SANSKAR SCHOOL

CLASS: X
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY (NOTES)

CHAPTER 1- RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT

Resources are everything available in the environment which can be used to satisfy human needs
provided, it is technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable.

Resource Planning: Resource planning is essential for sustainable existence of all forms of life.
Planning is the widely accepted strategy for judicious use of resources.
Resource Planning in India:
1. Identification and Inventory of resources: It involves surveying, mapping and qualitative and
quantitative estimation and measurement of the resources.
2. Evolving a Planning Structure: It is endowed with appropriate technology, skill and institutional set
up for implementing resource development plans.
3. Matching the resource development plans with overall national development plans.

Conservation of Resources: Then irrational consumption and over-utilisation of resources may lead to
socio-economic and environmental problems. To overcome this problems resource conservation at
various level is important.

Land Use Pattern in India: It is over 80 per cent of the total area in Punjab and Haryana and less than
10 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur and Andaman Nicobar Islands. Forest Area is far
lower than the desired 33 per cent of geographical area as outlined in the National Forest Policy (1952).
Waste Land includes rocky, arid and desert areas and land put to other non-agricultural uses includes
settlements, roads, railways, industry etc.

Land Degradation and Conservation Measures: Land Degradation is caused by the Mining, over
grazing, over irrigation, water logging, formation of dust which prevents infiltration of water, etc.

Conservation of Land Degradation: Some of the ways are - Afforestation and proper management of
grazing, Planting of shelter belts of plants, control on over grazing and stabilisation of sand dunes by
growing thorny bushes etc.

Classification of Soils:
1. Alluvial Soil: Deposited by three important Himalayan River systems – the Indus, the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra. It covers entire northern plains, extended into Gujarat and Rajasthan, eastern coastal plain
etc. It consists of various proportions of sand, silt and clay. These can be classified as old alluvial
(Bangar) and new alluvial (Khadar). The bangar soil has higher concentration of kanker nodules than the
Khadar. The khadar has more fine particles and is more fertile than the bangar. Important crops are
Sugarcane, paddy, wheat and other cereal and pulse crops.
2. Black Soil: · Black in colour and are also known as regur soils. It is ideal for growing cotton and is
also known as black cotton soil. It is made up of lava flows. Rich in soil nutrients, such as calcium
carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime and poor in phosphoric contents. It covers the plateaus of
Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh etc. They are well-known for capacity to hold water.
3. Red and Yellow Soils: Develops on crystalline igneous rocks. Reddish colour due to diffusion of iron
in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form. Found in parts
of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the middle Ganga plain.
4. Laterite Soil: Derived from the Latin word 'later' which means brick. Develops under tropical and
subtropical climate and result of intense leaching due to heavy rain. It is mostly deep to very deep
acidic. They are lacking in plant nutrients. Presence of Humusand found in southern states, Western
Ghats region of Maharashtra, Odisha etc. Useful for growing cashew nut, tea and coffee.
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5. Arid Soils: · Range from red to brown in colour and are generally sandy in texture and saline in
nature. Soil lacks in humus and moisture. Kankar formation prevents water infiltration.
6. Forest Soil: Found in the hilly and mountainous areas where sufficient rain forests are available. They
are loamy and silty in valley sides and coarse grained in the upper slopes.

Soil Erosion: It is the denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down. Sheet Erosion is
water flows as a sheet over large areas down a slope which wash away the top soil. Wind Erosion is
wind blows loose soil off flat or sloping land.

Soil Conservation: Ploughing along the contour lines which decelerate the flow of water down the
slopes is known as Contour Ploughing. Steps can be cut out on the slopes making terraces known as
Terrace Cultivation. Strips of grass are left to grow between the crops which breaks up the force of the
wind is known as Strip Cropping. Rows of trees planted in lines to create shelter known as Shelter Belts.

