Check Point 2 Chemistry

Notes

Index
Topic Title page
Lab tools & safety 2-3
1 Particle model of matter 4-9
2 Density 10-11
3 Elements , compounds & mixtures 12-17
4 Atomic structure & periodic table 18-23
5 Bonding & structures 24-33
6 Acids, bases & salts 34-40
7 Chemical reactions 41-46
8 Rate of chemical reactions 47-52

1
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Lab tools & lab safety
Lab tools & lab safety

Lab Apparatus Lab Apparatus Lab Apparatus

Thermometer Measuring Spatula
Cylinder

Funnel Burette Test tube

rack

Watch Glass Pipette Round bottom

flask

Glass Rod Beaker Condenser

Teat pipette Conical Flask Delivery

Tube

Test Tube Spirit Burner U tube

Boiling Tube Bunsen
Burner
Evaporating Tripod Clamp Stand
Dish
Mortar and Wire Gauze Trough
pestle
Crucible & Tongs or test Stopper or
Lid tube holder bung

2
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Lab tools & lab safety

Hazard Symbols

They are warning symbols designed to warn about hazardous materials, locations, or
objects, including electric currents, poisons, and radioactivity.

Hazard: anything that can cause harm

Risk: chance of a hazard causing harm

Precaution: safety measures taken in advance to reduce risk

Lab Safety

Do's

Wear a lab coat to protect your clothes

Wear safety goggles when working with chemicals, flames, or heating devices to
protect your eyes

⑤ Wear gloves to protect your hand from corrosive materials

Use beaker tongs to handle hot glassware to protect your hands from burning

Work in a fume cupboard if your experiment produces toxic gas

3
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Lab tools & lab safety

Don'ts

Smell any chemicals directly, as gases may be toxic

Look into a container as you are heating it

⑤ Point the end of a test tube being heated at yourself or others as the liquid may
spit and burn you

Heat in a closed container as high pressure may lead to explosion

4
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 1: Particle model of Matter

Topic 1 Particle model of

matter
 Matter is anything that has mass & occupies a space " volume "

 Substances exist in one of 3 states of matter at room temperature

Solid or Liquid or Gas

It's a theory that states that matter is made of tiny particles called atoms or molecules

Particles are attracted to each other by forces which might be weak or strong

Particles are always moving

Particles move faster when substances are heated

Lighter particles move faster than heavy particles

Solid Liquid Gas

Diagram

Arrangement Regularly arranged Randomly Randomly

& close to each other arranged & arranged & far
close to each apart
other
Separation Tightly packed Loosely packed Widely separated
Motion/ Vibrate in place Slide over each Move freely /
movement other randomly

5
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 1: Particle model of Matter

Temperature

As Pressure Increases As Temperature Increases

Volume of Gas Decreases Volume of Gas Increases

6
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 1: Particle model of Matter

- Changing the physical state of a substance can be done by. Heating or Cooling

-Changes of states are Reversible Physical Changes

Melting

By heating a Solid, particles gain kinetic energy & vibrate

more.

When temperature reaches the melting point, particles

use all heat energy to break the forces between them & turn to Liquid.

Boiling

By heating a Liquid, particles gain kinetic energy, move

faster & further apart. When temperature reaches the
boiling point, particles use all heat energy to break the
forces between them & turn to Gas

7
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 1: Particle model of Matter

Condensation

By Cooling a Gas, particles Lose energy, move slower & get

closer to each other. When temperature reaches the
condensation point, particles turn to Liquid 'liquefies’

Freezing

By Cooling a Liquid, particles Lose energy, move slower

& get closer to each other. When temperature reaches
the Freezing point, particles turn to Solid 'Solidifies

a Solid at any temp. Below its Melting Point

a Gas at any temp. Above its Boiling Point
a Liquid at any temp. Between its Melting &
'Boiling points

8
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 1: Particle model of Matter

S L G
Substances Melting point (oC) Boiling point (oC)
E 70 99
F 23 67
G 47 120
H 15 36

The table shows melting and boiling points of 4 substances E, F, G, H And their
physical state of matter at room temperature(22oC)

9
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 1: Particle model of Matter

-Solute : asubstance that dissolves in a solvent

-Solvent : a substance that dissolves a solute

-Solution : a mixture of one or more solutes dissolved in a solvent

-Saturated Solution: a solution that contains the maximum concentration of

solute dissolved in the solvent at a specific temperature

Solubility : it is the amount of solute that can dissolve in 100 g of solvent at a

specific temperature

water at 40o C?

Add 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝐜𝐦 of water to a beaker using a measuring cylinder.

Heat water to 40 C using a bunsen burner
⑤Weigh certain mass of sodium chloride using a balance
Add the weighed solid to water & stir
Filter the undissolved solid
Dry it between two filter papers
Reweigh
Mass of solid dissolved = initial mass - final mass

10
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 1: Particle model of Matter

Increase Temperature
As temperature increases, particles gain
energy and move faster. Thus dissolve
To Speed UP
dissolving faster

Decrease Particle Size

The smaller the particle size, the faster it
dissolves.
Eg.: poudered sugar dissolves faster than
sugar cubes.

11
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 2: Density

Topic 2

Density is the mass of a substance per unit volume.

Mass
Density =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Units of density: kg/m3g/cm3

⚫ As mass inc., density inc. \& as volume inc., density dec.

⚫ As particles in a material get packed closer together, the density of the

material increases. So, the materials with the highest densities are all solids.

⚫ Gases have lower densities than liquids or solids because the particles in a gas
are far apart.

