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RT50554_half title 4/12/06 2:04 PM Page 1

Negotiating the
Complexities of
Qualitative
Research In Higher
Education
RT50554_Prelims.indd ii 3/1/06 12:02:26 AM
RT50554_title page 4/12/06 2:02 PM Page 1

Negotiating the
Complexities of
Qualitative
Research In Higher
Education
Fundamental Elements and Issues

Susan R. Jones  Vasti Torres  Jan Arminio

New York London

Routledge is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
RT50554_Discl.fm Page 1 Wednesday, January 4, 2006 11:56 AM

Published in 2006 by Published in Great Britain by

Routledge Routledge
Taylor & Francis Group Taylor & Francis Group
270 Madison Avenue 2 Park Square
New York, NY 10016 Milton Park, Abingdon
Oxon OX14 4RN

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Routledge is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
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International Standard Book Number-10: 0-415-95055-4 (Softcover)
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-415-95055-8 (Softcover)
Library of Congress Card Number 2005034351
No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only
for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Jones, Susan R., 1957-

Negotiating the complexities of qualitative research in higher education : fundamental elements
and issues / Susan R. Jones, Vasti Torres, and Jan Arminio.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-415-95055-4 (pb : alk. paper)
1. Research. I. Torres, Vasti, 1960-. II. Arminio, Jan L. III. Title.

Q180.A1J645 2006
001.4--dc22 2005034351

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

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Taylor & Francis Group and the Routledge Web site at
is the Academic Division of Informa plc. http://www.routledge-ny.com
 DEDICATION

To those from whom we learned

And those we hope to teach
In the circle of teaching and learning,
We dedicate this book

RT50554_Prelims.indd v 3/1/06 12:02:26 AM

RT50554_Prelims.indd vi 3/1/06 12:02:26 AM
 CONTENTS

Preface ix
Chapter 1 Situating the Research: First Steps 1
Chapter 2 Research Design 37
Chapter 3 Perspectives on Sampling 63
Chapter 4 Continuity and Congruence in the Research Process 83
Chapter 5 Interpretation and Representation: The Influence
of Social Identities on the Research Process 101
Chapter 6 Ensuring Goodness of Qualitative Research 117
Chapter 7 Choices and Consequences of Mixing Methods
in Qualitative Research 135
Chapter 8 Ethical Issues 153
Chapter 9 What Is It to Work Qualitatively? 175
References 193
Index 205

vii

RT50554_TOC.indd vii 3/2/06 2:20:48 AM

RT50554_TOC.indd viii 3/2/06 2:20:49 AM
 PREFACE

The seeds for the idea of this book were planted through some admit-
tedly bad behavior on our part—passing notes at a professional meet-
ing. We were all members of an editorial board and were reviewing a
number of manuscripts professing to utilize qualitative methodology.
The subject of our notes revealed that all three of us were concerned
about the methodological quality of many submissions. We wondered
what we might do to improve the methodological goodness of qualita-
tive work. It was important to us to engage this question by providing
an accessible text that also illuminated the complex nature of qualitative
research. This was a guiding principle that served as the foundation for
this book. Another primary motivation for the creation of this book is
that we believe that the ultimate purpose of conducting research is to
create a pathway to greater good and social action. By this we mean that
research ought to result in greater understanding of complex phenom-
ena and that higher education can offer pathways to improved quality
of life, particularly for those whose experiences and life situations are
understudied and devalued in mainstream society. We wanted to make
apparent how research can contribute to this goal.
Why is a book on qualitative research particular to the context
of higher education necessary? First, due to their very nature, good
qualitative studies can assist higher education in meeting learning goals
and produce learning outcomes for students, especially those whose

ix

RT50554_C000.indd ix 3/1/06 12:03:23 AM

 x •Preface

voices have been silenced or made difficult to hear within quantitative

research. Also, higher education institutions play a critical role in
preparing students as researchers. This occurs through classroom
instruction as well as in research endeavors outside the classroom.
To meet the accountability demands of stakeholders, the public and
governing bodies are requiring higher education practitioners and
institutional researchers to assess if educational goals are being met.
Increasingly, such assessments are utilizing both quantitative and
qualitative methodologies. Consequently, conducting sound assessment
studies has important implications for institutions in their training of
practitioners and scholars. Moreover, faculty members who conduct
scholarly research, whether qualitative or quantitative, often use the
higher education context as a setting for their work. Other texts have
addressed assessment in higher education; our focus is on qualitative
research, although we recognize that qualitative methods are often used
in assessment work. As qualitative research becomes a more accepted
means of conducting inquiry, it is critical that a common and clear
understanding of the complexities that encompass qualitative inquiry
exists so that more sophisticated research influences the developments
and new initiatives in higher education. Here we offer insight into how
these complexities are negotiated.
As we worked on this book, we realized that we were in fact mirror-
ing the process of “working qualitatively.” As coauthors working collab-
oratively to write a book, we brought to this process our own individual
insights and experiences; we listened to each others’ descriptions and
perspectives, made decisions, and created a common understanding
only after challenging and supporting each others’ perspectives. We be-
came much more reflective about our journeys as qualitative researchers
and how the nature of the journey influences our work as researchers
now. In fact, we structured the last chapter of this book through our own
individual stories about our evolving understandings of what it means
to work qualitatively.
We acknowledge that we came to this project from different life ex-
periences, learned about qualitative research in different ways, and of-
fered different interpretations of qualitative inquiry. Indeed, our own
worldviews influenced all dimensions of this project—we referred to
Jan as the “phenomenological mom” because her very being is phenom-
enological; Vasti was always very direct and to the point in her writing;
and Susan took the long way around, using metaphors to tell her story.
We have disagreed, negotiated, and settled on when and how to use
terms such as sample, rigor, validity, control, and goodness. We navigated
the tensions through our willingness to receive, sit with, and negotiate

RT50554_C000.indd x 3/1/06 12:03:25 AM

 Preface • xi

differing assumptions, biases, and opinions. We came to a better and

deeper understanding of the taken-for-granted aspects of our previous
work. However, what drew us together, and continues to sustain us, is a
commitment to provide a useful text that presents the complexities of
qualitative research, including its philosophical and theoretical founda-
tions, and offers direction for good qualitative work. We did not want to
write a simple book because we don’t think qualitative research is simple
at all. Instead, we hope to cultivate an appreciation for the complexity
and ambiguity of this work and ways to think through the questions and
tensions that undoubtedly emerge in the qualitative research process.
In acknowledging our differing worldviews, experiences, and train-
ing in qualitative research, those using this book may note that chapters
are written in different voices and styles. This is most likely because, al-
though we were all involved in the conceptualization and outline of each
chapter and in the careful editing of every chapter as it was written, one
of us took the lead in writing each chapter. We believe this approach is a
strength of the book because it enabled us to bring multiple perspectives
to bear in each chapter as well as to give the reader a glimpse into the
great variety in writing styles and strategies associated with qualitative
research. Writing the book in this way also enabled us to tap into our
strengths and areas of research expertise as well as to stretch into new
areas not treated as fully in other resources on qualitative research. We
drew heavily on these other sources and do not view our book as the
only book on qualitative research that a new researcher should read.
Our goal is to help the researcher through the complexities of the re-
search process—this, we believe, is new territory for an introductory
text on qualitative research. However, many of the topics we cover are
treated in greater depth in other works, and we highly recommend that
those be read as well.
Although the conceptual approach to the book is one of negotiat-
ing complexities, the organizational approach is intended to mirror the
process of designing a qualitative study. Chapters 1 and 2 focus on situ-
ating yourself as a researcher within an epistemological worldview and
the research questions and methodological approaches that flow from
that worldview. Chapters 3 and 4 take you through the process of iden-
tifying participants, or “sampling,” and making connections between all
elements of the research design. All the chapters in the book, and par-
ticularly these early ones, emphasize the importance of decision making
in the research process. Every step of the way, the researcher is mak-
ing decisions—regarding research questions, who is in the sample, what
kinds of questions to ask in interviews, how to analyze data, and so on.
Our approach is to emphasize the importance of intentionality in these

RT50554_C000.indd xi 3/1/06 12:03:26 AM

 xii •Preface

decisions and the relationship of these decisions to chosen theoretical

perspectives and methodological choices.
The remaining chapters emphasize issues we believe are important
to consider in conducting qualitative research. Chapter 5 provides in-
sights into issues of positionality and power, and how these dynamics
influence our roles as researchers. Chapter 6 summarizes the elements
required to conduct “good” research by examining criteria for goodness
and trustworthiness that are used to judge the worthiness of qualitative
studies. Chapter 7 provides an overview of issues involved in mixing
methods, a topic rarely discussed in qualitative research texts. Although
some purists may object to the inclusion of such a chapter, we believe
that many researchers claim to mix methods by simply adding a few
open-ended questions on the end of a survey. This does not constitute
mixed methods research because there is no evidence of grappling with
the complexity that comes with mixing methods. As a result, clarification
about what it means to mix methods and how to manage the tensions
is warranted. Chapter 8 addresses ethical issues inherent in the process
of research, particularly in qualitative research, which typically involves
the process of understanding others. Each of these chapters concludes
with an exercise for readers to apply what was presented in the chapter
to a research design. The final chapter, Chapter 9, illustrates our own
learning about what it means to “work qualitatively.” Here we offer our
own stories about how we came to work as qualitative researchers and
then provide a narrative analytic rendering of what can be learned from
our stories.
We recognize the seemingly contradictory and ironic twist in a title
that includes both the phrases negotiating complexities and fundamental
elements. Fundamentals imply building blocks and neat recipes to fol-
low, whereas complexities suggest ambiguity, challenges, and troubling
taken-for-granted assumptions. Indeed, we are navigating in the space
in between simplification and theoretical sophistication. We know there
are trade-offs in our approach, but were guided in our work by an over-
arching commitment to produce a text that was useful and accessible
to beginning qualitative researchers, while also engaging readers in the
complex issues that emerge when conducting such research. We hope
you will let us know how we have succeeded in this effort.
No book is ever produced as a completely solitary endeavor. In our
case, we are far from solitude! Not only were we engaged in a highly col-
laborative process among the three of us, but we were also supported by
others who provided feedback, proofreading, and general expressions of
support. Two individuals read the entire book and provided very help-
ful critique and feedback: Anne Krabacher, a doctoral student in higher

RT50554_C000.indd xii 3/1/06 12:03:26 AM

 Preface • xiii

education and student affairs, and Patti Lather, professor and scholar in
the area of qualitative inquiry, both at The Ohio State University. When
we were trying to determine if we could make Chapter 9 work, Marylu
McEwen from the University of Maryland provided a careful read and
very useful feedback. Graduate students and colleagues read more of the
book than they cared to but were very generous with their time and gra-
cious in providing feedback and technical and logistical support. These
individuals include: Danielle De Sawal and Ebelia Hernandez from
Indiana University; Heidi Clark, Michael Penwell, and Kurt Kraus from
Shippensburg University; Elisa Abes from Miami University; and Allen
Delong from Bowdoin College. We also want to thank our three anony-
mous reviewers for their insightful and helpful feedback on the pro-
spectus for the book and the entire manuscript. And to our colleagues
from The Ohio State University, the University of Maryland, Indiana
University, and Shippensburg University, we seek forgiveness for what
we left undone while writing this book and give thanks for what we were
able to accomplish with their guidance and support.

Susan R. Jones
University of Maryland
Vasti Torres
Indiana University
Jan Arminio
Shippensburg University

RT50554_C000.indd xiii 3/1/06 12:03:27 AM

RT50554_C000.indd xiv 3/1/06 12:03:27 AM
 1
SITUATING THE RESEARCH: FIRST STEPS

Many beginnings are precarious. “The problem of the beginning is, in

fact, the problem of the end. For it is with respect to an end that a begin-
ning is defined” (Gadamer, 1960/1989, p. 472). How does a researcher
negotiate the precariousness of beginning a study? How does one arrive
at a completed, worthy qualitative study? We believe it is imperative that
those who engage in qualitative inquiry address its fundamental and
complex defining features. These features include situating the research
in a grounding perspective; being congruent in the research design and
in how one selects, interprets, and represents participants; making choic-
es and managing the consequences of mixing methods; and, of course,
meeting obligations of ethics and goodness (i.e., criteria for determin-
ing a worthy, well-designed, and well-implemented study). Negotiating
these complex features determines the quality and worthiness of the
research study, yet these features in particular are often overlooked by
many researchers who attempt to conduct qualitative studies.
We begin this discussion by exploring the fundamental consid-
erations of situating research. To situate a study means to “anchor” it
(Jones, 2002, p. 463). This is a process that identifies a series of choices

RT50554_C001.indd 1 4/1/06 10:08:35 AM

 2 • Negotiating the Complexities of Qualitative Research

that include deciding upon an area of interest, a grounding perspec-

tive or worldview, a theoretical framework and perspective, a question,
a purpose (e.g., research, assessment, or evaluation), and a relationship
with the topic and participants. Studies that are not situated or anchored
run adrift, ramble, become lost, and are without direction. In this chap-
ter, the immediate considerations for negotiating necessary decisions to
situate a study are explored and corresponding examples are offered,
including the decision making of a fictitious researcher, “Michael,” as he
situates his study.