Sustainable development: means development should take place without damaging the environment,
and development in the present should not compromise with the needs of the future generations.' ·
Brundtland Commission Report, 1987 introduced the concept of 'Sustainable Development' and
advocated it as a means for resource conservation. Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992 was the first
International Earth Summit which was convened for addressing urgent problems of environmental
protection and socioeconomic development at the global level. The Rio Convention endorsed the global
Forest Principles and adopted Agenda 21 for achieving Sustainable Development in the 21st century.
Agenda 21 is the declaration signed by world leaders in 1992 at the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED), which took place at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It aims at
achieving global sustainable development.

CHAPTER 2- FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES

Biodiversity or Biological Diversity: It is immensely rich in wildlife and cultivated species, diverse in
form and function but closely integrated in a system through multiple networks of interdependencies.

Reasons for Depletion of Flora and Fauna: Habitat destruction, hunting, poaching, over-exploitation,
environmental pollution, poisoning and forest fires are factors. Other causes of environmental
destruction are unequal access, inequitable consumption of resources and differential sharing of
responsibility for environmental well-being.

Steps Taken to Protect and Conserve Wildlife: Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 has various provisions
for protecting habitats. An all-India list of protected species was also published. By banning hunting,
giving legal protection to their habitats, and restricting trade in wildlife. The central government also
announced several projects for protecting specific animals, which were gravely threatened, including the
tiger, the one-horned rhinoceros, etc. The plants were also added to the list for the first time in 1991.

Types and Distribution of Forest and Wildlife Resources: Reserved Forest are regarded as the most
valuable as far as the conservation of forest and wildlife resources are concerned. It covers more than
half of the total forest land. Protected Forests covers almost one-third of the total forest area and as
declared by the Forest Department. Unclassed Forests are other forests and wastelands belonging to both
government and private individuals and communities.

Community and Conservation: In some areas of India, local communities are struggling to conserve
these habitats along with government officials, recognising that only this will secure their own long-
term livelihood. The famous Chipko movement in the Himalayas has not only successfully resisted
deforestation in several areas but has also shown that community afforestation with indigenous species
can be enormously successful. Farmers and citizen's groups like the Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri and
Navdanya have shown that adequate levels of diversified crop production without the use of synthetic
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chemicals are possible and economically viable. Joint Forest Management (JFM) programme furnishes a
good example for involving local communities in the management and restoration of degraded forests.
Sacred Grooves i.e. Nature worship is an age-old tribal belief based on the premise that all creations of
nature have to be protected.

CHAPTER 3- WATER RESOURCES

Water Scarcity: Water scarcity refers to less availability of water for fulfilling human and environment
needs.
Quantitative Aspects of Water Scarcity: The water availability varies over space and time due to the
variations in seasonal and annual precipitation. For example - drought are common in Rajasthan. Mostly
water scarcity is caused by growing population, over irrigation, over-exploitation, excessive use,
increasing urbanisation and industrialisation and unequal access to water among different social groups.
Qualitative Aspects of Water Scarcity: The quality of the water is decreasing due to the pollution by
domestic waste, industrial wastes, chemicals, fertilisers used in agriculture.

Water Conservation and Management: Multi-Purpose River Projects and Rainwater harvesting are
some major techniques of Water Conservation and Management.

Multi-Purpose River Projects: They are meant for irrigation, electricity generation, water supply for
domestic and industrial uses, flood control, recreation, inland navigation and fish breeding.

Issues with Large Dams and Multi-Purpose Projects: The regulating and damming of rivers affect
their natural flow causing poor sediment flow and excessive sedimentation. Dams fragment rivers which
makes it difficult for aquatic fauna to migrate. They also submerge the existing vegetation and soil.
Large-Scale Displacement of Local Communities has led to various environment movements like
'Narmada Bachao andolan', Tehhri dam Andolan. Irrigation has also changed the cropping pattern of
many regions with farmers shifting to water intensive and commercial crops. It led to ecological
consequences like salinisation of the soil. Irrigation has also increased the social gap between the richer
landowners and the landless poor. Inter-State Water Disputes are also becoming common with regard to
sharing the costs and benefits of the project. The dams have also triggered floods due to sedimentation.
They also induced earthquakes, caused water-borne diseases and pests and pollution resulting from
excessive use of water.