⚫ The density of elements usually increases as the atomic number increases.

Osmium with atomic number 76 is more dense than iron with
atomic number 26.

12
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 2: Density

volume

⚫ Regular object :

When calculating the volume of a regular block of material, we measure the

lengths of the sides.

You can work out the volume of the block by multiplying the lengths of the
sides: 3 × 2 × 5 = 30cm3

⚫ Irregular object :

We work out the volume using the displacement

method. The object is placed into a measuring cylinder
of water, the increase in volume of water is the volume
of the object

Volume of the object= 75 − 50 = 25ml

Floating & Sinking

* We can tell whether a solid will float or sink in water by comparing its density
with that of water

⚫ If a solid is more dense than water, it will sink.

⚫ If a solid is less dense than water, it will float.

13
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 2: Density

 To lower the density of a solid object :

- Use smaller mass of the object & same volume

- Use larger volume of the object & same mass.

- Make the object hollow from inside.

* We can tell If a substance will float or sink in air by comparing its density
with that of air.

- If the gas is more dense than air, it will sink.

- If the gas is less dense than air, it will float.

 To lower the density of a gas :

- Heat it (heating causes gases to expand. The same number of particles will
occupy a larger volume so density decreases.)

This explains why a hot air balloon can float because the hot air
inside the balloon is less dense than the colder air outside.

When liquids are added together, the less dense liquids will float on the more
dense liquids.

From the diagram we notice that:

- Honey is the most dense liquid.

- Ethyl alcohol is the least dense liquid.

14
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 3: Elements, Compounds & Mixtures

Topic 3 Elements,

Atom: It is the smallest building unit of matter, that can't be broken down
further by chemical means.

Element: It's a substance made up of atoms with the same atomic number.
It can't be split up into anything simpler by chemical means.

Molecule : It's a group of 2 or more atoms joined together chemically.

Diatomic Molecule: A Molecule made of 2 atoms chemically joined together.

Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Fluorine, Chlorine, , lodine & Astatine.

H2, O2, N2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2, At2

⚫ Elements can be classified according to their properties into:

Metals and non-metals and few metalloids (semi-metals)

Metals Non-Metals
Shiny Dull
Good Conductors of Heat Bad Conductors of Heat
⑤ Good Conductors of Electricity ⑤ Bad Conductors of Eleciricity except
Malleable: can be bent & shaped by hammering Graphite
Ductile: can be stretched into wires Brittle: Breaks up easily except
Hard & Strong except: Gp I Metals Diamond
High Density except: Gp I Metals& Al Solid non - mełals have Low Density
Most have high melting & bolling points Gp I Most have low melting & boiling
Metals points except Diamond & Graphite
Sonorous: Make ringing sound when struck
except: Gp I Metals

15
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 3: Elements, Compounds & Mixtures

Difference between Compounds & Mixtures

Compound Mixture
Diagram

Definition 2 or more elements joined 2 or more ditferent substances

together chemically. that are physically mixed.

Examples NaCl, H2O , CO2 Air, Sea water, Alloys

Composition Fixed Variable
(Atoms in a compound are (the amount of components in
combined in a fixed ratio.) a mixture can vary)
Properties New properties (different Same properties of its
than properties of its original components
elements)
Can be Separated Can't be separated by physical Can be separated by physical
methods methods

Element
Compound
Substance made of one type of
Substance made of 2 or
atom
mor e different types of
atoms joined chemically.

Mixture

Substance made of 2 or more different

types of atoms mixed physically

16
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 3: Elements, Compounds & Mixtures

Difference between Physical & Chemical Changes

Physical Change Chemical Change
Doesn't produce a new substance. Produces new substances
Usually Can be reversed Usually Can't be reversed
It is due to a Ch. reaction &
accompanied by:
- Color change
- Bubbles of Gas
- Temperature change
- Light or sound
- Solid precipitate
Examples: Melting -Freezing - Examples: Burning "Combustion" -
Dissolving - Crushing a can or Rusting of iron
cutting paper

17
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 3: Elements, Compounds & Mixtures

Rules for naming a compound If a compound contains:

1. Metal and a non metal

⚫ The metal's name comes first in the name of the compound.

⚫ The non-metal's name comes second and is changed to be ending with ide.
Ex: When sodium and Chlorine combine together, they form a compound called: Sodium
Chloride not Sodium Chlorine.

2. 2 non-metals

⚫ The lst non-metal is written as it is.

⚫ The 2nd non-metal's name (usually Oxygen) is changed to be ending with ide.

Ex: When Sulfur and 2 oxygen atoms combine together, they form a compound called
Suffur Dioxide (Di: means 2 in Latin, its Dioxide as there are 2 oxygen atoms)

3. 2 Different Elements plus a 3rd element (Oxygen), the compound's

name ends with: ate

Ex: A Compound containing Calcium, Carbon and Oxygen is called: Calcium

Carbonate Examples:

1) Metal + Chlorine → Metal Chloride

2) Metal + Bromine → Metal Bromide
3) Metal + Fluorine → Metal Fluoride
4) Metal + Oxygen → Metal Oxide
5) Metal + Sulfur → Metal Sulfide
6) Metal + Carbon + Oxygen → Metal Carbonate
7) Metal + Nitrogen + Oxygen → Metal Nitrate
8) Metal + Sulfur + Oxygen → Metal Sulfate
9) Metal +Oxygen + Hydrogen → Metal Hydroxide

18
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 3: Elements, Compounds & Mixtures

Formula of

The formula of a compound shows:

