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DAA unit 1

The document provides a comprehensive overview of algorithms, their characteristics, and fundamental concepts in algorithmic problem solving. It outlines various algorithm design techniques, the analysis of algorithm efficiency, and the importance of data structures. Additionally, it discusses asymptotic notations for measuring and comparing algorithm performance.

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sainirushil3
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9 views

DAA unit 1

The document provides a comprehensive overview of algorithms, their characteristics, and fundamental concepts in algorithmic problem solving. It outlines various algorithm design techniques, the analysis of algorithm efficiency, and the importance of data structures. Additionally, it discusses asymptotic notations for measuring and comparing algorithm performance.

Uploaded by

sainirushil3
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Algorithms and Fundamental Concepts in Algorithmic Problem Solving

1. Algorithms

An algorithm is a well-defined, step-by-step computational procedure that takes


some input and produces an output. It consists of a finite sequence of operations to
solve a particular problem.
Characteristics of an Algorithm:

 Input: An algorithm takes zero or more inputs.

 Output: It produces at least one output.

 Definiteness: Each step must be clearly defined.

 Finiteness: It must terminate after a finite number of steps.

 Effectiveness: Each step must be simple enough to execute.

2. Fundamentals of Algorithmic Problem Solving

Algorithmic problem solving is a process that involves understanding the problem,


designing an efficient solution, implementing the solution, and analyzing its
performance.
Steps in Algorithmic Problem Solving:

1. Understanding the problem – Clearly define the input, output, and


constraints.
2. Devise a plan – Choose a suitable approach to solve the problem.
3. Design an algorithm – Create a step-by-step procedure.

4. Implement the algorithm – Write code based on the algorithm.

5. Analyze the algorithm – Evaluate its efficiency and correctness.

3. Basic Algorithm Design Techniques

Algorithm design techniques are general methods used to create algorithms. The
main techniques include:
(a) Brute Force

 The simplest approach where all possible solutions are checked.

 Example: Linear search, checking every element in an array.


(b) Divide and Conquer
 Divides a problem into smaller subproblems, solves them recursively, and
then combines the solutions.

 Example: Merge sort, Quick sort, Binary search.


(c) Greedy Algorithm

 Makes the locally optimal choice at each step with the hope of finding a global
optimum.

 Example: Dijkstra’s shortest path algorithm, Huffman encoding.


(d) Dynamic Programming

 Solves complex problems by breaking them into overlapping subproblems


and solving each subproblem only once.

 Example: Fibonacci sequence, Knapsack problem.


(e) Backtracking

 Tries all possible solutions and abandons those that fail constraints.

 Example: N-Queens problem, Sudoku solver.


(f) Randomized Algorithms

 Uses random numbers to make decisions.

 Example: QuickSort (with randomized pivot selection).

4. Analyzing Algorithms

Algorithm analysis is the process of evaluating the efficiency of an algorithm in terms


of time and space complexity.
Factors to Consider:

 Correctness: Does the algorithm always produce the right output?

 Time Complexity: How does the execution time grow with input size?

 Space Complexity: How much memory does it use?

 Scalability: How well does the algorithm perform on large inputs?

5. Fundamental Data Structures

Data structures are ways of organizing and storing data efficiently.


(a) Linear Data Structures
These data structures store elements sequentially.
 Arrays: Fixed-size, indexed collection of elements.

 Linked Lists: Collection of nodes with pointers.

 Stacks: Follows LIFO (Last-In-First-Out).

 Queues: Follows FIFO (First-In-First-Out).

(b) Graphs and Trees

 Trees: Hierarchical structure with parent-child relationships.

o Example: Binary Search Tree (BST), AVL Tree.


 Graphs: A set of vertices (nodes) connected by edges.

o Example: Adjacency matrix and adjacency list representation.

6. Fundamentals of the Analysis of Algorithm Efficiency

Algorithm efficiency is measured based on input size and execution time.


(a) Measuring Input Size

 The size of the input affects the performance of the algorithm.

 Example: Sorting an array of size nnn.


(b) Units for Measuring Running Time

 Actual Time: The real execution time.

 Number of Basic Operations: Counting the fundamental operations


performed.
(c) Order of Growth

 Describes how the running time increases with input size.

 Common growth rates: Constant, Logarithmic, Linear, Quadratic, Exponential.

7. Worst-Case, Best-Case, and Average-Case Efficiencies

(a) Worst-Case Complexity

 Maximum time taken for any input of size nnn.

 Example: Searching an element not present in an array.


(b) Best-Case Complexity
 Minimum time taken for some input of size nnn.

 Example: Searching for the first element in an array.


(c) Average-Case Complexity

 Expected time over all possible inputs.

8. Asymptotic Notations and Basic Efficiency Classes

Asymptotic notation helps describe the efficiency of algorithms mathematically.


(a) O(Big-O) Notation
 Definition: Provides an upper bound on the running time.

 Example: If an algorithm runs in at most c⋅f(n)c \cdot f(n)c⋅f(n), we write it as


O(f(n))O(f(n))O(f(n)).
 Example: Binary search is O(log⁡n)O(\log n)O(logn).

(b) Ω(Big-Omega) Notation

 Definition: Provides a lower bound on the running time.

 Example: If an algorithm takes at least c⋅f(n)c \cdot f(n)c⋅f(n), we write it as


Ω(f(n))\Omega(f(n))Ω(f(n)).
(c) Θ(Big-Theta) Notation

 Definition: Provides a tight bound (both upper and lower) on the running
time.
 Example: If an algorithm runs in both O(f(n))O(f(n))O(f(n)) and
Ω(f(n))\Omega(f(n))Ω(f(n)), it is Θ(f(n))\Theta(f(n))Θ(f(n)).

9. Useful Properties Involving Asymptotic Notations

 Transitivity: If f(n)=O(g(n))f(n) = O(g(n))f(n)=O(g(n)) and g(n)=O(h(n))g(n) =


O(h(n))g(n)=O(h(n)), then f(n)=O(h(n))f(n) = O(h(n))f(n)=O(h(n)).
 Addition Rule: O(f(n)+g(n))O(f(n) + g(n))O(f(n)+g(n)) simplifies to
O(max⁡(f(n),g(n)))O(\max(f(n), g(n)))O(max(f(n),g(n))).

 Multiplication Rule: O(f(n)⋅g(n))=O(f(n))⋅O(g(n))O(f(n) \cdot g(n)) = O(f(n))


\cdot O(g(n))O(f(n)⋅g(n))=O(f(n))⋅O(g(n)).

10. Using Limits for Comparing Orders of Growth


To compare the growth of functions, we use limits:

lim⁡n→∞f(n)g(n)\lim_{n \to \infty} \frac{f(n)}{g(n)}n→∞limg(n)f(n)


 If limit = 0: f(n)=o(g(n))f(n) = o(g(n))f(n)=o(g(n)) (grows slower than g).

 If limit is constant: f(n)=Θ(g(n))f(n) = \Theta(g(n))f(n)=Θ(g(n)) (same order of


growth).
 If limit = infinity: f(n)=ω(g(n))f(n) = \omega(g(n))f(n)=ω(g(n)) (grows faster
than g).

Conclusion

Understanding algorithms, their analysis, and different data structures is crucial for
solving computational problems efficiently. Asymptotic notations provide a
mathematical way to compare algorithm efficiency and help in selecting the best
algorithm for a given problem.

Would you like examples or explanations on any specific concept? 😊

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