Rainwater Harvesting: In ancient India people had developed wide ranging techniques to harvest
rainwater, groundwater, river water and flood water in keeping with the local ecological conditions and
water needs. In Hill and Mountainous Regions people-built diversion channels like the 'guls' or 'kuls' of
the Western Himalayas for agriculture. Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting was a common practised to store
drinking water, particularly in Rajasthan. Rainwater, or palar pani, as commonly known in these parts is
considered the purest form of natural water.

CHAPTER 4- AGRICULTURE

Primitive Subsistence Farming: practised on small patches of land with the help of primitive tools
like hoe, dao and digging sticks, and family or community labour. It depends upon monsoon, natural
fertility of the soil and suitability of other environmental conditions to the crops grown. Slash and Burn
Agriculture is a part of this.
Intensive Subsistence Farming: practised in areas of high population pressure on land. It is labour-
intensive farming where high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation are used for obtaining higher
production.
Commercial Farming: use of higher doses of modern inputs, e.g., high yielding variety (HYV) seeds,
chemical fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides in order to obtain higher productivity. Plantation is one
type of commercial agriculture, in this type of farming, a single crop is grown on a large area using
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capital intensive inputs, with the help of migrant labourers. In India, tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane,
banana, etc., are important plantation crops.

Cropping Pattern:
Rabi Season: sown in winter from October to December and harvested in summer from April to June. ·
Important Crops are wheat, barley, peas, gram, mustard. Major producing states are north and north-
western parts such as Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand and Uttar
Pradesh.
Kharif Crops: grown with the onset of monsoon in different parts of the country and these are harvested
in September-October. Important Crops are paddy, maize, jowar, bajra, Tur (arhar), moong, urad, cotton,
jute, groundnut and soyabean. Important regions are Assam, West Bengal, coastal regions of Odisha,
Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Maharashtra.
Zaid Season: short season during the summer season between the rabi and the kharif seasons. Important
crops are watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables and fodder crops.

Major Crops of India:

Rice: India is the second largest producer of rice in the world after China. It is a kharif crop which
requires high temperature, (above 25°C) and high humidity with annual rainfall above 100 cm. Major
Producing States are the plains of north and north-eastern India, coastal areas and the deltaic regions.
Wheat: It is a rabi crop which requires a cool growing season and a bright sunshine at the time of
ripening. It requires 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall evenly distributed over the growing season. Major
Producing States are Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan.
Millets: known as coarse grains and have very high nutritional value. Jowar, bajra and ragi are the
important millets grown in India. Major Producing States are Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand,
Jharkhand, Arunachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Maize: It is a kharif crop which requires temperature between 21°C to 27°C and grows well in old
alluvial soil. Major Producing States: Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra
Pradesh and Telangana.
Pulses: Being leguminous crops, all these crops except arhar help in restoring soil fertility by fixing
nitrogen from the air. These are mostly grown in rotation with other crops. Major pulses grown in India
are tur (arhar), urad, moong, masur, peas and gram. Major Producing States: Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka.
Sugarcane: It is a tropical as well as a subtropical crop. It grows well in hot and humid climate with a
temperature of 21°C to 27°C and an annual rainfall between 75cm. and 100cm. India is the second
largest producer of sugarcane after Brazil. Major Producing States: Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana.
Oil Seeds: Different oil seeds are grown covering approximately 12 per cent of the total cropped area
of India. Main oil-seeds produced in India are groundnut, mustard, coconut, sesamum (til), soyabean,
castor seeds, cotton seeds, linseed and sunflower.
Tea: The tea plant grows well in tropical and sub-tropical climates endowed with deep and fertile well-
drained soil and rich in humus and organic matter. Tea bushes require warm and moist frost-free climate
all through the year. Frequent showers evenly distributed over the year ensure continuous growth of
tender leaves. It requires abundant, cheap and skilled labour. Major Producing States: Assam, hills of
Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Coffee: The Arabica variety initially brought from Yemen is produced in the country and its cultivation
is confined to the Nilgiri in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Horticulture Crops: In 2016, India was the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the
world after China. It is an important producer of pea, cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal and
potato. There is great demands of Mangoes of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh
and West Bengal. Oranges of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee (Meghalaya), Bananas of Kerala, Mizoram,
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, Lichi and guava of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, Pineapples of Meghalaya,
Grapes of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra, Apples, Pears, Apricots and Walnuts of Jammu
and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.
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Rubber: It requires moist and humid climate with rainfall of more than 200 cm. and temperature above
25°C. Major Producing States: Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andaman and Nicobar Islands and
Garo hills of Meghalaya.
Fibre Crops: · Cotton, jute, hemp and natural silk are the major fibre crops grown in India. The silk is
obtained from cocoons of the silkworms. Rearing of silk worms for the production of silk fibre is known
as sericulture.
Cotton: It is a kharif crop and requires 6 to 8 months to mature. India was second largest producer of
cotton after China. It grows well in drier parts of the black cotton soil of the Deccan plateau. It requires
high temperature, light rainfall or irrigation, 210 frost-free days and bright sun-shine for its growth. ·
Major Producing States: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
Jute: Also known as the golden fibre. It grows well on well-drained fertile soils in the flood plains
where soils are renewed every year and high temperature is required during the time of growth. Major
Producing States: West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha and Meghalaya.