1. Elements forming this compounds 2. No. Of atoms of each element.

: Water is a compound, its formula is H2O

1. The formula shows that water is made up of: Hydrogen and Oxygen.

2. It also shows that water contains 2 Hydrogen atoms & 1 oxygen atom.

3. The total no. of atoms forming water is: 3

: Calcium Carbonate is a compound, its formula is CaCO3

1. The formula shows that Calcium Carbonate is made up of: Calcium, Carbon &
Oxygen.

2. It also shows that Calcium Carbonate contains 1 Calcium atom, 1 Carbon Atom & 3
Oxygen atoms.

3. The total no. of atoms forming Calcium Carbonate is: 5

: Aluminum Nitrate is a compound, its formula is Al(NO3)3

1. The formula shows that Aluminum Nitrate is made up of: Aluminum, Nitrogen &
Oxygen.

2. It also shows that Aluminum Nitrate contains 1Aluminum atom, 3 Nitrogen atoms
and 9 oxygen atoms.

3. The total no. of atoms forming Aluminum Nitrate is: 13

19
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 3: Elements, Compounds & Mixtures

How Can We Deduce The Formula Of A Compound?

Write down the symbols of elements forming the compound.

Write the charge of each element below its symbol.

Cross the charges.

20
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 4: Atomic structure & Periodic table

Topic 4
table

Atom: It is the smallest building unit of matter, that can't be broken down
further by chernical means.

⚫ Atom is made up of 3 subatomic particles:

Protons, Neutrons & Electrons

⚫ Protons & Neutrons: in the center of the atom in The

Nucleus. ⚫Electrons: In Energy shells around the
nucleus.

Particle Relative Charge Relative Mass

proton positive (+ve) 1
Electron Negative (-ve) 1/200
Neutron Neutral (O) 1

- Atoms are electrically neutral. (have overall charge = Zero) Because

no. of positive protons equals no. of negative electrons.

- Electrons are held in place by electrostatic attraction forces between

the positive charge on the protons and the negative charge on the
electrons.

21
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 4: Atomic structure & Periodic table

In 1911, Ernest Rutherford tested Thomson's plum

pudding model & proposed that:

1. The Atom has a positively charged central nucleus.

2. Most of the mass of an atom is centered in the nucleus.

3. The nucleus is surrounded by a big empty space in which electrons move.

In 1913, Neil Bohr proposed a theory that Eleatrons move. around the nucleus
but only in prescribed orbits or shells.

(Nucleon Number): It is the no. of Protons &

Neutrons inside the nucleus of an atom

Atomic Number (Proton no.): It's the no. of

protons inside the nucleus of an atom.

22
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 4: Atomic structure & Periodic table

Relationship between Electronic Configuration of an element & its position in the

periodic table.

- Electronic configuration means arrangements of electrons in shells.

- The Ist shell is the closest to the nucleus; it's filled by 2 electrons,

- The 2nd & 3rd shells are filled by 8 electrons each.

- A shell must be filled before starting on the next one.

- There is a direct relationship between the electronic configuration of an element & its
position in the Periodic table.

- Periodic table has vertical columns called Groups & horizontal rows called Periods

Group No. = No. Of outer shell electrons (valence electrons).

period No. = No. Of occupied electron shells.

Group I elements have I valence electron, Group 2 elements have 2 valence electrons,

Group 3 elements have 3 valence electrons, etc.

23
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 4: Atomic structure & Periodic table

⚫ Elements are arranged in the periodic table in order of increasing their atomic number
(proton number).

⚫ Elements are classified according to their properties into: Metals & Non-metals.

⚫ Metals can be found in the left and the middle of the periodic table.

⚫ Non-Metals can be found in the right of the periodic table.

Trends in the periodic table

⚫ A Trend is a gradual change in a property

⚫ Elements in the same Group have similar

chemical reactions as they have the same no.of
electrons in their outermost shell (same
valence electrons).

⚫ Elements down a group show a trend

As We go down the groups:

- Metals become more reactive and Have lower melting points

- Non-Metals become less reactive and Have higher melting points.

24
 ⚫ Elements Across a period show a trend As we go to the right:

- number of outer shell electrons

increase, metallic character decreases & non- metallic character increases.

Group 1: Alkali Metals

⚫ They are called Group I elements as they all have I electron in their outer shell.

⚫ They are called: Alkali Metals as they react with water forming alkaline solution.

Physical Properties:

- Good conductors of heat and Electricity

- Shiny

* Special Physical Properties:

- Soft

- Low melting points

- Low Density

Trends in Physical Properties down the group:

- Melting point decreases

- Atomic size increases

- Density increases

- Softness increases

25
 Properties:

- They are the most reactive metals as they need to lose only I electron to become stable &
have a full outer shell of electrons.

- As we go down the group, they become more reactive.

- They all react in a similar way as they have the same number of electrons in their
outermost shell.

- They are stored under oil in lab to prevent react reaction with air & water.

⚫ They react with cold water forming alkaline solution &hydrogen

Sodium + Water → Sodium Hydroxide + Hydrogen

2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2

Potassium + Water → Potassium Hydroxide + Hydrogen

2K + 2H2O → 2KOH + H2

🟒Observations when Alkali metals react with Water:

Reactions get more vigorous as we go down the group

-Lithium floats, fizzes, moves around & gets smaller

-Sodium melts, floats, fizzes rapidly, moves around, gets smaller.

26
 -potassium melts, floats, fizzes vigorously, moves around, gets smaller & catches fire

4. Temperature Rises

(because the reaction is Exothermic).

5. Universal Indicator becomes dark blue/purple

(because Alkali Metal Hydroxides are strongly alkaline).

