsi and N2 = hr2 , si. Show that N1 E N2 and N2 E G, but that N1 is
not a normal subgroup of G. [So ‘being a normal subgroup’ is not transitive: if N1 E N2
and N2 E G then it does not follow that N1 E G.]

Section 3.2 (cosets, Lagrange’s theorem and its consequences)

1. Prove that a group of order 4 is isomorphic to Z/4Z or to Z/2Z × Z/2Z.

2. Let G be group, and H a subgroup of G of index 2. Prove that H E G. Hint: if g is in G

but not in H, consider the left cosets eH and gH versus the right cosets He and Hg.

Section 3.3 (the isomorphism theorems)

1. Prove the following isomorphisms:

(a) C/R ' R;

(b) R∗ /{±1} ' R;
(c) C∗ /hζn i ' C∗ for every n ≥ 1, where ζn = e2πi/n .

2. Show that, if G is a finite group with subgroups H and N , then |H : N ∩ H| divides |G : N |

if N E G . Does this also hold if we do not demand that N is a normal subgroup of G?

3. Determine all homomorphisms ϕ : D18 → Z/5Z and all homomorphism ϕ : D18 → Z/10Z.
Hint: what can you learn from applying Lagrange to ϕ(r) and to ϕ(s)?

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 Section 4.3 (conjugacy classes, the class equation, p-groups, Cauchy’s theorem)

1. (a) Compute the size of each of the conjugacy classes of S4 .

(b) Show that S4 has exactly 4 normal subgroups: {e}, V4 , A4 en S4 . Hint: a normal
subgroup consists of a number of conjugacy classes in S4 . Which sums of sizes of
conjugacy classes can be the order of a subgroup?

2. (a) Determine the size of each of the conjugacy classes of A4 . Hint: if σ is in A4 , then
CA4 (σ) = CS4 (σ) ∩ A4 .
(b) Determine all normal subgroups of A4 .

3. Compute the number of elements in S7 with the same cycle type as σ = (1 2 3)(4 5 6), and
determine the centraliser CS7 (σ).

4. Determine the size of each of the conjugacy classes in S5 , and determine the centraliser of a
2-cycle, of a 3-cycle, and of a 4-cycle in S5 .

5. Show that a group of order 6 is isomorphic to Z/6Z or to S3 .

6. (a) Show that a group of order 10 is isomorphic to Z/10Z or to D10 .

(b) For which orders of groups does this kind of proof work, and what is the statement that
is proved?

7. Prove that a group of order 15 is isomorphis to Z/15Z.

Section 4.6 (An for n ≥ 5 is simple)

1. Determine all normal subgroups of Sn for n ≥ 5.

Section 5.4 (the commutator subgroup)

1. Prove that [D2n , D2n ] = hr2 i for every n ≥ 3.

2. Let n ≥ 1. Show that there are inclusions

h{3-cycles in Sn }i ⊆ [Sn , Sn ] ⊆ An ⊆ h{3-cycles in Sn }i ,

and conclude that these subgroups of Sn coincide.

3. Determine [An , An ] for n = 1, 2, 3 and 4.

4. Let ϕ : S6 → Z/6Z be a homomorphism.

(a) Explain why [S6 , S6 ] ⊆ ker(ϕ).

(b) Now determine all possible such ϕ.

5. It is given that   
a b
G= with a in {±1} and b in Z
0 1
is a subgroup of GL2 (Q).

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 (a) Show that ϕ : G → {±1} × Z/2Z, given by ϕ(( a0 1b )) = (a, b), is a homomorphism with
kernel   
1 c
N= with c even .
0 1
Here {±1} × Z/2Z is a group with as operation multiplication in the first position, and
addition in the second.
(b) Prove that there is an isomorphism G/N ' {±1} × Z/2Z.
(c) Now show by means of a brief calculation that N = [G, G].

6. Let G be a group, and N E G. We already know that [N, N ] E N . Show that, in fact, the
stronger statement [N, N ] E G holds.

7. Let p be a prime number, and

  
a b ∗
G= with a and c in Fp , and b in Fp .
0 c

It is given that G is a subgroup of GL2 (Fp ), the group of invertible 2 × 2-matrices with
coefficients in Fp .

(a) Show that the map G → F∗p × F∗p given by ϕ(( a0 cb )) = (a, c) is a homomorphism, with
kernel   
1 b
N= with b in Fp .
0 1
(b) Show that there is an isomorphism G/N ' F∗p × F∗p .
(c) Now prove that [G, G] = N when p 6= 2.