CONSIDERATION 1: SITUATING THE STUDY

WITHIN A COMPELLING INTEREST
One of the first considerations in situating a study is to reflect upon
what issue or topic is sufficiently compelling that causes “me” to want to
contemplate more about it. What is it that presses upon me in a way that
necessitates I understand it more? What unknown deters my practice,
my community, my society?
The intent of qualitative research is to illuminate and better un-
derstand in depth the rich lives of human beings and the world in
which we live. Hence, one’s compelling interest must reflect this depth.
Thoroughness and explicitness should be balanced with what Marshall
and Rossman (1999) called the “do-ability” of a study (p. 9), or the feasi-
bility that a study can be completed considering the resources available,
purpose, and researcher competence.
Compelling interests that lead to unsettled questions are typically
related to our life experiences. This is not to be avoided. Marshall and
Rossman (1999) referred to this as the “want-to-do-ability” of a study (p.
10), and it is directly related to one of the central features of qualitative
research, the researcher-as-instrument (Lincoln & Guba, 1986; Patton,
2002). Qualitative inquiry requires the researcher to become embedded
in context and responsive to what is happening in that context. There
often is, and should be, a relationship between the researcher and the
researched. This reflects the passion that later becomes the research
question. Critics of qualitative research often refer to this relationship as
bias. The three of us believe this to be a strength of qualitative inquiry.
We will address this criticism in depth later in this chapter and in sub-
sequent chapters.
Let’s look at an example. In one of his graduate classes, Michael
studies campus environments. His reading assignments offer insight
into his own experiences of being physically threatened and feeling un-
welcome on campus. He finds that this literature supports and validates

RT50554_C001.indd 2 4/1/06 10:08:37 AM

 Situating the Research • 3

his feelings and experiences that safety is a broader notion than physical
safety. In a subsequent class on research design, Michael feels compelled
to study student safety on campus. Before deciding upon a particular
question or its wording, however, Michael has much to think about, in-
cluding his worldview about the generation of knowledge.
This brings us to consideration 2, and the question of how one’s
worldview about knowledge influences research decisions.

CONSIDERATION 2: SITUATING THE STUDY

WITHIN THE RESEARCHER’S WORLDVIEW
Researchers often err in deciding upon a research question premature-
ly. Researchers must first consider their view about how knowledge is
generated and the nature of reality. Jones (2002) noted that conducting
qualitative research is both a blessing and a burden. Certainly the en-
richment that researchers gain from the research process is one of the
blessings, and, as Jones noted, researchers’ responsibilities to those with
whom they come into contact are significant. The “burden” comes in
the need to understand the complexity of philosophy and theory upon
which qualitative research and its associated traditions are founded.
Negotiating these complexities may at times be burdensome. We en-
courage researchers to “lean” into these complexities. In fact, avoiding
them would be irresponsible. Yet, this “leaning into” takes consider-
able study. Thelin (2003) noted the historical utilitarian and pragmatic
aspects emphasized in American higher education. We believe these
aspects continue to influence higher education through the reluctance
of some practitioners and administrators to use theory to guide educa-
tional practice. Qualitative research is guided and influenced by theory.
To engage in qualitative research is to pay attention to philosophy and
theory. What differentiates this book from others, not particular to
education, is that we assist the pragmatic user in negotiating the com-
plexities of philosophy and theory for results that will be used in prag-
matic ways. We begin by discussing worldview and what we believe
are aspects of worldview including philosophy, epistemology, ontology,
and theory.
One’s worldview, or how a person perceives his or her relation to
the world, is associated with one’s culture and upbringing (Sue, Ivey, &
Pedersen, 1996). Obviously one’s worldview can be altered and matures
through life experiences, but it also can house consistent values and
concepts. It shapes one’s philosophical grounding. In this book, we refer
to philosophy as a system of fundamental principles that serve as a basis
for action (Berube, 1995). Philosophy, the study and search for wisdom,

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 4 • Negotiating the Complexities of Qualitative Research

is described as including the elements of logic, epistemology, ontology,

ethics, and metaphysics (Brightman, 1964; Durant, 1961; Honderich,
1995). Metaphysics at one time referred to the study of the ultimate re-
ality of all things including the study of existence (ontology) and the
study of the nature of knowledge (epistemology). However, Heidegger
(1926/1962) contested the notion of an ultimate reality of all things, a
grand objective narrative, or representative understanding (Bronner,
1999). Heidegger wrote, “We do not know what ‘Being’ means. But
even if we ask, ‘What is Being’?, we keep within an understanding of
the ‘is,’ though we are unable to fix conceptually what ‘is’ signifies” (p.
25). He stressed the necessity to “bring forward the entities themselves”
(Heidegger, 1926/1962, p. 61).
One’s worldview on the nature of existence and knowledge has im-
plications for how one will embark upon a study. For example, believing
that existence is an ultimate reality and knowledge a grand narrative, be-
lieving that existence is difficult to understand and that existence calls to
itself rather than is represented, or believing other notions of existence
and reality are important considerations in situating a study. “Ways of
knowing are inherently culture-bound” (Lather, 1991, p. 2). Consider
the traditional Russian wooden doll, where one very small doll is em-
bedded within a small doll, which is embedded in a medium-sized doll,
which is embedded in a larger doll; how data are analyzed and the ways
in which data are collected are determined by a particular methodology,
which is situated within a philosophical (that is, epistemological and
ontological) stance. Often, this is referred to as the researcher’s theoreti-
cal perspective.
Table 1.1 is an exercise to assist you in better understanding your
epistemological and ontological worldview. It describes a series of belief
statements listed in three columns. Circle those statements under the
columns A, B, and C that are most consistent with your own views of
knowledge and reality.
Is there a preponderance of circles in any one column? These state-
ments indicate aspects of worldview that will influence views on re-
search. There is also an activity at the end of this chapter that may help
you identify philosophical differences and their influence on scholar-
ship in higher education. Each column in Table 1.1 depicts a different
view of knowledge and existence. We have depicted three views here, as
have other scholars including Coomer and Hultgren (1989). However,
Sipe and Constable (1996) noted four “vantage points or places to stand”
(p. 162), and Lincoln and Guba (2000) indicated that four paradigmatic
positions exist. Welcome to the complexities of qualitative research!
Clearly, views of knowledge grounding research are dynamic and not to

RT50554_C001.indd 4 4/1/06 10:08:37 AM

 Table 1.1 Worldview Exercise

RT50554_C001.indd 5
A B C
Reality is a physical and observable Reality is constructed through local Reality is shaped by social, political,
event. human interaction. economic, and other values crystallized over
time.
The aim of research is to predict and The aim of research is increased under- The aim of research is transformation and
explain, generalizing results. standing of complex human phenomena emancipation to promote a humanity
to alter existing power relations. capable of controlling its destiny.
Truth is universal and verifiable; findings Truth is an agreement between members Truth is influenced by history and societal
are considered true. of a stakeholding community. structures.
The researcher can and should be Objectivity is impossible; rather, the The view of objectivity as a goal is harmful;
objective. researcher serves as an avenue for the rather, advocacy is the aim of research.
representation of multiple voices.
Good research is value free. Values are a means of understanding. Values are formative.
Researchers study a problem. Researchers live a question with Researchers transform with a community by
participants. imagining and helping to create alternatives.
It is through the voice and jurisdiction of It is through voices and acknowledgment It is through theoretical perspectives of
an expert that knowledge is gained. of both participants and a researcher societal structures in conjunction with the
that knowledge is gained. people who are most affected that
knowledge is gained.
The universe is human centered.
History is progress.

Source: Bronner (1999), Crotty (1998), Lincoln and Guba (2000), Maykut and Morehouse (2001), and Pinar, Reynolds, Slattery,
and Taubman (1995).
Situating the Research • 5

4/1/06 10:08:38 AM
 6 • Negotiating the Complexities of Qualitative Research

be seen as discrete categories mutually exclusive of each other (Crotty,

1998). It is beyond the scope of this book to delineate the intricate dif-
ferences of all the views on knowledge and existence. The point to take
away is that these views bring with them assumptions that influence
research questions, the purpose of research, and the interpretation of
research findings.
Statements in column A are descriptive of views that knowledge
and reality are universal and measurable. Terms associated with these
views include positivism and postpositivism (Crotty, 1998; Lincoln &
Guba, 2000), empiricism (Smith, 1993), empirical/analytical (Coomer &
Hultgren, 1989), and objectivism (Crotty, 1998), with an emphasis on
prediction. In column B, knowledge and existence are perceived and
constructed through human interaction and emphasize understanding.
The views represented in column B are often associated with the terms
interpretive (Coomer & Hultgren), constructivism (Lincoln & Guba,
2000), and constructionism (Crotty, 1998). Column C depicts the pur-
pose of knowledge as emancipation; meaning of the phenomenon of the
study is imposed, imported, or translated by the subject (Crotty). Terms
associated with these views include subjectivism (Crotty) or subjectiv-
ist (Lincoln & Guba, 2000) and critical science (Coomer & Hultgren).
Experienced researchers will notice the absence of a column or columns
portraying postmodernism, poststructuralism, and deconstruction.
Such a clearly laid-out structure seemed at odds with the main tenets of
these perspectives, so they are not represented here but will be discussed
later in the chapter. We will return to a more in-depth discussion of
these terms later. First, let’s turn to the terms qualitative and quantitative
and the worldviews they represent.
The statements in columns B and C are indicative of what is still
commonly referred to as qualitative research or the qualitative para-
digm. Crotty (1998) described the polar opposition of these terms as
the “great divide” (p. 14). Since the 1980s some researchers have been
moving away from these bipolar terms. Our dilemma here is whether
to use terms that novices will recognize or to use contemporary terms.
We will use the familiar terms, while encouraging the study and under-
standing of more current ones. The terms that one uses when referring
to knowledge creation are themselves indicative of a worldview, a multi-
dimensional one or one that can be simplified by two broad categories.
A discussion on how the broad polarities of quantitative and qualitative
research emerged will be helpful.
Thomas Kuhn (1970) used the Greek term paradeigma, meaning
pattern or model, to refer to basic patterns that scientists use to inter-
pret data. In this context, he defined paradigm as a model “from which

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 Situating the Research • 7

Figure 1.1

spring particular coherent traditions of scientific research” (p. 10). He

went on to write, “In short, consciously or not, the decision to employ a
particular piece of apparatus and to use it in a particular way carries an
assumption that only certain sorts of circumstance will arise” (p. 59). He
offered a number of examples of scientists whose work was ignored by
the established scientific community restricting new understanding. Such
scientists have included Copernicus, Galileo, Isaac Newton, and Albert
Einstein. According to Kuhn, Copernicus did not discover more data,
but rather he was able to imagine how the data might fit into a different
pattern. Kuhn employed Joseph Jastrow’s famous duck–rabbit picture*
as a metaphor of the paradigm shift debate. He concluded that once the
viewer has “seen” the new paradigm (or duck–rabbit), it is impossible to
forget it. This opened the possibility of asking, “What would data look like
from another perspective?” “What might the universe look like from the
perspective of the sun rather than the earth?” and “What new insights can
be offered by collecting data from a position of an ‘emic,’ or insider’s view
rather than the view of the authority observer?”
Through calling attention to the different ways of collecting and
viewing data, the concept of a knowledge paradigm has created an
overly simplistic distinction between new paradigm and old paradigm,
between rational and mythic, and between quantitative and qualitative
inquiry (Figure 1.1).

* There is some controversy as to who to credit for this drawing. Some, such as Kuhn, credit
Ludwig Wittgenstein (Philosophical Investigations, 1953), but Wittgenstein himself credited
Jastrow for the drawing published in Harper’s Weekly in 1892.

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 8 • Negotiating the Complexities of Qualitative Research

Postmodern, poststructuralist, and deconstruction scholars attack

this duality (Pinar, Reynolds, Slattery, & Taubman, 1995). Other dualities
they oppose include fact versus fiction and myth versus reality. They also
oppose and expose the construction of societal structures and distinctions
such as kinship, the adolescent, and the gifted (Pinar et al.). These theorists
will be discussed in greater detail later.
In situating a study within a worldview, researchers must become
aware of the philosophical stances that inform their perspectives.
Some beginning researchers say they embrace qualitative research
while not truly understanding “what it is they claim to be reject-
ing” or what it is they say they are embracing (Phallas, 2001, p. 10).
Gaining knowledge through qualitative research has only recently
become acceptable in research and assessment communities in the
United States as compared to quantitative means. Hence, most stu-
dents have been schooled in quantitative study design, but few have
received formal training in qualitative research and the philosophy
that grounds research.
As the differing views listed in Table 1.1 demonstrated, who we are
as people encompasses our beliefs about the nature of reality, truth, and
knowledge. These beliefs and theoretical perspectives define assump-
tions about the world and subsequently about the nature of research.
Kezar (2004) wrote that researchers should know the philosophy of
their worldview well enough to defend choosing it. She continued to
write that researchers should
engage in philosophical questions, write out assumptions about
the issue to be studied, investigate one’s own role as researcher,
consider the purpose of the research from the tradition they are
working in, [and] probe what they understand as the nature of
reality and how knowledge is developed. (p. 43)
What terms should researchers use to illustrate assumptions? Before
embarking further on situating one’s study, it is necessary that we take a
detour to discuss important terms and their definitions regarding quali-
tative inquiry.