Issues with Indian Agriculture: Sustained uses of land without compatible techno-institutional
changes have hindered the pace of agricultural development. Most of the farmers in large parts of the
country still depend upon monsoon and natural fertility in order to carry on their agriculture. The
inheritance right had led to fragmentation of land holdings. Indian agriculture is dominated by small and
marginal land holding which impact the overall agricultural development. Farmers are withdrawing their
investment from agriculture causing a downfall in the employment in agriculture.

Institutional and Technological Reforms: The collectivisation, consolidation of holdings, cooperation

and abolition of zamindari, etc. were given priority to bring about institutional reforms in the country
after Independence. The Green Revolution based on the use of package technology and the White
Revolution (Operation Flood) were some of the strategies initiated to improve the situation. In the 1980s
and 1990s, a comprehensive land development programme was initiated. It includes the provision for
crop insurance against drought, flood, cyclone, fire and disease, establishment of Grameen banks,
cooperative societies and banks for providing loan facilities to the farmers at lower rates of interest.
Kissan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS) were introduced. The
government also announces minimum support price, remunerative and procurement prices for important
crops to check the exploitation of farmers by speculators and middlemen.

Bhoodan: Once, when Vinoba Bhave was delivering a lecture at Pochampalli in Andhra Pradesh, some
poor landless villagers demanded some land for their economic well-being. Suddenly, Shri Ram
Chandra Reddy stood up and offered 80 acres of land to be distributed among 80 land-less villagers.
This act was known as 'Bhoodan'.
Gramdan: Some zamindars, owners of many villages offered to distribute some villages among the
landless. It was known as Gramdan. · The Bhoodan-Gramdan movement initiated by Vinoba Bhave is
also known as the Blood-less Revolution.

CHAPTER 5- MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES

Mineral: a “homogenous, naturally occurring substance with a definable internal structure.”

Forms of Minerals: Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks: minerals may occur in the cracks, crevices, faults
or joints. The smaller occurrences are called veins and the larger are called lodes. Sedimentary Rocks: In
sedimentary rocks, a number of minerals occur in beds or layers and they have been formed as a result
of deposition, accumulation and concentration in horizontal strata. Decomposition of Surface Rocks and
the Removal of Soluble Constituents. Certain minerals may occur as alluvial deposits in sands of valley
floors and the base of hills. The ocean waters contain vast quantities of minerals but most of these are
too widely diffused to be of economic significance.

