Carlos Hilado Memorial State University

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Civil Engineering Department

STRUC1 302 – Structural Theory 1

STRUCTURAL LOADS

2.1 Introduction

Structures must be proportioned so that they will not fail or deform excessively under load.
Therefore, an engineer must take great care to anticipate the probable loads a structure must carry. Although
the design loads specified by the codes are generally satisfactory for most buildings, the designer must also
decide if these loads apply to the specific structure under consideration.

2.2 Specifications and Building Codes

A code is a set of technical specifications and standards that control major details of analysis,
design, and construction of buildings, equipment, and bridges. The purpose of codes is to produce safe,
economical structures so that the public will be protected from poor or inadequate design and construction.

Two types of codes exist. One type, called a structural code, is written by engineers and other
specialists who are concerned with the design of a particular class of structure (e.g., buildings, highway
bridges, or nuclear power plants) or who are interested in the proper use of a specific material (steel,
reinforced concrete, aluminum, or wood). Typically, structural codes specify design loads, allowable
stresses for various types of members, design assumptions, and requirements for materials. Examples of
structural codes frequently used by structural engineers internationally include the following:

1. LRFD Bridge Design Specifications by the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) cover the design and analysis of highway bridges.
2. Manual for Railway Engineering by the American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of
Way Association (AREMA) covers the design and analysis of railroad bridges.
3. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318) by the American Concrete
Institute (ACI) cover the analysis and design of concrete structures.
4. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings by the American Institute of Steel Construction
(AISC) covers the analysis and design of steel structures.
5. National Design Specification for Wood Construction by the American Forest & Paper
Association (AFPA) covers the analysis and design of wood structures.

Here in the Philippines, engineers are using the National Structural

Code of the Philippines (NSCP) – (see photo). The purpose of this code is
to provide minimum requirements for the design of buildings, towers and
other vertical structures, and minimum standards and guidelines to
safeguard life or limb, property and public welfare by regulating and
controlling the design, construction and quality of materials pertaining to
the structural aspects of all buildings and structures within this jurisdiction.

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 The second type of code, called a building code, is established to cover construction in a given
region. A building code contains provisions pertaining to architectural, structural, mechanical, and electrical
requirements. The objective of a building code is also to protect the public by accounting for the influence
of local conditions on construction. Those provisions of particular concern to the structural designer cover
such topics as soil conditions (bearing pressures), live loads, wind pressures, snow and ice loads, and
earthquake forces. Today many building codes adopt the provisions of the ASCE/SEI 7-16 Standard,
Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures, published by the
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) or the more recent International Building Code by the
International Code Council.

Building codes exist for the purpose of protecting public health, safety, and welfare in the
construction and occupancy of buildings and structures, and do so by sets of rules specifying the minimum
loads and requirements. Their improvement unfortunately sometimes follows lessons from disasters. For
instance, the 1666 London Fire destroyed over 80 percent of the city’s homes and gave way to the first
thorough building code. In the United States, it was not until after the destructive 1906 San Francisco and
1933 Long Beach Earthquakes that California set in motion. Even today, recent disastrous tsunamis in
Indonesia and Japan have highlighted the need for consideration of tsunami wave and flooding loads.
Engineers and scientists, however, are continuously working to develop building codes ahead of potential
future problems.

Here in the Philippines, the National Building Code of the Philippines (PD 1096). It is the policy
of the state that safeguard life, health, property, and public welfare, consistent with the principles of
environmental management and control. It is a framework of minimum standards and requirements by
guiding, regulating and controlling their location, siting, design, quality of materials, construction, use,
occupancy, and maintenance, including their environment, utilities, fixtures, equipment, mechanical and
electrical and other systems and installations.

2.3 Types of Structural Loads

Structural loads are forces or other actions that result from the weight of all building materials,
occupants and their possessions, environmental effects, differential movements, and restrained dimensional
changes.

1. Dead loads

Dead loads consist of the weights of the various structural members and the weights of
any objects that are permanently attached to the structure. Hence, for a building, the dead loads
include the weights of the columns, beams, and girders, the floor slab, roofing, walls, windows,
plumbing, electrical fixtures, and other miscellaneous attachments.

2. Live Loads

Live Loads can vary both in their magnitude and location.

• The floors of buildings are assumed to be subjected to uniform live loads, which
depend on the purpose for which the building is designed.
• The primary live loads on bridge spans are those due to traffic.

3. Wind Loads

When structures block the flow of wind, the wind’s kinetic energy is converted into
potential energy of pressure, which causes a wind loading.

4. Earthquake Loads/Seismic Loads

Earthquakes produce loadings on a structure through its interaction with the ground and
its response characteristics. These loadings result from the structure’s distortion caused by the
ground’s motion and the lateral resistance of the structure.

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 5. Impact Loads

Impact loads are sudden or rapid loads applied on a structure over a relatively short period
of time compared with other structural loads. They cause larger stresses in structural members than
those produced by gradually applied loads of the same magnitude. Examples of impact loads are
loads from moving vehicles, vibrating machinery, or dropped weights.

Structural System for Transmitting Loads

Floor Framing System

Roof Framing System

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One-Way Slab vs Two-Way Slab

One-way and Two-Way Distribution of Loads

Example:

Sketch the tributary area for beam AB, BE, EH, HI, CF and JK of the typical floor plan shown.

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Example:

Sketch the tributary area for column A, E, G, H and K of the typical floor plan of the building
shown.

Distribution of Loads

Example:

The slab carries a service load of 5 kPa. Perform a basic structural analysis of the beam.

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Solution:

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Example:

The slab carries a service load of 6.5 kPa. Perform a basic structural analysis of the system.

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2.4 Dead Loads

Dead loads consist of the weight of all materials of construction incorporated into the building or
other structure, including but not limited to walls, floors, roofs, ceilings, stairways, built-in partitions,
finishes, cladding and other similarly incorporated architectural and structural items, and fixed service
equipment, including the weight of cranes (Section 204, NSCP 2015).

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Example:

Determine the linear weight/self weight of a

reinforced concrete rectangular beam with dimension of 300
mm x 500 mm.

Solution:

Example:

Calculate the linear weight of the reinforced concrete

barrier shown below.

Solution:

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Example:

Determine the corresponding line loads of the following walls:

a) Window Glass Frame and Sash, 3.5 m high

b) Exterior Stud Wall 50 x 100 @ 400 mm, 15 mm gypsum, insulated 10
mm sliding, 5.0 m high
c) Movable Steel Partition, 4.5 m high
d) 4” Clay brick, 2.7 m high
e) 6” CHB, Plastered on both faces, full grout using 19.6 kN/m3 density
of grouting material, 4 m high

Solution:

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Example:

A 5” floor slab (125 mm) is made of stone concrete. The floor is finished using ceramic
tile on 13 mm mortar bed. A 13 mm acoustic fiber board is installed in the ceiling below the slab.
What is the total dead load carried by the slab (in kPa)?

Solution:

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