Understanding Terms Necessary in Deciding How to Situate a Study

Crotty (1998) noted a lack of clarity and consistency in some of the fun-
damental grounding concepts of qualitative research. He wrote,
Research students and . . . even more seasoned campaigners—
often express bewilderment at the array of methodologies and

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 Situating the Research • 9

methods laid out before their gaze. . . . To add to the confusion,

the terminology is far from consistent in research literature and
social science texts. One frequently finds the same term in a num-
ber of different, sometimes even contradictory[,] ways. (p. 1)
To negotiate the complex fundamentals of qualitative research, we
believe that it is important to be familiar with the terms paradigm, epis-
temology, ontology, theoretical perspective, literature review/theoretical
framework, methodology, and method. However, these terms are some-
times defined and used differently by different scholars. Important
fundamental concepts are listed in Table 1.2 along with definitions of
notable research scholars. You will notice that some authors define
terms similarly, some terms are defined differently, and some scholars
refer to some of these concepts but not others.
Paradigm is rather consistently referred to as a set of interconnect-
ed or related assumptions or beliefs. It is also referred to as worldview.
Related assumptions about the acquisition of knowledge are referred to
as epistemology. Some scholars do not refer to epistemology, but those
who do define it as the origins, theory, or assumptions about knowl-
edge. Other scholars state what it is that epistemological questions il-
luminate, some scholars do not mention epistemology, and still others
do not define epistemology in their recent works but did so in earlier
works. Another set of related assumptions is associated with explana-
tions or questions about the nature or structure of reality or existence.
This is referred to as ontology.
Discussion about theory becomes more complicated because of its
many uses. Defined as a set of interrelated explanations, theory guides
a study, serves as a lens through which researchers view the world and
subsequently their research, and is created from research. Glesne (1999)
discussed levels of theories including substantive theories that have a
low level of abstraction and provide a rationale for new studies, general
theories that are used as a framework for discussing findings, and formal
theory that helps form ideas during the beginning process of making
meaning of data. Some scholars define theory, whereas others focus on
its purpose in research or how to create theory. Still other scholars refer
to theory created from previous research as informing researchers about
a topic through the process of a literature review. What is consistent is
that theory is made up of epistemological and ontological beliefs that
span academic disciplines.
The inconsistent use of the terms methodology and method is of consid-
erable concern to us. Some authors use the terms interchangeably, defining
both as the means by which data are collected. Other scholars differentiate

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 Table 1.2 Various Definitions of Terms

RT50554_C001.indd 10
Terms Morse and Denzin and Crotty Creswell Maykut and Lincoln and Patton Glesne
Richards Lincoln Morehouse Guba
Paradigm “Philoso- The net that “Package of “[W]orldview, A set of Represents a A worldview, Refers to
phical contains the beliefs” a basic set of overarching distillation of a general “modes of
paradigms researcher’s (1998, beliefs or and inter- what we perspective, inquiry”
[include] epistemo- p. 35). assumptions connected think of the a way of (1999,
feminism, logical, that guide assumptions world but breaking p. 6); cites
post- ontological, their about the cannot down the other authors
modernism, and methodo- inquiries” nature of prove; complexity in defining
and critical logical (1998, reality systematic of the world paradigm.
theory” premises p. 74). (2001, p. 4). set of beliefs (1990,
(2002, (2000, (1985, p. 37).
p. 171). p. 19); p. 15).
assumptions
that “re-
present a
belief system
that attaches
to a
10 • Negotiating the Complexities of Qualitative Research

particular
worldview”
(1994, p. 2).

4/1/06 10:08:40 AM
 Epistemology “[A]ssump- “[H]as “The theory “[T]he “Assump-

RT50554_C001.indd 11
tions [that] historically of know- relationship tions that
concern the defined ledge of the concern
origins of standards of imbedded researcher to the origins
knowledge” evaluation” in the that being of know-
(2002, (1994, p. 6; theoretical researched” ledge”
p. 3). 2000, p. and (1998, (2001,
11); thereby in p. 74). p. 3).
“specifies a the
set of method-
questions” ology”
(2000, (1998,
p. 18). p. 3).

Ontology “[C]oncern Explains “Concerned “[A]ddresses “Concerns “[N]ature

questions the kind of with ‘what the nature of questions of reality”
about the being a is’ the reality” about the (1999,
nature of human nature of (1998, nature of p. 4).
reality” being is; existence, p. 76). reality”
(2002, answers with the (2001,
p. 3). the structure of p. 3).
question reality”
“What is (1998,
the nature p. 10).
of reality?”
(2000,
Situating the Research • 11

p. 19).
(Continued)

4/1/06 10:08:40 AM
 Table 1.2 Various Definitions of Terms (Continued)

RT50554_C001.indd 12
Terms Morse and Denzin and Crotty Creswell Maykut and Lincoln Patton Glesne
Richards Lincoln Morehouse and Guba
Theoretical “Set of “The Provides “an “What “The
Perspective propositions philo- explanation, distinguishes ultimate goal
that are sophical a prediction, the discus- of this form
interrelated stance and a sion of theory of theorizing
in an informing gen- . . . on is to develop
ordered metho- eralization qualitative universal
fashion such dology and about how methods is laws of
that some thus the world the emphasis human
may be providing a operates” on inductive behavior and
deducible context for (1998, strategies of societal
from others the process p. 84). theory functioning”
thus and development (Glesne &
permitting grounding in contrast to Peshkin,
an its logic and theory 1992, p. 19;
explanation criteria” generated by Glesne,
to be (1998, logical 1999,
developed p. 3). deduction” p. 22);
12 • Negotiating the Complexities of Qualitative Research

for the (1990, differentiates

phenomenon p. 66). low level
under (outcomes
con- from
struction” previous
(Denzin, studies) from
1988, middle range

4/1/06 10:08:40 AM
 p. 49); “The (explains a

RT50554_C001.indd 13
… researcher set of
approaches phe-
the world with nomenon)
a set of ideas, (1999,
a framework, p. 22).
theory,
ontology”
(Denzin &
Lincoln,
2000, p. 18).
Literature Under the “[H]ow “Reading
Review heading others have about the
“Using the approached studies of
Literature similar others. . . .
Review”: concerns” [To] collect,
“[T]heoreti- (1990, scan, and
cal context p. 163). read
. . . places literature . . .
the study in can help find
the context focus for your
of the topic” topic . . . can
(2002, help inform
p. 189). your research
design”
(1999,
p. 20).
Situating the Research • 13

(Continued)

4/1/06 10:08:40 AM
 Table 1.2 Various Definitions of Terms (Continued)

RT50554_C001.indd 14
Terms Morse and Denzin and Crotty Creswell Maykut and Lincoln Patton Glesne
Richards Lincoln Morehouse and Guba
Methodology See method. “[T]he “The “[H]ow one
specific strategy, concept-
ways plan of ualizes the
questions action, entire
are process, or research
examined” designing process”
(2000, behind the (1998,
p. 18). choice and p. 77).
use of
particular
methods”
(1998, p. 3).
Method “[S]hare the “[T]he “[T]he Sampling “Permits
goal of techniques or most strategy and the
deriving new procedures concrete, the people or evaluator to
understanding used to specific settings that study
14 • Negotiating the Complexities of Qualitative Research

and making gather and part will make up selected

theory out of analyze data” [includes] the sample, issues in
data” (2002 (1998, p. 3). essential data depth and
p. 13). steps” collection detail”
(2003, procedures for (1990,
p. 153). data analysis p. 13).
(2001,
p. 65).

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 Table 1.3 Various Definitions of Terms

RT50554_C001.indd 15
Paradigm Epistemology Ontology Theoretical Methodology Method
Perspective and
Framework
A set of Assumptions about Assumptions about Perspective: Informed by How data are
interconnected the acquisition of the nature of philosophical epistemology, collected
assumptions that knowledge existence (epistemological ontology, and
distinguish and ontological) theory, a process
between assumptions that that grounds and
worldviews guide methodology gives direction to
study design,
Framework: implementation,
suppositions and data collection,
concepts (e.g., data analysis, and
research and interpretation
theories) that
inform the
phenomenon
under study
Situating the Research • 15

4/1/06 10:08:41 AM
 16 • Negotiating the Complexities of Qualitative Research

them, with methodology meaning the approach that guides how data
are collected and analyzed. The exclusion of methodology from the dis-
cussion of qualitative research has consequences for the worthiness of
a study. We believe that methodology is a central concept because it
guides the research design. Without attention paid to methodology, the
researcher lacks the means to appropriately design the study, analyze
data, and make sense of findings. In addition, the reader has no context
for understanding or judging the research findings. Examples of meth-
odologies include ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, life
history, narrative inquiry, and case study.
In response to the various definitions of terms, Crotty (1998)
offered his own representation and definitions of important qualita-
tive concepts. Like Crotty, we will offer our own representation, but
one we believe to be appropriate in the pragmatic context of higher
education.
The reader will notice in Table 1.3 that we have replaced the term
literature review with theoretical framework to emphasize the impor-
tance of theory. We have differentiated theoretical perspective (assump-
tions about the nature of knowledge acquisition and existence) from
theoretical framework (concepts and previous research that inform
the phenomenon being studied). We have distinguished methodology
(which guides research design) from method (the collection of data)
while underscoring their relationship. Understanding and using these
terms allow the researcher to situate his or her study.
Let’s return again to Michael’s thoughts as he continues to situate his
study. Michael determines that his worldview is more consistent with
an interpretive and constructivist view of knowledge. He believes that
numbers cannot represent the experience of feeling safe or unsafe. He
believes that an in-depth understanding about this phenomenon could
best be accomplished through human interaction. As with all research-
ers, once he has contemplated his worldview, he must now further in-
vestigate his epistemological and ontological stance.
Epistemology and Ontology
In discussing epistemology and ontology, our aim is not to oversim-
plify what has occurred in the evolution of philosophy over several
hundred years. On the other hand, we don’t want to burden the reader
with philosophical intricacies. Rather, we seek to sufficiently describe
the philosophical differences so that the reader can acknowledge that
epistemological underpinnings do influence the researcher and his or
her research. What follows is a brief discussion of the primary epistemo-
logical and ontological frameworks that guide inquiry.

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 Situating the Research • 17

Put very simply, what is commonly referred to as quantitative research

is based upon objective epistemology and the linked theories of posi-
tivism, postpositivism, and empiricism (Crotty 1998; Lincoln & Guba,
2000; Smith, 1993). According to Crotty,
Objectivism is the epistemological view that things exist as mean-
ingful independently of consciousness and experience, that they
have truth and meaning residing in them as objects (‘objective’
truth and meaning, therefore), and that careful (scientific?) re-
search can attain that objective truth and meaning. (1998, p. 6)

Objective Positivistic Empiricism

Objective claims are true or false independent of what anyone thinks
or feels about it (Honderich, 1995) such that there is a clear distinction
between fact and value (Crotty, 1998). According to J. K. Smith (1993),
to be objective is to detach oneself from one’s own interests and depict
things as they “really are” (p. 30). Knowledge is what can be found and
measured outside of us. Positivism is the optimistic notion that science
leads to progress (Crotty, 1998; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Postpositivism
adds a note of uncertainty to scientific findings challenging that observer
and observed are independent (Crotty, 1998, p. 29), whereas positivism
views facts as ultimate truth that comes from measurements.
Empiricism is rooted in the idea that people can neutrally observe
the world through the five senses (Honderich, 1995). According to J.
K. Smith (1993), empiricism is the “solution to the knowledge-versus-
opinion problem” (p. 5) in that humans have the capacity to not distort
observations through the controlled scientific method. Through strict
procedures, claims can be made and then judged based on evidence.
According to Denzin and Lincoln (2000) and J. K. Smith (1993), the
most important aspect of objective positivistic empiricism is the belief
that truth is universal and can be measured through observation and
discovery, proving or disproving a hypothesis. Some of the components
of objective positivistic empiricism were listed in column A in the ex-
ercise in Table 1.1. Philosophers most associated with this paradigm
include John Locke (Woozley, 1964), who saw the minds of humans as
blank slates “devoid of any ideas” (Smith, 1993, p. 27) from which they
independently existed in the world, and Max Weber (1972), who be-
lieved that researchers and scientists can make a conscious decision to
exclude their judgments.
Often stated in stark contrast to the epistemological and ontologi-
cal views of objectivism, constructivism (Lincoln & Guba, 2000) is also