Explaining Why Alkali metals become more reactive down the group?

- Electrons are held in their electron shells by electrostatic

attraction forces between the positive charge on the
protons and the negative charge on the electrons.

- Group I metals react by losing I electron from their

outermost shell to become stable.

- The electron in the outermost electron shell of potassium

is furthest away from the protons so it is easier to
overcome these attraction forces.

- Potassium reacts faster than Sodium & sodium

faster than Lithium

27
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 5: Bonding & Structures

Topic 5 &

- Atoms of most elements undergo chemical reactions and form bonds.

- They lose or gain or share electrons to have a full outer shell & become stable (reach the
electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas)

- Noble gases are un-reactive "inert" because they are stable, they have full outer shells of
electrons.

Ionic Covalent

Between Between
Metals & Non-Metals Non-Metals
It involves It involves
losing & Gaining electrons Sharing electrons

28
 What's meant by an lon?

It's an atom that has lost at least I electron to be positively charged or gained at
least I electron to be negatively charged.

Cation: a positively charged ion that has more protons than electrons.

Anion: a negatively charged ion that has more electrons than protons.

Explain How Atoms form ions?

Sodium is an element in Group I, it has an electronic structure of 2,8,1

To obtain a full outer shell of electrons, it loses 1 electron to another atom, And
it forms Positively Charged lon (𝐍𝐚+)With a charge of +1

Oxygen is an element in Group 6;

it has electronic structure 2, 6

To obtain a full outer shell of electrons,

it gains 2 electrons from another atom, and it forms

Negatively Charged Ion (𝑂−2)With a charge of -2

29
 Valence electrons: Electrons in the outer shell of an atom

Example: Sodium has I valence electron & Chlorine has 7 valence electrons

Valency: no. of electrons lost or gained by an atom to become stable

Example: Sodium loses I electron its valency is 1 Chlorine gains 1 electron its valency is 1

Bonding

⚫ Metals reacts with non-metals to form an ionic compound.

⚫ Metal atom loses electrons and forms a positive ion.

⚫ Non-metal atom gains electrons & forms a negative ion with name
ending in -ide

⚫ Positive and Negative ions attract each other as they have opposite
charges & are arranged in a lattice.

⚫ The compound has no overall charge.

(Total number of electron lost = total no. of electrons gained)

Ionic Bond: Strong electrostatic attraction force between positive &

negative ions.

30
 Ionic bond between Sodium and Chlorine to form Sodium Chloride (NaCl )

- Sodium atom loses 1 electron forming sodium positive ion & transfers this
electron to Chlorine.

- Chlorine atom gains I electron forming Chloride negative ion.

- The two ions have opposite charges, so they attract each other

Bonding Diagrams (Dot & Cross Diagrams)

1. Use dots and Crosses "𝒐,⋅, 𝒙′′for eleotrons of different elements.

2. Write the symbol of the element in the center of each atom.

3. Don't forget the charge on each ion.

Ionic bond between Potassium & Fluorine to form Potassium Fluoride (KF)

⚫ Potassium atom loses I electron forming Potassium Positive ion

& transfers this electron to an atom of fluorine.

⚫ Fluorine atom gains I electron forming Fluoride negative ion.

⚫ The two ions have opposite charges, so they attract each other

⚫ Formula of 𝑝otassium fluoride is KF

31
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 5: Bonding & Structures

Ionic bond between Magnesium & Oxygen to form Magnesium Oxide(MgO)

⚫ Magnesium atom loses 2 electrons formingMg2+&

transfers them to an Atom of Oxygen.

⚫ Oxygen atom gains 2 electron forming O2−

⚫ The two ions have opposite charges, so they attract each other

⚫ Formula of Magnesium Oxide is MgO

lonic bond between Magnesium & Chlorine to form Magnesium

Chloride (MgCl2)

⚫ Magnesium atom loses 2 electrons forming Mg2+&

transfers 1 electron to each Chlorine Atom.

⚫ Each Chlorine atom gains I electron forming Cl−

⚫ lons have opposite charges, so they attract each other

⚫ Formula of Magnesium Chloride is MgCl2

32
 Giant lonic Structure

Regular arrangement of positive & negative ions in layers, held together by

strong electrostatic attraction forces.

Properties of ionic compounds

Due to strong electrostatic attraction forces between oppositely charged ions, which needs
large amount of energy to overcome the forces.

Bad conductor of electricity when solid, but good when liquid (molten or aqueous) Bad

when solid, as ions are fixed in place and can't move freely.

Good when liquid, as ions are free to move through the layers.

33
 Bonding

- It is formed between atoms of Non-Metals.

Covalent Bond: Sharing a pair of electrons between non-metal electrons

atoms to reach the noble gas electronic configuration.

Covalent bond is a strong bond due to the electrostatic attraction forces between the
positively charged nucleus of both atoms & the shared pair of electrons.

Hydrogen Molecule (H2)

- Each Hydrogen atom has only I electron in its outermost shell.

- Hydrogen shares 1 electron with another Hydrogen atom.

- Each of them has a full shell of 2 electrons.

Chlorine Molecule(𝐂𝐥𝟐)

- Each Chlorine atom has 7 electrons in its outermost

shell.

- Chlorine shares I electron with another Chlorine

atom & has 6 non bonded electrons in its outer shell.

- Each of the Chlorine atoms has a full outer shell of 8 electrons.

34
 Hydrogen Chloride Molecule (HCl)

- Hydrogen shares with 1 electron.

- Chlorine atom has 7 electrons in its outer shell.