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Iron Ore: India is rich in good quality iron ores. Magnetite is the finest iron ore with a very high
content of iron up to 70 per cent. It has excellent magnetic qualities, especially valuable in the electrical
industry. Hematite is the most important industrial iron ore in terms of the quantity used but has a
slightly lower iron content than magnetite. (50-60 per cent).
Manganese: is mainly used in the manufacturing of steel and ferro-manganese alloy. It is also used in
manufacturing bleaching powder, insecticides and paints.
Copper: It is mainly used in electrical cables, electronics and chemical industries as copper is
malleable, ductile and a good conductor. Leading Producers are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and
Jharkhand.
Bauxite: It is from bauxite, a clay-like substance that alumina and later aluminium is obtained. Bauxite
deposits are formed by the decomposition of a wide variety of rocks rich in aluminium silicates. Bauxite
Deposits are mainly found in the Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills and the plateau region of Bilaspur-
Katni.
Mica: is made up of a series of plates or leaves and it splits easily into thin sheets. Excellent di-electric
strength, low power loss factor, insulating properties and resistance to high voltage. Important Mica
Deposits are northern edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau and Koderma Gaya – Hazaribagh belt of
Jharkhand.
Limestone: is found in association with rocks composed of calcium carbonates or calcium and
magnesium carbonates. It is the basic raw material for the cement industry and essential for smelting
iron ore in the blast furnace.

Hazards of Mining:
1. The dust and noxious fumes inhaled by miners make them vulnerable to pulmonary diseases.
2. The risk of collapsing mine roofs, inundation and fires in coalmines are a constant threat to miners.
3. The water sources in the region get contaminated due to mining.
4. Dumping of waste and slurry leads to degradation of land, soil, and increase in stream and river
pollution.

Steps to Conserve Minerals: Planned and sustainable use of resources. Improved technologies need to
be constantly evolved. Recycling of metals and using scrap metals and other substitutes.

Conventional Sources of Energy: It includes firewood, cattle dung cake, coal, petroleum, natural gas
and electricity (both hydel and thermal).
Coal: In India, coal is the most abundantly available fossil fuel used for power generation, fulfil energy
needs to industry as well as for domestic needs. Peat is produced by the decaying plants and has a low
carbon, high moisture contents and low heating capacity. Lignite is a low grade brown coal which is soft
with high moisture content. Bituminous coal has been buried deep and subjected to increased
temperatures. It is the most popular coal in commercial use. Anthracite is the highest quality hard coal.
Petroleum: It provides fuel for heat and lighting, lubricants for machinery and raw materials for a
number of manufacturing industries. Major Petroleum Production Areas: Mumbai High, Gujarat and
Assam.
Natural Gas: It is used as industrial raw material in the petrochemical industry. Large reserves of
natural gas have been discovered in the Krishna-Godavari basin. Andaman and Nicobar Islands also has
large reserves of natural gas.
Electricity: It is generated mainly in two ways- Hydro Electricity and Thermal Electricity.

Non-Conventional Sources of Energy: It includes solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas and atomic
energy. Firewood and cattle dung cake are most common in rural India.
Nuclear or Atomic Energy: It is obtained by altering the structure of atoms. Uranium and Thorium are
available in Jharkhand and the Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan. The Monazite sands of Kerala is also rich in
Thorium.
Solar Energy: Photovoltaic technology converts sunlight directly into electricity. India is a tropical
country and has enormous possibilities of tapping solar energy.
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Wind Power: The largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil Nadu from Nagarcoil to Madurai.
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra and Lakshadweep have also important wind
farms.
Biogas: It is produced by shrubs, farm waste, animal and human waste for domestic consumption in
rural areas. Gobar Gas Plants: The plants which use cattle dung in rural India. It provide twin benefits to
the farmer in the form of energy and improved quality of manure.
Tidal Energy: Use of Oceanic Tides: Floodgate dams are built across inlets. During high tide water
flows into the inlet and gets trapped when the gate is closed. After the tide falls outside the flood gate,
the water retained by the floodgate flows back to the sea via a pipe that carries it through a power-
generating turbine. In India the Gulf of Khambhat, the Gulf of Kuchchh in Gujarat on the western coast
and Gangetic delta in Sunderban regions of West Bengal provide ideal conditions for utilising tidal
energy.
Geo Thermal Energy: It refers to the heat and electricity produced by using the heat from the interior
of the Earth. Two Experimental Projets in India: Parvati valley near Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh and
the Puga Valley, Ladakh.