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 18 • Negotiating the Complexities of Qualitative Research

referred to as and linked to interpretation or hermeneutics (the science

and art of interpretation). Also referred to as constructionism, this view
is that
[a]ll knowledge, and therefore all meaningful reality as such,
is contingent upon human practices, being constructed in and
out of interaction between human beings and their world, and
developed and transmitted within an essentially social context.
(Crotty, 1998, p. 42)

Constructivism and Constructionism

Constructionism claims that “meanings are constructed by human be-
ings as they engage with the world they are interpreting” (Crotty, p. 43).
Sometimes deemed an epistemology (Crotty, 1998) while also consid-
ered a philosophy (Flew, 1984) constructionism and interpretation are
concerned with the individual because knowledge is found within the
individual. Constructivism seeks to understand individual social ac-
tion through interpretation or translation. “Something foreign, strange,
or separated by time, space, or experience, is made familiar, present,
comprehensible” (Hultgren, 1989, p. 41). The aim is to understand as-
pects of human activity from the perspective of those who experience
it (Hultgren). Kuhn (1962) believed that perception is symptomatic
of all observation and that all knowledge is dependent on its context.
Contrary to objective empiricism, all people, and therefore all research-
ers, bring with them a lived worldview. Heidegger wrote,
We must rather choose such a way of access and such a kind of in-
terpretation that this entity can show itself in itself and from itself.
And this means that it is to be shown as it is proximally and for the
most part—in its average everydayness. (1926/1962, p. 38)

Subjectivism
In subjectivist epistemology, meaning is not created from the interplay
between humans, but rather meaning is “imported” (Crotty, 1998, p. 9)
or brought into the study. For example, Hamrick (1998) used democra-
tic political theory to increase understanding of college student activism.
Democratic theory was not created through the interaction between the
researcher and her students; rather, it was used as a lens to promote
critique and analysis for the purpose of increased understanding, im-
proved praxis, and ultimately liberation.
Unlike positivism and constructivism, subjectivist epistemology
suggests that no one can interpret for others. It is only from an inside

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 Situating the Research • 19

perspective that one can grasp meaning. Jürgen Habermas (1984) wrote,
“What counts as fundamental is not the interpersonal relation between
at least two speaking and acting subjects—a relation that refers back
to reaching understanding in language—but the purposive activity of
a solitary acting subject” (p. 279). Acting with others and engaging in
discourse with them are the means by which there is understanding.
Because some people lack sufficient influence or power to have
mastery over their own lives, or because people are afraid of losing the
influence and power they have, their communication can be distorted
by those with more power. Hence, Habermas believed that just be-
cause certain views exist doesn’t make them valid (Coomer, 1989). It is
through communicative action and discourse that findings are deemed
sound.

Comparing Epistemologies
Several authors have created charts highlighting the differences noted
above using a variety of comparative criteria (e.g., Coomer & Hultgren,
1989; Lincoln & Guba, 2000; Sipe & Constable, 1996). These charts are
dynamic and illustrate a snapshot of current thinking rather than static
definitions. The differences are most obvious at their extremes and do
not represent “rigid or unchanging differences/boundaries” (Sipe &
Constable, p. 153). We also have constructed a chart comparing epis-
temologies (see Table 1.4). The criteria we use are those we believe are
most instructive in the context of higher education. Because we believe
that higher education values utilitarian knowledge, we have selected the
nature of knowledge, knowledge claims, and values as important com-
parative criteria. We offer the comparison chart as a summary of what
we have previously discussed.
Experienced researchers will note the absence of postmodernism,
poststructuralism, and deconstruction in Table 1.4. We concur with
Crotty (1998) that postmodernism and poststructuralism represent
theories, though we acknowledge that they are also considered para-
digmatic stances (Sipe & Constable, 1996). We turn to theories next as
additional aspects of worldview that inform the research process.

CONSIDERATION 3: SITUATING A STUDY

IN A THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE AND FRAMEWORK
In the chart noting our definitions of terms, we differentiated between
theoretical perspective and framework. Here we will further clarify this
distinction and the usefulness of each in situating the research.

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 20 • Negotiating the Complexities of Qualitative Research

Table 1.4 Comparing Epistemologies

Positivism Constructivism Subjectivism
Nature of Measure Outgrowth of Perception can
Reality through human be flawed.
(ontology) observation interaction

Values Value neutral Participant Passionate action

perspective

Relationship Objective Interpreter Passionate

Between participant
Researcher and
Participants
(researcher
positionality)
Nature of Truth Universal Individual Purported truth
can be flawed
due to the
oppressive nature
of the world.

Source: Synthesized from writings of Crotty (1998), Lather (1991), and

Lincoln and Guba (2000).

Theoretical Perspective
“Research cannot be conducted without the conscious use of underlying
theoretical perspectives” (Broido & Manning, 2002, p. 434). A theoreti-
cal perspective is “the philosophical stance informing the methodology
and thus providing a context for the process and grounding its logic and
criteria” (Crotty, 1998, p. 3). It discusses how the “study fits into theo-
retical traditions in the social sciences or applied fields in ways that will
be new, insightful, or creative” (Marshall & Rossman, 1999, p. 35).
There are a number of theoretical perspectives that give direction
to research. Several are described below. We acknowledge that though
some scholars refer to these theories as movements (Pinar et al., 1995),
philosophical approaches (Bronner, 1999), and paradigmatic stances (Sipe
& Constable, 1996), we agree with Crotty (1998) and Radhakrishnan
(2003) and discuss them here as theory.
Theories most associated with quantitative research include posi-
tivism and modernism (Crotty, 1998). These theories seek to describe
and predict human behavior that is then generalized to a larger popula-
tion. However, some claim the demise of the foundations of modernism

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 Situating the Research • 21

(Crotty; J. K. Smith, 1993). According to Crotty, this demise came from

the scientific community in research that demonstrated “uncertainty” and
“limitation” (p. 30). Some philosophers also refuted the logic of induction
itself. To subscribe to the scientific method assumes “a world in which the
regularities we perceive today will remain unchanged in the future” (Crotty,
p. 32). Other philosophers stressed “the absurd nature and the unpredict-
able in scientific knowledge” (Crotty, p. 38). In light of these revelations,
Some [scientists and philosophers] have come to reject posi-
tivism and the objectivism that informs it and to adopt a con-
structionist view of meaningful reality. Others remain within
the positivist camp but temper very significantly the status they
ascribe to their findings. . . . This humbler version of the sci-
entific approach . . . has come to be known as post-positivism.
(Crotty, p. 40)
Many theorists, however, believe that postpositivism did not go far
enough in moving away from the purported value-free structure of study-
ing the world. Postmodernism is an interdisciplinary theoretical base at-
tacking “any universal characterization of the individual” (Bronner, 1999,
p. 189). It has also been described as a cultural, political, and historical
movement (Pinar et al., 1995) “wherein no one owns the truth and ev-
eryone has the right to be understood” (Doll, 1993, p. 151). There are
two other terms closely associated with postmodernism. They are post-
structuralism and deconstruction. All three oppose structuralism. “While
structuralism has sought to identify ‘the system’ that creates meaning,
poststructuralism has sought to repudiate, dismantle, and reveal the vari-
ance and contingency of ‘the system’” (Pinar et al., p. 453). Examples of
structuralism would be reproduction theory (that schools reproduce the
classist nature of society) and family systems theory. Poststructuralism
contends that human reality has been constructed into hierarchical
structures to achieve absolute certainty. Poststructuralism seeks not to
substitute one absolute for another but rather to produce an awareness
of the complexity of what was previously unpresented. Poststructuralism
seeks to encourage ambivalence and multiplicity, exceed the boundaries
of what can be imagined, expose dichotomies and illusions, and advocate
for resistance to subjugation (Lather, 1991).
Deconstruction “disentangles the central threads running through
the tapestry . . . of Western thought” (Pinar et al., 1995, p. 467). According
to Pinar et al., “Heidegger invoked deconstruction to violate the every-
day, the taken for granted sphere we construct and employ to evade the
ontological facts of our fallenness, our being-toward-death” (p. 447).
Deconstruction highlights the way in which “any system of reference is

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 22 • Negotiating the Complexities of Qualitative Research

constituted as a fabric of differences” (Bronner, 1999, p. 193). One way

of accomplishing this is by exposing the oppressive language and struc-
ture of a phenomenon under study. According to Caputo (1987), the
work of destruction or deconstruction is deployed on two levels. In the
first place, it must break through the commonplace described in terms
of the present, in order to exhibit a deeper understanding. The deeper
level Caputo referred to as a redical recovery. It is a recovery of the self.
Space does not allow for a thorough discussion of postmodernism,
poststructuralism, and deconstructivism. Experienced researchers will
note the brevity here. Scholars have described the relationship of the
three, some of it in disagreement. Clearly, these concepts are continu-
ally being refined as they are lived. A gross simplification would be that
postmodernism subsumes the other two, that poststructuralism is the
left arm of postmodernism, that postmodernism articulates many of
the ideas advanced by postructuralism and deconstruction (Pinar et al.),
and that there are certain similarities in all three (Bronner, 1999). For
an interesting metaphoric description of these theories, consult Sipe and
Constable (1996) on how paradigmatic stances are like sports, colors,
and famous people. The point is that these theories create a lens through
which researchers can describe their perspectives of the phenomenon
under study and the study itself. Researchers must become sufficiently
familiar with theoretical perspectives so that theory can inform the per-
spective of their study.
There are other theories associated with the postmodern stance.
These theories seek not only to abandon the limits and hegemony of
positivism but also to replace it with justice promoting praxis. Critical
theory is sometimes viewed as an epistemology (Coomer & Hultgren,
1989), a paradigm position (Lincoln & Guba, 2000), a paradigmatic
stance (Sipe & Constable, 1996), and a theory (Crotty, 1998). Critical
theory or critical science refers to the

situation where human experiences are systematically repressed

in a given society. . . . It views society as a human construction
that can be altered through human understanding of taken-for-
granted structures from the fiber of human life in the society.
(Coomer, 176–177)

Habermas’s notion of communicative action serves as a base for criti-

cal theory. He believed that communicative discourse is emancipatory.
“With the concept of communicative action there comes into play the
additional presupposition of a linguistic medium that reflects the actor-
world relations as such” (1981/1984, p. 94).

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 Situating the Research • 23

postpositivism
Epistemology and
Theory
falsification

Objectivism Constructivism

interpreter

positivism
emancipatory
naturalism Postmodernism
feminist
objectivity theory
critical
theory
empiricism neutrality
critical deconstruction
race
theory
queer
theory

Enlightenment Epistemology Current Day

Theory
Role of Researcher

Figure 1.2

Still other theories within the postmodern view include feminist

theory (“[V]ery simply, to do feminist research is to put social construc-
tion of gender at the center of one’s inquiry”; Lather, 1991, p. 71), critical
race theory (“[R]acism is an ingrained feature of our landscape, it looks
ordinary and natural”; Delgado, 1995, p. xiv), and queer theory (“the
ways the very homo/hetero distinctions [have] underpinned all aspects
of contemporary life”; Gamson, 2000, p. 354).
Grasping these theoretical perspectives, their relationships to each
other, and their relationship to epistemology is complex. We have
tried to provide an instructive way to describe these complexities in
Figure 1.2. What is noted here in this frame are epistemologies and
theories that inform research along a chronological continuum from
the Enlightenment to the current day. Postpositivism, poststructural-
ism, postmodernism, and deconstruction are depicted partly outside
the frame because they all continue to be defined and refined and re-
sist definition. Two epistemologies, objectivism and constructivism, are
noted here as circles. Theories are indicated as triangles, and the role
of the researcher or researcher positionality within the epistemology is
noted within ovals. Theories associated within the epistemology of ob-
jectivism are positivism and empiricism. Postpositivism emerged from
the postmodern protest of the notions of the supposed objective and

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 24 • Negotiating the Complexities of Qualitative Research

neutral researcher and of truth emanating from exacting measurement.

This is illustrated by the postpositivism triangle merging the objective
and contructivist epistemologies. We note naturalism as the precursor
to objectivism prior to the Enlightenment and the Age of Reason.
The constructivist epistemology is informed by poststructuralism,
postmodernism, and deconstruction theories (also referred to as schools
and movements). These theories are noted in larger triangles because
they are more broad in scope and influence critical, critical race, femi-
nist, and queer theories. Researchers in the constructivist epistemology
are interpreters. Their role is to understand phenomena in an inventive
way. The more closely the researcher is associated with poststructural-
ism, the more he or she seeks to emancipate society from its hegemonic
structures through deconstruction (Figure 1.2).
In good qualitative studies, researchers identify the theoretical per-
spectives that guide their work. For example, in her article reporting on
the Safe Zone project, Evans (2002) described her study as grounded in
constructivist philosophy and stated that critical theory “undergirded”
the study because the researchers viewed research as being able to con-
tribute to the emancipation and empowerment of oppressed groups, a
principle of critical theory.
Let us return to Michael. As Michael seeks to refine his compelling
interest, he has many questions. He doesn’t know where or how to start,
and is feeling anxious about the research process. He worries whether
he knows enough about his topic and research design to embark upon
his study. He seeks out his advisor, who suggests that he look to theory
for guidance.
Having done some preliminary reading about postmodern theory,
Michael decides that feminist and queer theories offer guidance, not
only on how he proceeds with his study but also about the phenomenon
of safety itself. By using feminist theory as a lens, Michael is hoping that
he might be better able to understand how gender plays a role in feeling
safe. He also wonders how the coming-out process described in queer
theory might illuminate the struggle with being truly present in a space
that is hostile. How is it to come out as oneself in a place where safety is
not expected? How is it to continually have to decide whether or how to
come out with each new environment?