It shares with 1 electron & has 6 non bonded
electrons in its outer shell.

Water Molecule(H2O)

- Each Hydrogen atom shares with l electron.

- Oxygen has 6 electrons in its outer shell. It shares with 2

electrons ( 1 with each Hydrogen atom) & has 4 non bonded
electrons in its outer shell.

Ammonia Molecule(𝐍𝐇𝟑)

- Each Hydrogen atom shares with I electron.

- Nitrogen has 5 electrons in its outer shell. It shares

with 3 electrons (f with each Hydrogen atom) & has 2 non bonded electrons in
its outer shell.

35
 Q.: Describe the strengths & limitations of using dot and cross model to represent molecules.

Strengths

The diagram clearly shows the sharing of electrons and which atoms they come from

The diagrams are easy to understand and draw

Limitations

The model does not show how the atoms are arranged in space or the shape of the molecule.

The model does not show the relative sizes of the atoms.

Simple Molecular structures "Simple molecules"

Properties of Simple Molecular structures

Low melting & boiling points.

Due to Weak intermolecular attraction forces which need low amount of

energy to overcome the forces.

Bad conductors of electricity

No free moving electrons or ions

Sand " 𝐒𝐢𝐎𝟐 ", Diamond & Graphite

They have high melting & boiling points and have

Giant Molecular structure "Macromolecules"

36
 Giant Molecular structure "Macromolecules"

- Sand (SiO2)Diamond & Graphite have Giant molecular Structures.

- Diamond & Graphite are both made of Carbon atoms only.

Diamond Graphite
Diagram

Structure Each Carbon atom is joined to 4 Each Carbon atom is joined to 3

othe carbon atoms by strong carbon atoms by strong covalent
covalent bonds in a giant bonds in layers. Layers are held
structure together by weak forces so they
slide over each other.
Melting & boiling They have high Melting & Boiling points
points due to many strong covalent bonds that needs high amount of energy
to broken.
Conductivity Bad Conductor Good Conductor
No free moving electrons Has free moving electrons
Hardness Hard Soft
Layers are held together by weak
forces so they slide over eachother.
Uses Cutting Tools: as it is hard. Lubricant: as it is soft
Jewelry: as it is shiny Electrodes: as it conducts
electricity

37
 Covalent

Between Between
Metals & Non-Metals Non-metals

Simple molecular Giant molecular

structure structure

High melting point

Bad conductor of electricity when 1. Low Melting Point Sand, diamond, Graphite
2. Bad conductor of 1. High Melting point
solid, but Good when liquid
electricity 2. Bad conductor of
electricity except
graphite

38
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 6: Acids, Bases & salts

Topic 6
& salts

Neutral

Aqueous solutions of acids contain A solution that is Aqueous solutions of acids

𝐇 +ions neither acidic or contain OH- ions
basic E. g: Pure
Water, Alcohol, Salt
solutions, sugar
Strong Acid Weak Acid Strong Base Weak Base
E.g.:Hydrochloric E.g.:Ethanoic E.g.:Sodium E.g::Ammonia,
acid, sulfuric acid, acid (vinegar), Hydroxide, ammonium
nitric acid Carbonic acid potassium Hydroxide
hydroxide

Properties of acids: Properties of Bases:

- Have sour taste - Soft & slippery
- Have pH < 7 - Have pH> 7
- Turn blue litmus paper into - Turn red litmus paper into Blue
Red - Bases are metal oxides or metal hydroxide or
- Acids usually start with $H$ or ammonia.
they are non-metal oxides. - Bases that are soluble in water are called alkali
Most commonly used bases:
Most commonly used acids: - Sodium Hydroxide NaOH
- Hydrochloric acid HCl - Potassium Hydroxide KOH
- Nitric acid HNO3 - Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2
- Sulfuric acid H2SO4 - Ammonia NH3

39
 Using the pH scale

Acids: have pH from (1-6)

- A strong acid has pH of 1-3

- A weak acid has pH of 4-6

- Neutral: has pH7

- Bases: have pH from (8-14)

- A weak Base has pH of 8-10

- A Strong Base has pH of 12-14

Using indicators: Universal indicator:

- As pH decreases, color of the indicator gets darker (Yellow →orange →red)

- Neutral: pH 7 (green color)

- As pH increases, color of the indicator gets darker (blue →dark blue

→purple)

40
 Other indicators:

Color in acidic solution Color in alkaline solution

Litmus paper Red Blue
Methyl orange Red Yellow
Phenol phthalein Colorless Pink
Chemical Reactions of Acids

- Acids react with Metals or Bases or Metal Carbonates or Ammonia to form

salts.

- The Ist part of the salt's name is the metal, & the 2nd part depends on the acid
used.

Acid Salt name

Hydrochloric acid 𝑋chloride
Sulfuric acid 𝑋Sulfate
Nitric Acid 𝑋nitrate
Citric acid 𝑋citrate

1) Metal + Acid → Salt + Hydrogen (Displacement Reaction)

Displacement reactions depend on reactivity, if the metal is more reactive than

Hydrogen it can displace it from the acid, if the metals is less reactive than
Hydrogen ( Copper, silver, or gold) no reaction will take place.
Zinc + Sulfuric acid → Zinc Sulfate + Hydrogen
H2SO4 + Zn → ZnSO4 + H2
Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid → Magnesium Chloride + Hydrogen
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2

41
 2) Base / Alkali + Acid → Salt + Water (Neutralization Reaction)

- Base is a metal oxide or metal hydroxide.

potassium Hydroxide + Nitric acid 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 + Water

KOH + HNO3 → KNO3 + H2O
Magnesium Oxide + Sulfuric acid → Magnesium sulfate + Water
MgO + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2O

3) Metal Carbonate + Acid → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide (Neutralization Reaction)

Calcium carbonate + Hydrochloric acid → Calcium chloride + Water + carbon dioxide

CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

Sodium carbonate + Nitric acid → Sodium Nitrate + Water + Carbon dioxide
Na2CO3 + 2HNO3 → 2NaNO3 + H2O + CO2

Making Use of Neutralization reaction

- Neutralization is a chemical reaction between Acids & (bases or metal

carbonate) giving neutral products.