Conservation of Energy Resources: Promotion of energy conservation and increased use of renewable
energy sources are the twin planks of sustainable energy.

Rat-Hole Mining: Coal mining in Jowai and Cherapunjee is done by family member in the form of a
long narrow tunnel, known as 'Rat hole' mining.

CHAPTER 6- MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

Manufacturing is the Production of goods in large quantities after processing from raw materials to more
valuable products.
Mini Steel Plants: are smaller, have electric furnaces, use steel scrap and sponge iron. They have re-
rollers that use steel ingots as well. They produce mild and alloy steel of given specifications.
Integrated Steel Plant: is large, handles everything in one complex – from putting together raw
material to steel making, rolling and shaping.

Importance of Manufacturing:
1. Manufacturing industries help in modernising agriculture and reduce the heavy dependence of people
on agricultural income by providing them jobs in secondary and tertiary sectors.
2. Industrial development is a precondition for eradication of unemployment and poverty from India.
3. It was aimed at bringing down regional disparities by establishing industries in tribal and backward
areas.
4. Export of manufactured goods expands trade and commerce, and brings in much needed foreign
exchange.
5. Countries that transform their raw materials into a wide variety of finished goods of higher value are
prosperous.

Industrial Location: availability of raw material, labour, capital, power and market, etc.

Classification of Industries:
1. On the Basis of Source of Raw Materials Used: Agro Based: Cotton, woollen, jute, silk textile,
rubber and sugar, tea, coffee, edible oil. Mineral Based: Iron and steel, cement, aluminium, machine
tools, petrochemicals.
2. According to their main role: Basic or key Industries: These are those which supply their products
as raw materials to manufacture other goods e.g. iron and steel and copper smelting, aluminium
smelting. Consumer Industries: They produce goods for direct use by consumers – sugar, toothpaste,
paper, sewing machines, fans etc.

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3. On the Basis of Capital Investment: Small Scale industry: It is defined with reference to the
maximum investment allowed on the assets of a unit i.e. rupees one crore.
4. On the Basis of Ownership: Public Sector: They are owned and operated by government agencies
such as BHEL, SAIL etc. Private Sector Industries: They are owned and operated by individuals or a
group of individuals such as TISCO, Bajaj Auto Ltd., Dabur Industries. Joint Sector Industries: They
are jointly run by the state and individuals or a group of individuals such as Oil India Ltd. (OIL).
Cooperative Sector industries: They are owned and operated by the producers or suppliers of raw
materials, workers or both. For example - The sugar industry in Maharashtra, the coir industry in Kerala.
5. Based on the Bulk and Weight of Raw Material and Finished Goods: Heavy industries such as
iron and steel. Light industries that use light raw materials such as electrical goods industries.

Agro Based Industries:

Textile Industry: It contributes significantly to industrial production, employment generation and
foreign exchange earnings. It is the only industry in India which is self-reliant and complete in the value
chain i.e., from raw material to the highest value-added products.
Cotton Textiles: In ancient India, cotton textiles were produced with hand spinning and handloom
weaving techniques. After the 18th century, power-looms came into use and then mill-made cloth. In
the early years, the cotton textile industry was concentrated in the cotton growing belt of Maharashtra
and Gujarat due to availability of raw cotton, market, transport including accessible port facilities,
labour, moist climate, etc. This industry by creating demands supports many other industries, such as,
chemicals and dyes, packaging materials and engineering works. India exports yarn to Japan and other
cotton goods to U.S.A., U.K., Russia, etc. Mismatch between demand and supply are the issues as a
result, many of spinners export cotton yarn while apparel/garment manufactures have to import fabric.
Power supply is erratic and machinery is outdated in the weaving and processing sectors. There is low
output of labour. It has stiff competition with the synthetic fibre industry
Jute Textiles: India is the largest producer of raw jute and jute goods and stands at second place as an
exporter after Bangladesh. Most of the mills are located in West Bengal mainly along the banks of the
Hugli River in a narrow belt. The main factors responsible for their location in the Hugli basin are:
Availability of the jute producing areas and abundant water for processing raw jute, inexpensive water
transport which is supported by a good network of railways, roadways and waterways, cheap labour
from West Bengal and adjoining states of Bihar, Odisha and Uttar Pradesh, Kolkata as a large urban
centre provides banking, insurance and port facilities for export of jute goods.
Challenges faced by the Industry: It Includes stiff competition in the international market from synthetic
substitutes and from other competitors like Bangladesh, Brazil, Philippines, Egypt and Thailand.
Sugar Industry: India is the second largest producer of sugar and occupies the first place in the
production of gur and khandsari. The raw material used in this industry is bulky and its sucrose content
reduces in haulage. This industry is seasonal in nature and it is ideally suited to the cooperative sector. In
recent years, there is a tendency for the mills to shift and concentrate in the southern and western states,
especially in Maharashtra because the cane produced has a higher sucrose content, cooler climate
ensures a longer crushing season, cooperatives are more successful in these states.
The challenges include the seasonal nature of the industry, old and inefficient methods of production,
transport delay in reaching cane to factories and the need to maximise the use of baggase.