Theoretical Framework
Whereas theoretical perspective influences how the researcher will ap-
proach and design the study, and influences how the researcher will
approach the topic under study in more abstract terms, the theoreti-
cal framework offers suppositions that inform the phenomenon under

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 Situating the Research • 25

study. The theoretical framework links the unsettled question to “larger

theoretical constructs.”
Michael looks to campus environment theory to offer him insight
into his study. This assists him in refining his question. He decides
to use Moos’s (1979) work in environment theory and Schlossberg’s
(1989) work on mattering and marginality to inform his topic. He
reads campus environment theory (theoretical framework) simultane-
ously with feminist and queer theory (theoretical perspective). Both
assist him in forming his question. As Michael proceeds, however, he
will continually seek out literature to better inform his study. For ex-
ample, in a study on White Being, Jan initially gathered information
on White racial identity theory, White privilege, authenticness, and
guilt and shame to better inform her compelling interest (theoreti-
cal framework) while simultaneously looking to Heidegger’s notions
on phenomenology to guide the design of the study (theoretical per-
spective) (Arminio, 2001; Arminio & McEwen, 1996). Later, when col-
lecting data through conversations, Jan became aware of the influence
that busing to achieve integrated schools had on participants in their
meaning making of race. Coles’s (1993) work on service and school
busing offered revealing insight (additional theoretical framework) of
the experience of entering other American cultures by bus. She used
this literature to better inform her of her compelling interest after ini-
tial data had been collected. With insights from theoretical perspective
and theoretical framework, Michael now seeks to frame his statement
of purpose and research question.

CONSIDERATION 4: CHOOSING
A QUESTION THAT PRESSES UPON US
[T]he path to all knowledge leads through the question.
Gadamer (1960/1989, p. 363)
It is from a compelling interest that those engaged in a study find unsettled
questions. Gadamer noted that questioning is “more passion than an ac-
tion. A question presses itself on us; we can no longer avoid it and persist in
our accustomed opinion” (p. 366). Gadamer cautioned us to differentiate
between a question and an opinion. A question is “not settled,” whereas an
opinion is. Several unsettled questions typically emerge from a compel-
ling interest. Often, researchers contemplate a question that is either too
broad or too narrow, or may generate several disparate unsettled questions
from a compelling interest. A compelling interest offers the opportunity to
dwell upon an unsettled question that should lead to a manageable study.

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 26 • Negotiating the Complexities of Qualitative Research

Factors of do-ability assist in determining which of the unsettled questions

to undertake. Below are samples of compelling interests that led to research
questions in studies that have been published. Note that the worldview of
the researcher framed how the question was posed.

• A pressing interest in men’s identity development led to the

questions of “how college men internally experience externally
defined gender roles” and how “conflicts related to socially con-
structed gender roles may impact men’s identity development”
(Davis, 2002, p. 510).
• An interest in understanding multiple leadership belief systems of
organizational members at community colleges led to the ques-
tion “How does positionality (i.e., gender, race, role within an
organization, and field of study) relate to construction of leader-
ship?” (Kezar, 2002, p. 563).
• To address the need “for a holistic picture of Latina/o doctoral
student experiences. . . . The purpose of this study was to bring
to the forefront the voices of Latina/o students in the process of
attaining a Ph. D.” (Gonzalez, Marin, Figueroa, Moreno, & Navia,
2002, pp. 541–542).
• Contemplating how to better understand dissenting students’ ef-
forts to change campus environments led to the question of how
democratic political theory is useful in “helping student affairs
professionals develop and sustain a campus environment that
facilitates student exercise of democratic citizenship” (Hamrick,
1998, p. 449).
• A compelling interest in how interaction across dimensions of
race, ethnicity, and social class through service learning influ-
ences the understanding of diversity led to the question “How do
students and community participants come to understand diver-
sity in the context of service learning?” (Jones & Hill, 2001).

As was noted in the discussion on deconstruction, the language one uses

in describing a phenomenon illuminates its hegemonic structure. What are
the implications of language in the research that educators conduct?

Implications for Language

The worldview of the researcher is communicated through language,
whether explicitly or implicitly. A differing of opinion exists about
whether those whose studies are grounded in a qualitative paradigm
should use the same language of the “found world” (e.g., quantitative
research; Smith & Deemer, 2000, p. 885) or create new language. Some

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 Situating the Research • 27

scholars, such as Smith and Deemer (2000) and Smith (1993), believe that
new language should be used that allows for “moving out from under the
shadow of empirical-analytical expectations” (Arminio & Hultgren, 2002,
p. 449). However, others, like Lather (1991), take terms from the posi-
tivistic paradigm and transform them to be applicable to other views of
knowledge. For example, Lather offered a “reconceptualization of valid-
ity” (p. 66) appropriate for research that is openly committed to a more
just social order by advocating for catalytic validity that “by far is . . .
most unorthodox; it flies directly in the face of the positivist demand for
research neutrality” (p. 68).
It is important that those engaged in research realize that the lan-
guage they choose represents and communicates an epistemological
worldview. For many of us, the language of objective positivism has
been entrenched in our schooling to the point where we assume that
words like validity, reliability, sampling, correlation, rigor, significance,
and comparison have a universal use, but they can represent a particular
research paradigm. As constructors of reality instead of solely being in
contact with reality, researchers are responsible for understanding the
implications of the language used.
Below are examples of language as represented by theoretical
perspective:

Quantitative Qualitative
Variable Theme, category, multidimensionality
Correlate Interpret, reflect, mutually shaping
Statistical significance Profound, illuminating
Sample/subjects Participants, co-researchers,
co-travelers
Rigor Goodness, worthiness
Validity Trustworthiness, catalytic validity
Proof Judgments, perceptions, textual
rendering
Discovery, findings Constructing, meaning making
Generalizations Contextual findings, appropriations
Outlier Unique
Mechanical Morphogenesis
Objective Tending to participants, indwell,
human-as-subject

Bhaskar (1979) noted a poignant example of the implications of

epistemology on language. Under Nazi rule,

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 28 • Negotiating the Complexities of Qualitative Research

1. Germany was depopulated.

2. Millions of people died.
3. Millions of people were killed.
4. Millions of people were massacred.

Bhaskar stated that though all four are true, only the fourth is a “precise
and accurate description of what actually happened” (p. 76), because
only the last implies that the deaths were a part of an organized cam-
paign. “This point is important. For social science is not only about a
subject matter, it is for an audience” (Bhaskar, 1979, p. 76). In the first
three statements, we must question what is implicitly valued in the at-
tempt to be value free. The fourth statement does not attempt at being
value free. But which more adequately describes the event?
An example from the literature in higher education is found in the
following: “Consequently, compared to their peers with highly educated
parents, first-generation students are more likely to be handicapped
in accessing and understanding information and attitudes relevant to
making beneficial decisions” (Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak, & Terenzini,
2004). How might this quote be viewed differently by the reader if it were
said by a first-generation student rather than the researcher? How does
the researcher’s worldview promote the use of the word handicapped in
this way? What language does one use about those with whom one is
studying? How do these terms represent, re-present, and communicate
the relationship? Kezar (2004) commented,
A student tells me she wants to study the experience of graduate
students in the United States who come from other countries.
She wants to examine their experience in a foreign place. . . . [I
ask her] what does it mean to use the term foreign? Is she com-
fortable with this term and its implications in her study? (p. 46)
What is communicated about the relationship between those being stud-
ied and the person conducting the study by the use of those words?
Words such as illuminate, explore, discerning, meaning, and spir-
ited represent an openness to mutual construction and enlightenment
(Arminio & Hultgren, 2002). Some interpretive methodologies such
as hermeneutical phenomenology encourage “troubling” the language
(Ellsworth, 1997) to better express what is intended. Troubling the lan-
guage means that words are used in a slightly new or different way in or-
der to challenge the status quo. For example, in an article on the question
of criteria of qualitative research, Arminio and Hultgren asked, “How do
we as phenomenologists understand our respons-ability to reframing cri-
teria?” (p. 447). “Respons-ability” troubles the word responsibility by high-

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 Situating the Research • 29

lighting the notion of the ability to respond in the word responsibility. This
may be considered a “play on words,” but this play or troubling extends the
“potential of words to spread understanding beyond accustomed bound-
aries” (p. 452). Jones (2002) also troubled the language to extend meaning
potential in her title “(Re)Writing the Word: Methodological Strategies
and Issues in Qualitative Research.” She wrote,
To (re)write the word, to engage in research that holds poten-
tial for getting closer to what is true about a particular phenom-
enon, for exhibiting true generosity, and for contributing to the
elimination of inequality, those most fully engaged in qualitative
research must recognize the complexities in the effort. (p. 472)
The use of “(re)write” emphasizes the importance of revising for deeper un-
derstanding that may be lost with the more commonplace use of rewrite.
Let us return to Michael and his efforts at situating his research.
Michael has decided that his worldview is consistent with the construc-
tivist and interpretive epistemologies because he has noticed how he
learns through interactions with others. He believes that perception de-
fines people’s realities and believes that he is best able to learn about the
experience of safety through interaction with others. He wants to “probe
deep” with others about their experiences. He wonders how experiences
of safety and feelings of inclusion relate. He refines his compelling inter-
est into an unsettled question in language that represents and commu-
nicates his worldview: “What is the lived definition of campus safety for
students who feel unsafe?”

CONSIDERATION 5: RESEARCH,
ASSESSMENT, OR EVALUATION
For what purpose does Michael engage in this study? Another aspect of
situating a study is whether the study is research, assessment, or evalu-
ation. Upcraft and Shuh (2002) admitted that differentiating these may
be seen as not very relevant. We believe it is for several reasons. First,
by exposing the differences, we highlight the point that qualitative
methodologies can be used in assessments and evaluations, not only in
research. Although many institutions have institutional research of-
fices, assessment tasks typically are add-on responsibilities to educa-
tors outside of such offices (Ewell, 2002). Furthermore, many staff and
administrators in higher education believe they are conducting assess-
ments when in fact they are conducting evaluations. Differentiating
these data-gathering activities recognizes the burgeoning scholarship of
assessment (Ewell).

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 30 • Negotiating the Complexities of Qualitative Research

Briefly, research concerns theory: forming it, confirming it,

disconfirming it. Research assumes broader implications than one
institution or program. Assessment, on the other hand, is more focused
on the outcomes of participant programs, though this can be very broad
as to include an entire institution. It does not infer individual student
outcomes. The purpose of assessment is to guide practice rather than
relate practice to theory. Evaluation is even more particular to a spe-
cific program and is concerned with the satisfaction, organization, and
attendance of a program. As Figure 1.3 indicates, there is some over-
lap and the three are related. For example, a program may be based
on a theory particular to adult student development. Outcomes of the
theory-based program are assessed to determine if adult students are
indeed gaining from the program what was intended. Using the as-
sessment outcome data to change policy and practices related to the
program is evaluation (Upcraft, 2003). The three are not mutually ex-
clusive but rather have a dialectic relationship. Marshall and Rossman
(1999) referred to this as the cycle of inquiry, which is depicted by the
arrow in Figure 1.3. What is important to remember is that the means
of conducting a study, whether for research, assessment, or evaluation

Research Assessment Evaluation

Research Assessment Evaluation

• Constructs new • Measures outcomes • Measures quality of

knowledge • Confirms approaches educational programs
• Formulates and • Addresses the aggregate (e.g., attendance,
confirms theories satisfaction, staff
performance)

Role of Researcher: Role of Assessor: Role of Evaluator:

to say what theoretically has to say the outcomes to say what should be done
been done