- Neutralization reaction is exothermic.

(releases heat to the surrounding, so temp. rises)

42
 1) Acid rain:
Burning fossil fuels in factories and car engines produce acidic gases (sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides) that dissolve in the rainwater giving sulfurous
acid and nitric acid.

Effects of acid rain:

1) Cracking of lime stone buildings.

2) Corrosion of metal statues.

3) Soil acidity affecting growth of crops.

4) Lowering the pH of lakes and kill fish.

We Can Neutralize Acidic Soil By:

Adding a base as Crushed Limestone "Calcium Carbonate" or Lime "Calcium

Oxide"

2) Stings
Bee stings are acidic.

We Can Neutralize the sting By:

Rubbing weak bases as baking soda (NaHCO3)or

toothpaste or soap.

43
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 6: Acids, Bases & salts

Is it Lithium or Sodium or Potassium salt? No ! Excess Method

Yes! Titration method

- It is a method used to prepare soluble salts

By adding excess insoluble metal, or metal oxide/ hydroxide, or metal

carbonate to an acid.

4- turn of the
2- filter the heat and leave
1-react an acid with an 3- Heat the
mixture to get until all of the
excess of metal , metal solution to start
a solution of water has
oxide , hydroxide or evaporating the
the salt with evaporated
carbonate until no more water from the
the excess solid leaving the
reacts solution
left behind solid salt
behind

44
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 6: Acids, Bases & salts

Preparation of Zinc Sulfate crystals

Zinc + Sulfuric acid → Zinc Sulfate + Water

1. Put certain volume of Sulfuric acid in a conical flask and warm it.

2. Add excess Zinc to the warm acid & stir until no more zinc dissolves.

3. Filter to remove excess unreacted Zinc

4. Evaporate the filtrate (Zinc sulfate solution) till crystallization point.

5. Leave to cool.

6. Filter Zinc sulfate crystals

7. Wash with distilled water.

8. Dry crystals between 2 filter paper.

Q.I Explain why we do we warm the acid.

To increase the rate of the reaction.
Q. 2 Explain why do we add excess metal or base or metal carbonate to the acid. To make
sure all the acid has reacted & that the reaction finished.
Q. 3 Explain how do we know that the reaction is finished.
I. When excess unreacted solid stops dissolving (remains at the bottom of the flask).
2. When no more bubbles of gas is given off (hydrogen if we use a metal & carbon dioxide
if we use a metal carbonate)
Q. 4 Explain how do we remove the excess unreacted solid.
By Filtration
Q. 5 Explain why we can't prepare Copper sulfate salt by adding Copper to sulfuric acid.
Because Copper metal is less reactive than Hydrogen so it can't displace it & no reaction
will take place.

45
 Gas Test Result
Hydrogen Lighted splint Burns with a pop
sound

Carbon dioxide Lime water Turns milky

1- Wear gloves: because acids are corrosive and may burn your skin
2- Don't heat the solution too much, as the liquid may spit out & burn you.

Titration Method
⚫ We use titration method to prepare Li, Na, Ksalts instead of excess method
because Li, Na, Koxides/hydroxide/ carbonate are soluble in water.

⚫ If we added excess Li, Na, Koxides/hydroxide/ carbonate to the acid, the excess
will dissolve in water making it alkaline & there will be no solid residue to
remove by filtration.

46
 Preparation of Sodium Chloride crystals

Sodium Hydroxide + Hydrochloric acid → Sodium chloride + Water

1. Using a pipette, add 𝟐𝟓𝐜𝐦𝟑of Hydrochloric acid in a conical flask.

2. Add few drops of indicator to the flask using a teat pipette.

3. Slowly drop Sodium Hydroxide from the burette to the flask

4. Swirl the flask to mix.

5. Stop adding sodium hydroxide when the end point is reached which is when the
indicator changes color.

6. Add charcoal to remove the color of the indicator, then filter to remove charcoal.

7. Carry out crystallization process:

- Evaporate the solution till crystallization point

- Leave to cool

- Filter crystals

- Wash with distilled water.

- Dry them between two filter papers.

47
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 7: Chemical reactions

Topic 7

- Chemical reaction is a process in which substances undergo chemical change

and create new substances.

- It is a process in which one or more substances "the reactants" are converted

to one or more different substances "the products".

reactants→ products

Reactants: are the substances that you start the reaction with.

Products: are the substances produced or formed from the reaction.

- In a chemical reaction, no atoms are lost & no new atoms are produced. The
atoms are simply rearranged into new combinations.

The mass you begin with is the mass you end with. "law of conservation of mass"

48
 - In a chemical reaction, Energy is taken in to break bonds in the reactants and
energy is released when new bonds are formed in the products.

- In Endothermic reactions, energy taken in to break bonds in reactants is

greater than energy released when forming bonds in products

- In Exothermic reactions, energy released when forming bonds in products is

greater than energy taken in in breaking bonds in reactants.