Mineral Based Industries:

Iron and Steel Industry: It is the basic industry since all the other industries (heavy, medium and
light) depend on it for their machinery. It is a heavy industry because all the raw materials as well as
finished goods are heavy and bulky entailing heavy transportation costs. Iron ore, coking coal and lime
stone are required in the ratio of approximately 4 : 2 : 1 to manufacture steel. Some quantities of
manganese, are also required to harden the steel. It is found in Chhotanagpur plateau because of low
cost of iron ore, high grade raw materials in proximity, cheap labour and vast growth potential in the
home market. India is not able to perform to its full potential due to high costs and limited availability of
coking coal, lower productivity of labour, irregular supply of energy, poor infrastructure.

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Aluminium Smelting: It is the second most important metallurgical industry in India. It is light,
resistant to corrosion, a good conductor of heat, malleable and becomes strong when it is mixed with
other metals. Regular supply of electricity and an assured source of raw material at minimum cost are
the two prime factors for location of the industry.

Chemical Industries: It comprises both large- and small-scale manufacturing units. Inorganic
Chemicals includes sulphuric acid, nitric acid, alkalies, soda ash and caustic soda. Organic Chemicals
includes petrochemicals, which are used for manufacturing of synthetic fibers, synthetic rubber, plastics,
dye-stuffs, drugs and pharmaceuticals.

Fertilizer Industry: It is centred around the production of nitrogenous fertilizers (mainly urea),
phosphatic fertilizers and ammonium phosphate (DAP) and complex fertilizers which have a
combination of nitrogen (N), phosphate (P), and potash (K).

Cement Industry: This industry requires bulky and heavy raw materials like limestone, silica and
gypsum. Coal, electric power and rail transportation are crucial for cement industry.

Automobile Industry: The liberalisation has led to the healthy growth of the industry.

Information Technology and Electronics Industry: A major impact of this industry has been on
employment generation. The continuing growth in the hardware and software is the key to the success of
IT industry in India.

Industrial Pollution and Environmental Degradation:

Air Pollution: It is caused by the presence of high proportion of undesirable gases and unwanted
particles such as sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide. Toxic gas leaks can be very hazardous with
long-term effects.
Water Pollution: It is caused by organic and inorganic industrial wastes and affluents discharged into
rivers. Major Polluting Industries are paper, pulp, chemical, textile and dyeing, petroleum refineries,
tanneries and electroplating industries.
Thermal Pollution: It occurs when hot water from factories and thermal plants is drained into rivers
and ponds before cooling.
Noise Pollution: It causes irritation, anger, hearing impairment, increased heart rate and blood pressure
among other physiological effects.

Ways to Reduce the Industrial Pollution of Fresh Water: By reusing and recycling it in two or more
successive stages. Harvesting of rainwater to meet water requirements. Treating hot water and effluents
before releasing them in rivers and ponds.
Reduce Air Pollution: By fitting smoke stacks to factories with electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters,
scrubbers and inertial separators.
Reduce Noise Pollution: Machinery and equipment can be used and generators should be fitted with
silencers. Noise absorbing material may be used.