Erwin, 1996
Upcraft & Shuh, 2002
Upcraft, 2003

Figure 1.3

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Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
altogether the result of his own misconduct, and disobedience to
divine requisition, without any necessity laid upon him by his
gracious Creator to err, or to swerve from the path of rectitude; so
that the Lord will be clear of the blood of all his rational creation, as
saith the prophet: “O Israel, thou hast destroyed thyself, but in me is
thy help;” and there are many other passages which express the
same. My mind was led to open these subjects in a clear manner to
the people, and to show that the want of a right faith in God and
Christ, as inwardly revealed, was one of the greatest obstacles to
their living a just and righteous life in the sight of their Creator, as
the just can only live by faith. The meeting was large, and many
hearts were convicted, comforted and contrited; to the Lord only
belongs all the praise, nothing due to man but blushing and
confusion of face.
In the course of this week I was much unwell, forewarning me that
my glass is almost run, and my day of labour drawing to a close. My
indisposition prevented my attending our preparative meeting on
fifth day. These things all unitedly conspire to sound forth this
language, remember to die. Oh that I might witness with the worthy
Paul, more and more a daily death, to every thing that tends to
hinder my steady walking in the path of duty, that so my day’s work
may be finished in the day time.
First day, the 14th. Having so far recovered from my indisposition as
to get to our meeting to-day, my mind was opened in a living
powerful testimony to the excellency of the gospel dispensation, in
which Christ by his light and spirit was come to teach his people
himself; a Teacher not to be removed into a corner, a Shepherd ever
present to lead and feed all his sheep that hear his voice and follow
him; and do not follow the stranger, nor listen to the voice of any
outward hireling teachers, although they charm ever so wisely. It
was a season of favour, and many hearts were warmed and
contrited by the prevalence of truth, and the Lord’s name was
praised, who is over all worthy for ever.
Fifth day. Attended our monthly meeting, at which the queries were
read and answers prepared to go to the quarterly meeting. To judge
from these, it would appear that we were generally an upright
people; but I fear our answers are becoming too much like many of
us, more in show and outside appearance, than in spirit and
substance. For by this formal way of answering them, unless great
care is taken, our queries may do us much more harm than good;
and this fear often attends my mind, and induces me to call the
attention of my friends from the letter of discipline, to the spirit and
substance; without which all letter and outward order, however
beautiful in the outward appearance, is but as sounding brass or a
tinkling cymbal, and will in the end only deceive and disappoint us,
and unveil our nakedness.
Sixth day. Was our preparative meeting of Ministers and Elders, in
which our answers made a similar appearance; insomuch, that there
was but little to find fault with. I hope it may stand the test in the
day of trial; this we ought carefully to consider, otherwise, in the
end, we may fall short when it may be too late to retrieve the loss.
The rest of the week I attended to my temporal business as far as
my bodily infirmity would permit, although at times my exercise
produced very acute pains. I find it needful however, to keep up a
continual watch, that I do nothing to promote or encourage idleness,
that bane to every Christian virtue; and especially at such a time as
this, when most of our capable well-looking young men are running
into cities and populous towns to engage in merchandise, or some
other calling by which they may live by their wits, being unwilling to
labour with their hands: although it is the most sure way marked out
by divine wisdom for our truest comfort and peace here, and a right
preparation for eternal joy hereafter. And, although many fatal
consequences have befallen many of those who have thus run out in
trade and mercantile business, apparently to the ruin of both body
and soul, and the great injury and distress of their families: yet,
because some few have made themselves rich in temporal things by
those pursuits, it has so blinded the minds of many that they will not
take warning, but go on in their wilful way to their own utter ruin.
First day, the 21st. This day at our meeting, my mouth was opened
in a full testimony introduced by this scripture passage:
“Wherewithal shall a young man cleanse his way? by taking heed
thereto according to thy word.” I was led in my communication to
show to the people, that in this word was comprehended the great
gospel privilege, the word nigh in the heart and in the mouth; and
that it was not a literal or outward word, nor any created thing, but
the uncreated word, Christ, by whom all things were created, or at
first spoke into existence and order. For nothing else could enable us
to cleanse our way, or live a righteous holy life; and that it was only
by a living faith in this inward, operative, powerful word, that any
could please God or be acceptable to him, and was the only means
by which we could be saved: and that it was offered to the
acceptance of all, and therefore all were encouraged to lay hold of
the offered mercy, and not slight the day of their visitation.
Second and third days. I was busied in overseeing my temporal
business, attended, at times, by much bodily pain; and which, I trust
and hope, I endured without improperly complaining or murmuring.
The three following days, I attended our quarterly meeting, held this
time at Westbury. I think, in the main, it was a favoured season. The
meeting was large and solemn: the divine presence and power were
evidently felt to preside, humbling many minds and producing
contrition of spirit, and the gospel labours were instructive and
edifying.
First day, the 28th. A quiet day. Sat our meeting in silence.
Fifth day. A silent meeting. The rest of the week, as to bodily
exercise, mostly occupied in my temporal affairs.
First day, the 4th of 8th month. My mind settled in quiet with the
exercise of this day. Besides the usual care and industry necessary in
my temporal concerns, that all things might be rightly arranged, I
attended, in the course of this week, our preparative meeting on
fifth day, and the funeral of a deceased neighbour on sixth day. At
the funeral was a large promiscuous assembly, amongst whom my
mouth was opened in a large searching testimony, suiting the
occasion; whereby many hearts were tendered, and much
brokenness appeared in the meeting. The truth delivered being
brought home to the consciences of many, by the prevalence of the
divine power, which was eminently in dominion over all.
First day, the 11th. I trust the exercise and travail of our meeting to-
day tended to profit.
Second day. I attended the funeral of our friend Edmund Pearsall, of
Flushing. His corpse was carried into the meeting-house there; and a
large solid meeting was held on the occasion.
Third day. I attended our meeting for sufferings in New-York, which,
I think, was an instructive season.
Fifth day. Attended our monthly meeting, in which I opened to
Friends a prospect, which had for several months attended my mind,
to pay a religious visit to the bordering inhabitants of our quarterly
meeting; and had their unity therein.
Sixth and seventh days. I spent in my usual avocations.
First day, the 18th. My mind, as I sat in our meeting, was opened
into a view of the great benefits, and supreme felicity, which man
derives, and only can derive, from the true knowledge and right fear
of his Creator; and which knowledge and fear no man can witness or
have experience of, but by the revelation of the spirit of God, or by
the aid of that light, which Jesus Christ told the Jews was the
condemnation of the world, or of all those who did not believe in
and obey it; and which is an inward and not an outward light; and
all its manifestations are in the mind or heart of man. I was led to
show to the people, that this doctrine was altogether the most
rational, and such as no man of right reason could doubt or dispute.
I hope the season was instructive to some, and might tend to
remove doubts from some doubting minds, as, from the sensations
which I had, I was led to believe there were some such present.
Second, third, and fourth days. I attended to my temporal concerns,
clothed with much poverty of spirit; yet, not altogether cast down
nor discouraged, respecting my spiritual welfare.
Fifth day. A silent quiet meeting.
Sixth and seventh days. Paid some attention to my temporal
business, although, at times, in much bodily pain, which, more or
less, attends me daily, and has for several months past.
First day, the 25th. According to the prospect opened at our last
monthly meeting, I attended two appointed meetings in the
neighbouring town of Hempstead; one in the morning, at the
eleventh hour, at the house of Samuel Carman, a person inclining to
Friends, and the other at the fourth hour in the afternoon, at John
Raynor’s, about four miles distant from the former, he also being
kind and well disposed towards Friends.
These were both pretty full meetings, there being as many people as
the rooms could well accommodate. Through the gracious
condescension of the Shepherd of Israel, the word went forth freely
among them, in a full impressive testimony at each place, tendering
and contriting many hearts, and to the increase of love to the truth,
and to the promoters of it. I took my leave of them in the fresh
feelings of mutual Christian affection, and returned home that
evening with a quiet peaceful mind, the assured reward of
faithfulness.
The rest of the week I spent in my usual avocations, not omitting
the attendance of our meeting on fifth day, which I sat in silence.
First day, the 1st of 9th month. I attended an appointed meeting
among my relatives and acquaintance at Rockaway, the place of my
former residence, when young, while living in my father’s house. The
meeting was not large, but proved a precious tendering season.
Many hearts were much broken and contrited by the prevalence of
divine love and power that accompanied the testimony borne, and
spread generally over the meeting, to the praise of His grace who is
calling us to glory and virtue.
A concern for the guarded education of the youth among Friends
has for many years past exercised our yearly meeting; and many
advices and recommendations have been issued therefrom to the
quarterly and other subordinate meetings, in order to stir up Friends
to vigilance and care therein, that proper schools might be
established among them, under the care of pious tutors, that so
Friends’ children, while getting their necessary school learning, might
be religiously instructed, and preserved from evil examples, and the
company of such children as are viciously inclined; by which their
tender minds might be wounded, and led from the simplicity of
truth. In order further to stir up Friends to this concern, our last
yearly meeting directed the quarterly meetings to appoint
committees to visit the monthly and preparative meetings, to
encourage Friends therein. As I was one among other Friends
appointed by our quarterly meeting for that purpose, we attended
the monthly meetings of New-York and Flushing, in the course of
this week. And I am thankful in believing that the service was owned
by the Head of the Church, who was graciously near, and furnished
with matter suited to the occasion; insomuch, that I have cause to
believe that the opportunities at each place were instructive and
edifying, affording encouragement to the willing-minded.
First day, the 8th of 9th month. I found it my place to be at home
to-day, and of course attended our own meeting. Although most of
the forepart of the meeting, I apprehended I should be permitted to
sit it in silence; yet about the middle thereof, my mind was
quickened in the remembrance of the testimony of Solomon, where
he tells us, that “Wisdom is the principal thing.” As the subject
spread on my mind, I was led to consider how it is that all men
speak highly of it, and yet, at the same time, are not at all rightly
acquainted with its beginning; and are therefore mostly living all
their days without the right knowledge of, and acquaintance with it.
For it is not to be derived through any other medium than the true
fear of the Lord, which we are told is the beginning of wisdom; and
as it is only begun in man by this true fear, so likewise it is the
middle and the end; as every advancement in true wisdom is only by
the fear of the Lord: surely, then, it is the most precious of any thing
to the children of men.
I spent the rest of the week about home. Attended our preparative
meeting on fifth day. The meeting for worship was held in silence.
Our yearly meeting’s minute of advice on the subject of schools was
at this time received; but as it was expected that the quarterly
meeting’s committee, on that subject, would shortly attend the
preparative meeting, the consideration thereof was deferred to the
time of their attendance.
First day, the 15th. By appointment I attended two meetings; one at
Cold Spring at ten o’clock in the morning, and the other in Friends’
meeting-house at Oysterbay, at the third hour in the afternoon. Both
were pretty well attended by the neighbouring inhabitants, among
whom I was helped to preach the gospel in the demonstration of the
spirit, accompanied with such a degree of the Lord’s power and
presence, as to produce a precious solemnity over the assemblies,
especially the latter, wherein many truths of the gospel were largely
opened, humbling and contriting the hearts of a number present.
Surely it was the Lord’s doing, to whom all the praise and glory are,
and ought to be ascribed, both now and for ever.
In the course of this week, I attended our own and Westbury
monthly meeting, in company with the quarterly meeting’s
committee, on the subject of schools. These were both favoured
opportunities. The concern was opened in a very impressive manner,
and spread weightily over the meetings, the men and women sitting
together while this subject was before them. And I have a hope that
Friends will be strengthened and encouraged to persevere in the
concern, and keep it on its right basis, that is, a concern for the
religious and moral instruction of our youth, while at school, by
placing them under the care of pious tutors, who may co-operate
with the endeavours of religiously concerned parents, who are more
desirous that their children may be brought up and educated in the
fear of the Lord, and in his nurture and admonition, than that they
should make great advancements in scholastic science, or obtain the
riches and popularity of the world; all of which are of momentary
duration, and unworthy of much of the care of a rational immortal
being, especially when compared with the blessings attendant on a
truly moral and religious life, and walking in the fear of the Lord.
First day, the 22d. In prosecution of the concern I had engaged in to
visit the neighbouring inhabitants, notice was sent to Friends of
Martinicock, that I proposed to attend their meeting at this time; and
desiring that public notice might be given to their neighbours who
were not members, it was accordingly done. By this means the
meeting was very large, more so than I had ever seen it before;
among whom I was helped to labour in the cause of the gospel,
opening many important scripture passages, tending to elucidate
and confirm many points of our doctrine and principles, to my own,
and apparently to the general satisfaction of the assembly. At three
o’clock in the afternoon I attended another meeting at Moscheto
Cove, held in the house of the widow Hannah Valentine. This was
also a large favoured meeting, in which many truths of the gospel
were clearly and satisfactorily opened. I returned home that evening
with peace of mind, from an inward sense that I had faithfully
discharged myself among the people, concerning the things which
relate to their salvation.
The rest of the week I was at and about home, attending to my
usual occupations. Sat our fifth day meeting in silence.
First day, the 29th. I attended Friends’ meeting at Cowneck; and
previous notice having been sent of my intention to be there, the
meeting was large, and favoured in a good degree with the
overshadowing of the divine presence, enabling to preach the gospel
