761 UNIT 5

GRAMMAR NOTES EXAMPLES

1. Modals are auxiliary verbs. The modals are can, • I/You/He/ She /We/They could
could. had better. may, might. must, ought to, shlJ11. take some flowers.
should, will, and would. Each modal has only one
form for all persons.

Use shnple modals (modal + base form) for the • We should invite Jim to the party
present and the future. tonight.

Use perfect modals (modal + have + past participle) • We should have invited Jim to last
to show degrees of necessity io the past. week's party too.

When referriog to degrees of necessity, modals show • You could invite them over.
speakers' attitudes toward the actions they are • You should leave early.
describing. Modals are used to talk about
obligations. advice, expectations, and suggestions.

2. Some modal-UJre expressions have meaniogs • You must fInIsh everythiog on your
similar to modals: plate. / You have to fInIsh
everythiog on your plate.
must have to
• You should take a gift. / You're
should be supposed to supposed to take a gift.

3. Use must. have to, and have got to to show strong • You must / have to / have got to
necessity. They are similar io meaniog. arrive on time.

USAGE NO'l1lS

Use must formally to show very strong obligation A: You mean you must eat
that can't be escaped. everythiog they offer you?
Use have to io all forms and situations, formal and B: No, you don't have to.
ioformal.
Use have got to informally in conversation. It is
rarely used io the negative. Use don't have to instead.

Use will have to to show future necessity. • Well have to invite them over to
our house.
Use 1uul to to show past necessity. • We felt we bad to take a gift.

~ BE CAllEFUL! Don't use must have + past participle to • We bad to leave.

show past necessity. NOT We must R8'18 left.
 Modals to Express Degrees ofNeassity I 77

4. Use must not to say that it is necessary not to do • You must not smoke here.
something (that it is prohibited).

~ BE CAREFUL! Although must and have to have similar • We must not miss the flight.
meanings, must not and don't have to have very NOT We BSR't ha. e ts miss the
different meanings. For don't have 10, see flight.
note 9.

5. Use had better to give a warning that something bad • We'd better get going, or we'll be
or negative will happen if advice isn't followed. late.
• You'd better not discuss politics
during dinner.

6. Use should or ought to to offer advice. They mean "it • You should I ought to refuse
would be a good idea if . . ." and are basically the gently.
same in most situations. Use should, not oughl to, in A: Should I invite a guest?
questions and negatives.
B: No, you shouldn't.
Use should have I ought to have to express advice • You should I ought to have done
about past situations. Should have and oughl 10 have that the first time.
suggest that the action did not happen. Shouldn't • You shouldn't I ought not to have
have and ought not to have suggest that it did. mentioned your gift.

NOTE: We sometimes use shall in questions to ask for A: Shall we get them some
advice. In this meaning, shall is used only with I or flowers?
we. When it is used with we, it is often followed by a
B: Yes, let's do that.
sentence with lets. In this meaning, shall is somewhat
similar to should.

7. Use be supposed to to show an expectation. It is used • You're supposed to take off your
only in the present and the past. In the past, the shoes when you enter a Japanese
affirmative suggests that the action didn't happen. home.
The negative suggests that the action did happen. • We were supposed to take
flowers.
• We weren't supposed to mention
the gift we'd brought.
You can use be to + base form formally to express a • All employees are to attend the
strong expectation. company office party.
• You're not to ask any personal
questions.

(continued)
781 UNITS

8. Use could or might to make polite, not-too-strong • You could I might take them some
suggestions about the present or future. chocolates.

Use could have I might have + past participle to • You could have I might have
make polite suggestions about a past opportunity. In taken some flowers.
this meaning, might have and could have mean that
the action didn't happen.

9. To say that something is not necessary; use don't I • You don't have to eat everything
doesn't have to. offered to you.

In the past, use didn't have to + base form to show • You didn't have to bring a gift.
that something was not necessary.