- Whether a chemical reaction takes in energy or releases energy there is no

overall change in the amount of energy during the reaction. This is because
energy cannot be created nor destroyed. It can be transferred from one form to
another but the same amount of energy remains after the reaction as before.
"law of conservation of energy."

⚫ Chemical Reactions can be represented by word equations or Symbolic

equations.

Word Equation: Carbon + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide

Symbolic Equation: C + O2 → CO2

49
 - It is when a substance reacts with oxygen, forming Oxides.

Element + Oxygen → Element Oxide

Examples of Oxidation reactions:

*Combustion "Burning"
Carbon + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide

C + O2 → CO2

Experiment: Burning Magnesium in air

Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium Oxide

2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

⚫ Weigh certain mass of Magnesium

⚫ Magnesium is heated in a crucible & the lid is

opened from time to time to allow air to enter.

⚫ Cool down the crucible and weigh to find the mass of magnesium oxide formed

⚫ Reheat till you reach a constant mass to make sure that all Magnesium reacted and that
the reaction is finished.

⚫ Mass increases because Magnesium combined with oxygen to form Magnesium oxide

* Rusting of Iron:
Iron + Oxygen + Water → Hydrated Iron Oxide

50
 2- Neutralization

⚫ It is a reaction between Acids & (bases or metal carbonate) giving neutral

products.

⚫ Base is a metal oxide or metal hydroxide.

Acid + Base → Salt + Water

Nitric acid + Sodium Hydroxide → Sodium Nitrate + Water
HNO3 + NaOH → NaNO3 + H2O
Magnesium Oxide + Sulfuric acid → Magnesium sulfate + Water
MgO + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2O
Acid + Metal carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
Hydrochloric acid + Calcium carbonate → Calcium chloride + Water + carbon dioxide

2HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

Nitric acid + Sodium carbonate → Sodium Nitrate + Water + Carbon dioxide

2HNO3 + Na2CO3 → 2NaNO3 + H2O + CO2

3-Displacement

- It is a reaction in which a more reactive

element displaces "replaces" a less reactive element from its compound.

Zinc + Hydrochloric acid → Zinc Chloride + Hydrogen

Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2

51
 Before carrying out displacement reactions, we need to study the order of
reactivity of some elements.

⚫ Metals can carry out displacement reactions with water, acids \& other metals'
compounds.

⚫ Metals react in different ways according to their positions in the reactivity series.

⚫ Reactivity Series: It is a list of metals in order of their tendency to react.

Potassium Most reactive 𝐊

𝐍𝐚 Potassium Please
Sodium Sodium send
𝐂𝐚
Calcium 𝐌𝐠 Calcium Charlie's
Magnesim monkeys
Magnesium 𝐀𝐥 and
𝐂 Aluminum
Aluminum Zinc zebras
𝐙𝐧 in
Carbon Iron
𝐅𝐞 lead
Lead
Zinc 𝐒𝐧 Copper cages
Iron 𝐏𝐛 silver securely
𝐇 guarded!
Tin Gold
𝐂𝐮
Lead 𝐀𝐠
Hydrogen 𝐀𝐮
𝐏𝐭
Copper
silver
Less reactive
Gold
Platinum

52
 Displacement Displacements Displacement with
with Water with Acids metal compounds
Steam
Potassium(K) K , Na , Ca react Dangerous / too More reactive metal
Sodium (Na) with cold water reactive / replaces a less active
giving: metal explodes metal from its oxide
Calcium (Ca) hydroxide + Ca to Pb displace or its salt
Hydrogen hydrogen from
Magnesium (Mg) Mg to Pb react acids giving :
Aluminium (Al) with steam giving Salt + Hydrogen
Carbon (C) : Meatl Oxide +
Zinc (Zn) Hydrogen
Iron (fe)
Tin (Sn)
Lead (Pb) No Reaction
Hydrogen (H) Below Hydrogen
Copper (Cu) in reactivity series No Reaction
Silver (Ag) , so can't displace Below Hydrogen
Gold (Au) it from its in RS , so can't
Platinium (Pt) compounds displace it from its
compounds

53
 Displacement reaction with water/ steam

Metal + Water → Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen

Metal + Steam → Metal Oxide + Hydrogen

Metal Equation Comment

K, Na, Ca 2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2 They react readily with cold water giving
Ca + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2 metal hydroxide& hydrogen
Mg Mg + 2H2O(𝑙) → Mg(OH)2 Reacts slowly with water giving metal
+ H2 hydroxide & hydrogen
Mg + H2O[𝑔] → MgO + H2
Reacts rapidly with Steam giving metal
oxide & hydrogen
Al 2Al + 3H2O → Al2O3 + 3H2 Aluminum Reacts with steam only after
removal of the protective oxide layer.
Zn → Fe Zn + H2O → ZnO + H2 React with steam only
Cu → p𝑡 No reaction with water as they are
below Hydrogen in reactivity so can't
displace it.

Metal + Acid → Salt + Hydrogen

Metal Equation Comment

K, Na
Ca → pb Ca + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2 They react with acids as they are above Hydrogen in
Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2
reactivity series so can displace it.
Fe + 2HNO3 → Fe(NO3)2 + H2
Ca → pt No reaction with acids as they are below Hydrogen in
reactivity so can’t displace it.

A more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its compound.

Example: Displacement reaction between Magnesium & Copper Sulfate

Magnesium + Copper Sulfate → Magnesium Sulfate + Copper

Mg + CuSO4 → MgSO4 + Cu
54
 Observations:
1. Blue color of solution fades
2. Silvery grey solid dissolves or
disappears
3. Reddish Brown solid
deposits/Forms

4-Precipitation

- It is a reaction in which an insoluble solid precipitate is formed when two

solutions are mixed together.