in the demonstration of the spirit, and with power; breaking and
contriting many hearts. At the third hour in the afternoon, by
previous appointment, had a meeting at Hempstead Harbour, at the
house of Daniel Robbins. This was rather a hard exercising meeting,
yet, I trust, in the main a profitable season.
The following part of the week I spent mostly in the oversight of my
farming business. Sat our fifth day meeting again in silence, at which
we had the company of our Friends Isaac Martin and Henry
Shotwell, from Jersey.
First day, the 6th of 10th month. Attended our meeting in silence. It
was in the main, I think, a weighty, solemn season. At three o’clock
in the afternoon, I had an appointed meeting in the neighbourhood
for the people of colour. It was held in one of their houses, and was
a season of favour. I hope it may prove profitable to them. For this
portion of dedication to duty in the cause of righteousness, I felt
peace in my own mind.
Second day. A Friend from the western part of this state, being on a
religious visit among us, had an appointed meeting at our place at
the eleventh hour. It proved a comfortable edifying season. After this
I rode to New-York in order to attend our meeting for sufferings,
held the next day at the ninth hour. In the course of the business
that came before us, the meeting was led into an exercise, on behalf
of that portion of the descendants of the Africans who are still held
in bondage in our state. A proposition was made for addressing our
state legislature on their account, in order, if possible, to obtain a
law for their emancipation; apprehending, that as the greater part of
these long-oppressed people had now obtained their freedom, those
who were still held, felt their condition much more aggravating, and
their bondage more intolerable; insomuch, that it appeared to us
altogether just and consistent with the duty of the legislature, to
restore to them the just right of freedom. After due consideration,
the proposition was acceded to, and a committee named to draft an
essay of an address accordingly.
Fifth day. This being our preparative meeting, in which our queries
were read, and answers prepared to go to the quarterly meeting. I
felt my mind exercised on account of the many deficiencies
apparent, particularly in the non-attendance of our religious
meetings, as a failure in that often leads to greater deficiencies in
other respects.
First day, the 13th. My mind was pretty largely opened in testimony
to the sufficiency of the divine light. The season was solemn, and I
hope instructive and profitable to many present.
At three o’clock in the afternoon, I attended an appointed meeting in
Woolver Hollow, a neighbourhood composed mostly of the
descendants of the Dutch. The season was instructive, and tending
to edification; and I parted with them under an humbling sense of
the favour.
Fifth day. Our monthly meeting being held at this time, answers
were received from our preparative meetings, to the five queries
usually answered, in which divers deficiencies were stated; but this
being frequently the case, it produced little or no concern to the
greater portion of the members; and I have been afraid at times,
that the queries would become a snare to us, and prove rather
hurtful than helpful.
First day, the 20th. Had a conflicting season in the forepart of our
meeting to-day with a worldly spirit, and the benumbing
consequences of a desire after riches. And while labouring under a
feeling of these states, with their stupifying effects, which were even
intolerable to bear, it often ran through my mind, that “the cares of
the world, the deceitfulness of riches,” and the lust of other things,
like briars and thorns, choke the good seed and prevent its growth.
And as I continued patiently under the labour, towards the close of
the meeting light sprang up and dispelled the darkness; in which
strength and ability were dispensed to communicate in a lively and
clear manner, showing the pernicious effects of those things,
wherever they obtained the ascendency in the minds of men and
women; elucidating the subject by the parable of our Lord,
concerning the rich man and Lazarus the beggar. It was, I believe, a
season of real instruction to some present, which I hope may not be
soon forgotten.
At three o’clock in the afternoon, I attended a meeting I had
previously appointed in a neighbouring village. It proved a
satisfactory season to my own mind, and generally so, I believe, to
all who attended. These favours are not to be lightly esteemed, but
held in grateful remembrance.
In the course of this week was our quarterly meeting, held at this
time at Flushing. Although some of the sittings were exercising and
arduous, yet in the main, I think, it was a favoured edifying season;
and we parted at the close of the public meeting on sixth day, under
a thankful sense that the Shepherd of Israel had not forsaken his
people, but was still graciously near, a present helper to all his
faithful and devoted children. In the course of this meeting, on the
evening of fifth day, I had an appointed meeting in the town of
Jamaica, among those not in profession with us, which proved a
very satisfactory season. The people’s minds appeared to be
gathered into true stillness, a situation most suitable to be taught
and instructed.
First day, the 27th. Sat our meeting mostly in silence, but towards
the close my mind was opened and led to communicate a short, but
lively testimony, which was introduced by the greatest part of the
first psalm of David: in the opening of which, the meeting appeared
generally to be gathered into a sweet, comfortable solemnity, and
we parted under a solemn sense of the unmerited favour.
In the course of this week, I attended, in company with most of the
committee of the quarterly meeting on the concern relative to
schools, the two preparative meetings in New-York, and that at
Flushing; also an appointed meeting at Brooklyn on third day
evening, and one at Newtown on fifth day evening. The last was a
very instructive favoured meeting.
First day, the 3d of 11th month. Sat our meeting to-day altogether in
silence. Spent the rest of the week principally in attention to my
temporal concerns, which I believe to be a Christian’s reasonable
duty; except that I attended in company with some of the quarterly
meeting’s committee on fifth day, the preparative meeting at
Cowneck. I sat the meeting for worship in silent suffering; but was
led in the preparative meeting, pretty largely to open the nature and
design of the concern of the yearly meeting, with regard to the pious
and guarded education of the youth of our society, particularly while
young and at school, in getting their necessary school learning; that
they might as much as possible, be kept out of harm’s way, by being
placed at schools under the care of pious religiously concerned
persons, members in society; who would be likely to co-operate with
the religious concern of their parents, in endeavouring, as much as
might be, to bring them up agreeably to apostolic exhortation: “In
the nurture and admonition of the Lord.” For there is nothing that
can more nearly and necessarily engage the minds of rightly
exercised parents, next to their own souls, than the religious welfare
of their children: for parents who can live in the neglect of this great
and incumbent duty, must be dead to every right exercise and
concern for the preservation and everlasting welfare of their tender
offspring.
First day, the 10th. Sat our meeting in silence: then rode several
miles to visit a person who was sick, and returned the next day.
I had to reflect on the great and serious loss sustained by a large
portion of mankind, from the want of due attention and a right
perseverance in the way of known duty while young in years; that
when they are advanced in age, and bodily infirmities interfere and
increase upon them, they are tossed up and down in their minds,
and can find no sure place of refuge for their souls; like a ship in the
midst of the ocean without a helm, and which can find no safe
anchoring ground.
On fourth day attended the funeral of a young woman on Cowneck,
who was taken away very suddenly, with about three hour’s illness. I
had an open time among the people that were assembled on this
solemn occasion, and was led to call their attention to the propriety
and necessity of an early preparation for death; and to show that it
manifested great presumption in such a poor impotent creature as
man, who was so sensible of the uncertainty of time, to dare to lay
his head down at night to take his natural rest, without knowing his
peace made with his God.
Fifth and sixth days. Attended, in company with some of the
committee of the quarterly meeting on the subject of schools, the
preparative meetings of Martinicock and Bethpage; both of which
were open favoured seasons, while the subject of our appointment
was under consideration.
On seventh day I attended the funeral of a very aged man of my
acquaintance, being upwards of ninety years old, who lived in the
town of Hempstead. There was a pretty large collection of the
neighbouring inhabitants present, among whom I was led and
strengthened to open divers necessary and important doctrines of
the gospel, in the clear demonstration of the spirit; and, I trust and
hope, to the edification and religious instruction of many present.
Surely it was the Lord’s doing, and to him belongs all the praise and
honour of his own works, and nothing due to man.
First day, the 17th. Sat our meeting in silence. It was a quiet solid
season. The rest of the week I was occupied in my husbandry
business, except attending our monthly meeting on fifth day.
First day, the 24th. My mind in our meeting to-day, was led into an
humbling exercise, under a sensible view of the great ascendency of
evil over the good among mankind in general, not excepting the best
regulated society among men. I was also led, under the saddening
prospect, to communicate to the meeting the feeling impressions of
my mind thereon, together with the causes of this great degeneracy
from the simplicity of the gospel of Christ; and that it was the effect
of a spirit of ease and carnal security, and being led and governed in
our conduct and works by custom and tradition, without taking the
pains to examine whether they were founded in truth and
righteousness or not; and when at times they are awakened by the
convicting evidence of truth on the mind, instead of willingly
submitting thereto, they call to their aid all the powers of their
reasoning faculties to drown the reprover’s voice, that so they may
rest secure in their ceiled houses. Alas for these in the trying hour of
final decision! how dreadfully saddening will be their prospects in a
dying hour!
First day, the 1st of 12th month. I sat with Friends at Westbury. The
meeting was for the most part a dull exercising season; but towards
the close I had a short testimony given me to communicate, in
which the state of the meeting was so opened as to have a very
reaching effect on most present; which spread life over the meeting,
and much tenderness and contrition were apparent. Surely have we
not cause for these favours, often to say with one formerly: “What
shall I render unto the Lord for all his benefits towards me.”
Second day. I attended the funeral of a near kinsman at Far
Rockaway, at which I had a very open time amongst the people
collected on that solemn occasion.
I returned home on third day, and the weather being cold and
inclement I was indisposed for several days after, which prevented
my attending our meeting on fifth day; a circumstance which very
seldom happens, as I am generally preserved in the enjoyment of
such a state of health, as to attend meetings when at home without
much omission: and which I consider as one among many especial
blessings and favours, dispensed by a kind and beneficent
Providence to me, a poor unworthy creature.
First day, the 8th. I left home this morning and rode to New-York,
and attended Friends’ meeting at Pearl-street in the afternoon, in
which I had to suffer, being dipped into a state of death. I felt as
though baptized for the dead, but as I patiently endured I was
helped towards the close to spread my exercise before the meeting,
and a degree of life was felt to arise, and some were quickened, but
with too many there appeared to be a great want of a right inward
engagement and travail of spirit, and these were sent empty away.
I tarried in town until fourth day, it being the time of our meeting for
sufferings. In the course of this meeting, we prepared a memorial to
lay before the legislature of our state, on behalf of the black people
still held in bondage among us. A committee was separated to
attend therewith, and we have a hope that it may prove effectual for
their relief.
Fifth day. Attended our preparative meeting, and had to spread
before my Friends the exercise of my mind, on account of the
neglect of too many among us in respect to the due observance of
discipline; which is a source of great weakness to society, and
especially so to those who are delinquent.
Sixth and seventh days. Spent in my usual vocations, accompanied
with quietness and peace of mind.
First day, the 15th. Almost as soon as I had taken my seat in our
meeting to-day, there was brought to my remembrance the following
exhortation of the apostle, accompanied with a degree of life: “To do
good, and to communicate, forget not.” As I quietly attended to the
impression, it led to communication and opened to a field of
doctrine, tending to show the indispensable obligation every real
Christian lies under, let his allotment in the Church or in the world at
large be what it may, to comply therewith, it being a divine
requisition. It is therefore reasonable to suppose that by a life of
steady and uniform industry, and from which man derives great
earthly felicity, and through the divine blessing, most individuals
would be enabled to fulfil the obligation; by which means all the
misery and distress that arise from poverty and want would be done
away from the Church of Christ, and agreeably to the prophecy of
Isaiah, no wasting or destruction be found within her borders; and
Christians would witness in their own experience, that it is more
blessed to give than to receive; as we should thereby approach
nearer to our divine original, from whom we receive every blessing
both spiritual and temporal.
The following part of the week I spent in my usual occupations,
except attending our monthly meeting on fifth day.
First day, the 22d. This day I attended the funeral of my brother
Stephen Hicks at Rockaway. There was a pretty large collection of
people on the occasion, among whom I was led to labour fervently
in the gospel, and largely to declare of the things concerning the
kingdom of God. The season was solemn, and by the prevalence of
the divine power that attended, many hearts were contrited and a
precious solemnity was spread over the assembly, worthy of our
deepest gratitude and thankfulness of heart. I returned home that
evening with sweet peace of mind.
Having for some time felt a draft on my mind to appoint a few
meetings in some adjacent neighbourhoods, to the south and east of
us, I left home on the seventh day of this week, accompanied by my
neighbour Jacob Willits, jr. We rode that afternoon to our friend
James Rushmore’s, at the Half-way Hollow Hills; where, by previous
notice, we had a comfortable satisfactory meeting in the evening,
mostly made up of those not in membership with us. The next day,
the first of the week, we had two meetings; one in the town of Islip
in the morning, at the residence of my son-in-law Joshua Willits, the
other at the third hour in the afternoon, in the school-house at the
village of Babylon. These were very solemn affecting meetings,
wherein many truths of the gospel were largely and livingly opened,
in the demonstration of the spirit, attended with a power that
humbled and contrited many hearts, and brought a general
solemnity over the meetings.
The next day we rode to our friend Thomas Whitson’s, on the south
side of our township. Had an appointed meeting there that evening,
which was also favoured with attendant gospel power; whereby my
mind was opened and led to sound forth an arousing testimony, in
order to stir up many present, who, for want of faithfulness and
obedience to manifested duty, were much behind in their day’s work:
and which, as it opened on my mind, I expressed to them to be not
only a cause of great loss and disadvantage in a religious sense to