11 Focused Practice
~ DISCOVER THE GRAMMAR

Look at these sentences. Each sentence can be said in another, similar way. Circfe the letter
ofthe choice that Is closer in meaning to the sentence given.
1. We knew that you're supposed to take off your shoes when you enter a Japanese home, so we did.
@Japanese people expect guests to remove their shoes.
b. It doesn't matter whether or not you wear your shoes in a Japanese home.
2. Well, you should have wrapped the CD.
a. You wrapped the CD, and that was the right thing to do.
b. You didn't wrap the CD, and that was a cultural mistake in Japan.
3. And you mustn't say anything about the gift.
a. It's sometimes acceptable to say something about the gift.
b. It's definitely wrong to say anything about the gift.
4. Or you could have taken some flowers.
a. Flowers are an acceptable gift in Japan, but the author and his wife didn't take any.
b. The author and his wife made a cultural mistake by not taking flowers.
5. According to the rules of Japanese culture, visitors aren't allowed to go into the kitchen.
a. The Japanese expect visitors to stay out of the kitchen.
b. It's OK for visitors to go into a Japanese kitchen.
 Modals to Express Degrees of Neassity I~

6. H you do, your Japanese hosts might feel they have to give the object to you.
a. Japanese hosts might feel a strong obligation to give the object to you.
b. Japanese hosts might feel they can choose not to give the object to you.
7. When a Japanese host invites you to have a drink at the end of the evening, you should refuse
gently.
a. The hosts don't expect you to refuse gently.
b. It's a good idea to refuse gently.
8. Yes, you ought to do that.
a. It doesn't matter whether you do that.
b. It would be a good idea to do that.
9. Junichi says you are not to do this in Japan.
a. People won't care if you do this in Japan.
b. It's a cultural mistake to do this in Japan.

2 SHOULD WE LEAVE A TIP? Grammar Nates 3, 6-9

Read this conversation between Fumiko, a visiting exchange student, and herAmerican
friend Jane. Complete the conversation with items from the box. Use each item once.

:ID' you SGppesed-w=llla¥e- could have left don't have to leave had to worry
ought to have given should we have left should you leave should you tip
supposed to do were supposed to leave you're supposed to do

JANE: Hi, Fumiko. How are things going?

FuMIKo: Really well. But there's something I wanted to ask you about.

JANE: OK. What?

FuMIKo: Tipping. I just don't understand it. Are you supposed to leave a tip
1.
everywhere you eat? This is really bothering me. I've never
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ about this before. We don't tip in Japan.
2.
JANE: You don't?
FuMIKO: No. You're not really that. It's all included in
3.
the service charge.

JANE: Tell me more. Have you had a problem with this?

(continued)
80 I UNrr 5

FuMlKo: Yeah. Last week a Chinese friend of mine and I had dinner at a restaurant. We knew

we ----=- a tip, but we didn't know how much.

4.

JAN!!: How much did you leave?

FuMlKo: About 25 percent. ---,-- more?
s.
JANE: Wow! Twenty-five percent. That's a lot. The service must have been really good.

FuMlKo: Actually, it wasn't. The waiter was pretty rude. . . and slow.

JANE: Well, if you're not really satisfied with the service, you

_ _ _ _ _ _:-- anything.
6.
FuMlKo: So how much ----;:- the waiter if you're satisfied?
7.
JANE: Between 15 and 20 percent. Fifteen is the usual.

FuMlKo: Hmmm. OK. Now here's another question. I'm confused about what

______----;:- if you're sitting at a lunch counter instead of

8.
at a table. -;:- anything for the person behind the
9.

counter?

JAN!!: It's a nice gesture. Why do you ask?

FuMlKo: Yesterday I had lunch at a cafeteria counter. The waitress was really nice and polite. I
felt like I her something.
10.
JAN!!: Did you?
FuMlKo: No.

JAN!!: Well, you --,-,- something. Maybe 5 to 10 percent.

11.
FuMlKo: Oh. OK. Next time I will.