Example: forming silver chloride precipitate when sodium chloride \& sodium
nitrate solutions are mixed together

Silver Nitrate + Sodium Chloride → Silver Chloride (s) + Sodium Nitrate

AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3

55
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 8: Rates of ch. reactions

Topic 8
Reactions

⚫ Rate of Chemical reaction is a measure of how fast or slow a reaction is.

⚫ Rate = change in amount of reactants or products / time

⚫ Some reactions take few seconds while others may take thousands of years.

E.g: Reactions in fireworks takes few seconds, baking takes minutes, rusting may
take weeks while, change of plants & fish to fossils take thousands of years.

⚫ For a reaction to happen, particles of the reactants must collide with each
other with enough energy to react.

⚫ Any factor that will increase the kinetic energy of particles or make the
particles collide more often or Both will increase the rate of the reaction.

Factors Affecting The Rate Of The Reaction

1) Temperature 2) Concentration 3) Surface Area 4) Catalyst

Temperature:

When temperature increases, the rate of reaction increases

Because particles will move faster, collide more often & with more energy.

56
 Low Temperature High Temperature

Particles have less kinetic energy at Particles are more likely to collide
lower temperatures , so are less likely with sufficient energy to react and
to collide with sufficient energy to form products at higher temperatures
react

2) Concentration:

When Concentration of solution increases, the rate of reaction increases

Because there are more particles in a given volume so particles collide more often

Increase
Concentration

Here we have a few molecules Here we have many molecules

There are few collisions There are more collisions
The rate of reaction is low The rate of reaction is greater

When Surface area of solid increases, the rate of reaction increases

When particle size decreases, surface area increases, so particles collide more often.

57
 4) Catalyst:

⚫ It's a substance that increases rate of the reaction without being used up & it remains
unchanged at the end of the reaction.

⚫ Enyzmes are biological catalysts.

🟒Measuring Volume of gas produced per time.

: measuring volume of Hydrogen gas produced per time when Magnesium reacts
with hydrochloric acid

Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid → Magnesium Chloride + Hydrogen

𝐌𝐠(𝐬) + 𝟐𝐇𝐂𝐥(aq. )→ → 𝐌𝐠𝐂𝐥𝟐( aq.) + 𝐇𝟐(𝒈)

1. Add certain volume of the acid into the conical flask.

2. Add certain mass of Magnesium in a test tube hanging by a

thread into the conical flask.

3. Connect the conical flask to a gas syringe.

4. Push the test tube / drop the thread to start the reaction.

5. Use a stop watch to measure time

6. Measure the volume of Hydrogen produced per minute.

7. Record the results in a table & draw a graph to display the results.

58
 From the Graph, We can conclude that:

1) The reaction stopped at minute 5

2) Average Rate of Reaction = Total Volume of Hydrogen / Total time taken
= 20cm3/5min. = 4cm3/min.

measuring volume of Oxygen gas produced per time when Hydrogen peroxide
decomposes in presence of Manganese Oxide catalyst.

Hydrogen Peroxide → Water + Oxygen

𝟐𝐇𝟐𝐎𝟐( (aq.) ) → 𝟐𝐇𝟐𝐎(𝟏) + 𝐎𝟐(𝒈)

1. Add certain volume of Hydrogen peroxide to a conical flask.

2. Add certain mass of Manganese oxide (MnO2)catalyst.

3. Connect the conical flask to a delivery tube leading to an inverted measuring cylinder
filled with water.

4. Use a stop watch to measure time

5. Measure the volume of Hydrogen produced per minute.

6. Record the results in a table \& draw a graph to display the results.

59
 ⚫ The more catalyst you add, the faster the reaction is.

⚫ Catalyst remains unchanged at the end of the reaction.

We can prove that by measuring the mass of the catalyst before & after the reaction.
Mass should be the same.

Example: measuring decrease in mass per time when marble chips react with hydrochloric
acid

Calcium carbonate + Hydrochloric acid → Calcium Chloride + Water + Carbon dioxide

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq).) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(g) + CO2

1. Place certain mass of marble chips in a conical flask.

2. Add certain volume of Hydrochloric acid.

3. Note the mass of the flask before starting the reaction using a digital balance.

60
 4. Quickly plug the flask with a cotton wool. (to prevent splashing out of acid \& to allow
𝐂𝐎𝟐to escape).

5. Measure the mass of the flask each minute until the reaction is complete.

6. Mass decreases because 𝐂𝐎𝟐gas given off in the reaction escapes through the cotton
wool.

7. Record the results in a table & draw a graph to display the results.

1. Rate is fastest at the beginning of the reaction "steepest curve".

Because concentration of reactants is high, so there is large number of particles per unit
volume and more frequent collision.

61
 Checkpoint 2 Chemistry Topic 8: Rates of ch. reactions

2. Rate gradually decreases "less steep curve".

as concentration of reactants decreases. So there is less number of particles per unit volume
& less frequent collisions.

3. Rate becomes zero "flat curve" when the reaction is over.

as one or more of the reactants is used up. (the limiting reagent)

Effect of Changing factors on reaction rate graphs:

Blue line:
Adding catalyst.

Using Higher temperature or pressure, or surface area, or mass/

concentration of the excess reagent.

Redline:

Removing catalyst.

Using lower temperature or pressure, or surface area, or mass/

concentration of the excess reagent.

62