themselves, but also to their families and their tender offspring.
Things were laid close home to these, and they excited to more
faithfulness and religious engagement.
At this place I was informed of the death of our Friend and
neighbour Elizabeth Jones, wife of Samuel Jones, whose funeral was
to be the next day. This information induced us to return home early
in the morning in order to attend the same. As she had many
connexions, there was a very large collection of people on the
occasion, many of whom were of divers persuasions. My heart and
mouth were opened to preach the gospel among them, and to
explain to the people the principles of the Christian religion, in a full
and clear manner, in the authority of truth. It was a highly favoured
season, in which truth reigned triumphant; and the Lord’s name and
power were praised and exalted over all.
Fifth day, the 2d of 1st month, 1817. I attended our meeting as
usual. It was quiet and comfortable. Near the close I had a short
testimony to communicate, to the excellency and exalted privileges
of the Christian state, which brought a precious covering over the
meeting.
First day, the 5th. Very soon after I took my seat in meeting to-day,
my mind was brought into a feeling sense and view of the superiour
excellency of the true Christian religion; and this can only be known
and possessed by a full and entire subjugation of our wills to the
divine will, and living in the practical part of that reasonable
injunction of our blessed Lord, to seek first the kingdom of God and
his righteousness; then every other blessing that is needful and
comfortable for us will be added, in the openings of the divine
counsel. But alas, how few there are who pay any right attention to
this excellent requisition, but on the contrary go on in their own
wills, and in the prosecution of their own schemes of profit and
pleasure, most generally at least until they marry, and settle
themselves in the care and concerns of a family. In all this time,
scarcely one in ten thousand of the human family even think of
seeking first the kingdom of God and his righteousness, or even
asking counsel of him in the weighty concern of marriage; upon a
right procedure in which, their present and future happiness greatly
depend, and for want of this previous care, they are often very
unequally yoked together; and when these have a family of children
about them, without any right ability and qualification to instruct
them, confusion and disorder ensue; and the poor children are left
to grow up without right cultivation, as brambles in the wilderness, a
lamentable case indeed: a view of which has often clothed my mind
with mourning. I was led largely to open these subjects to the
meeting under the influence of gospel love, and found peace in my
labour, the sure reward of faithfulness to manifested duty; and
whether the people will hear or forbear, it is not the business of the
instrument to be careful about, as the word that goeth forth will not
return void, but will accomplish the thing whereto it is sent; either to
instruct and comfort, or to reprove and condemn.
The rest of the week I was mostly employed in my temporal
concerns, except attending our preparative meeting on fifth day. The
meeting for worship was, I think, a favoured season.
First day the 12th. A silent meeting to-day.
Fourth day. Feeling my mind drawn to attend the monthly meeting of
Westbury, which was held to-day, I proceeded accordingly. In the
meeting for worship, I was led to show to Friends, under the
similitude of Israel’s travel, that it was not enough to be delivered
from our former sins, nor from the red sea of trials and obstructing
temptations, so as to rejoice on the banks of deliverance, and be fed
with heavenly manna, even angels’ food; nor to journey on towards
the promised Canaan, as far as Korah and his company; and to see
like them, the wonder-working power of Jehovah in the wilderness,
unless they also came to witness a complete death to their own
wills, so as to be entirely submissive to the will of our heavenly
Father; for otherwise they would be left to encompass as it were, a
mountain in the wilderness, until the old man, that is, self-will, is
entirely worn out and dies there, on this side Jordan: for nothing
short of that will open Jordan’s streams, and enable us to go
through on dry land. I had largely to open to Friends the mystery of
our redemption, in the demonstration of the spirit, showing the
necessity of continual perseverance and making progress in our
heavenly journey, otherwise we shall be liable to fall into a state of
ease and carnal security; and thereby make shipwreck of faith and a
good conscience, and our latter end be worse than the beginning;
like those of Israel, who fell in the wilderness and never obtained the
promised land.
Fifth day. Attended our monthly meeting. As it was the time of
answering our queries, I was engaged to stir up Friends to more
diligence, by faithfully scrutinizing their own individual states through
the medium of the queries, by which means they would be truly
useful to us; for otherwise the reading and answering them would
become a dead lifeless form.
First day, the 19th. A silent meeting to-day, in which my spirit was
grieved, as is too often the case in our meetings, from a sense of
the great want of real spiritual life, and the apparent deadness and
formality which too generally prevail; whereby it often happens that
a number appear drowsy and nodding, and some falling asleep, to
the great trouble and exercise of the living concerned members, who
are often led to mourn in secret on these accounts.
In the course of this week I attended our quarterly meeting held at
this time at Westbury. It was a season of close solemn searching,
and through the animating influence of the divine light and life, the
hidden things of Esau or the first nature, were brought to light and
judged. Although some, who had long covered themselves as with
thick clay, and were solacing themselves in their ceiled houses,
kicked like Jeshurun of old, when they were made to feel the
piercing edge of that sword which divides between soul and spirit,
joints and marrow, and is a discerner of the thoughts and intents of
the heart; yet the truth had its way over all their opposition, and in
the closing meeting reigned triumphant over all. Blessed be the Lord
for his unspeakable gifts dispensed to his faithful children.
First day, the 26th. My mind in our meeting to-day, was led to reflect
on the excellency and powerful effect of true faith. As the subject
opened, I found it my place to spread the prospect before the
meeting; in the communication whereof, life sprang up and the truth
was raised into dominion over all, and my heart was made thankful
for the unmerited favour.
The rest of the week I was busily employed in my domestic affairs,
and in taking the oversight and care of my stock; the weather being
very cold and frosty, and the earth covered with snow. Attended our
meeting on fifth day, at which there was a funeral of a deceased
Friend, an ancient maiden. I sat the greater part of the meeting in
silence, in which time there were two short testimonies delivered,
but without much apparent effect, as the seed of immortal life was
too much pressed down, as a cart with sheaves; and nothing is
sufficient to raise a meeting from such a state of death and stupor,
but the life-giving presence and powerful word of Him, who raised
Lazarus from the grave. As I patiently endured the necessary
baptism for the dead, towards the close of the meeting a little gleam
of light appeared, in which was brought to my remembrance that
passage of the wise man, that “Righteousness exalteth a nation.”
And as my inward eye was kept to the opening, it spread, and light
sprang up, in which I felt the truth of that saying, that “the Lord’s
people are willing in the day of his power;” and as I yielded to
communication, the life was raised into dominion, and ran as oil over
all. Surely it was the Lord’s doing and marvellous in mine eyes.
 CHAPTER XIII.
Engagements at and near home, 1817.—Visit to some parts of
the yearly meetings of Philadelphia and Baltimore, 1817.
First day, the 2d of 2d month, 1817. I was largely led forth in our
meeting to-day, on the different dispensations communicated to man
by his gracious Creator, in order for his recovery out of the fall, and
pointing out to the people the difference between the law state and
that of the gospel: showing that the former was a mere figure or
prelude to the latter, and that the first, with all its elementary rituals,
ceased where the latter begun; the first only affecting the body, the
latter principally the soul; the first only the shadow of good things,
the latter the substance of all good to man; by which he is
altogether redeemed from sin and death, as he submits willingly and
fully to the power of the gospel, and is thereby prepared for an
inheritance in eternal life.
In the course of this week, besides giving the necessary attention to
my temporal affairs, I made several friendly visits to the families of
some particular friends, in company with my wife and daughter
Elizabeth. Although I met with some occurrences, one in particular,
which produced considerable exercise on my mind, yet I had
satisfaction in the visits; believing that when they are properly made,
they often prove mutually comfortable and encouraging. Sat our
meeting on fifth day in silence.
First day, the 9th. Had a silent meeting to-day. This week afforded
occasion of deep inward exercise, and seasons of heart-searching, in
a view of the manifest declension of many among us from that
honest simplicity and faithfulness which so eminently characterized
our worthy predecessors, as also the increase of vanity and
immorality among the people without; and which I fear may have
been increased by the want of faithfulness among us, in the right
and full support of our Christian testimonies.
First day, the 16th. Soon after I took my seat in our meeting to-day,
my mind was quickened and led into a sympathetic feeling with the
state of Elijah, when he fled from the wrath and persecution of Ahab
and Jezebel, and when under great discouragement and dismay he
bemoaned his condition; saying, that they had pulled down the
Lord’s altars, slain his servants, and he only was left and they sought
his life; but the Lord told him for his encouragement, that there were
seven thousand yet left in Israel, who had not bowed their knee to
the image of Baal. But these no doubt were so scattered and
dispersed among the people, that Elijah could scarcely find one to
whom he might open his mind, and therefore felt himself as one
alone. This no doubt is the lot of some of the Lord’s most faithful
servants in the present day, and was it not for the same divine help
and succour that Elijah experienced, some of these at times would
be altogether cast down and discouraged.
The subject spread and enlarged, and opened to a field of doctrine;
wherein I was led to show to the people that the mystery of iniquity
had wrought in and under every dispensation of God to the Church
through its varied transformations, and always resembling as much
as may be, an angel of light; by which it lies in wait to deceive, and
has generally deceived, and still deceives, the greater part of the
people of all the nations under heaven; setting up its post by God’s
post, and leading its votaries to perform their worship and works
just like the Lord’s servants, with only this difference, that it is done
in a way and time of their own heart’s devising. But the Lord’s
children are all taught of the Lord, and they are made to know it; for
in righteousness they are established, and great is the peace of
these children; and there is no peace to the wicked, to such as walk
in their own wills, and in the way of their own heart’s devising.
On fifth day of this week, was our monthly meeting, at which we
had the company of a Friend in the ministry from one of our upper
quarterly meetings. He preached the truth to us in a pretty correct
manner; but I thought I never saw, with greater clearness than at
this time, that ministers might preach the literal truth, and yet not
preach the real gospel: and herein is witnessed the truth of that
saying of the apostle, that “the letter,” however true, “killeth;” “but
the spirit,” and the spirit only, “giveth life.” And it is a great thing
when ministers keep in remembrance that necessary caution of the
divine Master, not to premeditate what they shall say; but carefully
to wait in the nothingness and emptiness of self, that what they
speak may be only what the Holy Spirit speaketh in them; then will
they not only speak the truth, but the truth, accompanied with
power, and thereby profit the hearers.
First day, 23d. A silent meeting to-day. Nothing transpired in the
course of this week, which required particular notice. Sat our
meeting on fifth day in silence.
First day, the 2d of 3d month. Having felt my mind for several weeks
past drawn to visit Bethpage meeting, I rode thither to-day in
company with my wife. It was rather a low dull time, but as I
continued in the patience, a small prospect opened on the excellency
of justice, and the right bringing up of children. It led to a
communication instructive and edifying, for which I was made
thankful.
First day, the 9th. This day as I sat in our meeting, my mind was led
to view the exalted and precious state those enjoyed, who were
brought by their faithfulness to witness in themselves the fulfilment
of the first and great commandment, that of loving God above all; as
they would thereby likewise know the fulfilment of the second, that
of loving their neighbour as themselves. As the subject spread on
my mind I believed it right to express it to the assembly, which
brought a precious solemnity over the meeting, and, I trust, it was
an instructive season to some present.
This week principally spent in the care of my temporal concerns and
in lending assistance to the needy, and in the course of which my
mind was often attended with comforting ejaculations after this
manner. “The Lord is my strength and my song, the lifter up of mine
head and my salvation; therefore I will not fear what man can do
unto me. He leadeth me about and instructeth me, and preserveth
me from the snare of the fowler, and from the strife of tongues.”
First day, the 16th. Our meeting to-day was large and solemn, and
mostly silent. A little before the close, an exhortation of the apostle
Peter was brought before the view of my mind: “Be sober, be
vigilant; because your adversary the devil, as a roaring lion, walketh
about seeking whom he may devour.” As the subject opened I found
it my duty to spread it before the meeting, with some observations
thereon, tending to excite the people to diligence, inasmuch as there
could be no doubt of the truth of the apostle’s testimony; hence it
was necessary for each one to keep the watch, resisting him
steadfast in the faith. The communication though short, was so
attended with the quickening power of the gospel, as to reach,
affect, and tender many minds, and brought a solemn awe over the
meeting. Such seasons are worthy of grateful acknowledgments to
the blessed Author of all our rich mercies.
Spent this week mostly at and about home, enjoying sweet peace of
mind, and the solace of heart-felt thankfulness to the Shepherd of
Israel for the unmerited favour. Attended the funeral of a deceased
neighbour on fourth day and our monthly meeting on fifth day. The
funeral was largely attended by the neighbouring inhabitants, among
whom I was led forth vocally to espouse the cause of the gospel, in
a large impressive testimony. Many hearts were humbled, and the
assembly in general solemnized; may it be to these as bread cast
upon the waters, gathered after many days.
First day, the 23d. Our meeting to-day was a season thankfully to be
remembered. The subject that arrested my mind and led to
communication, was a comparative view of man with the rest of the
animal creation; showing that man, although endued with a rational
understanding, and blessed with a measure and manifestation of the
spirit of God, to guide him infallibly in the way of his duty, had
nevertheless swerved much further from the state of rectitude in
which he was created, than any other creature; and was much more
changeable and unstable than they. This is a sure mark of his fall:
and although continually liable and willing to change, to gratify his
own will and the humour of others, in following the changeable
customs and manners of a vain world; yet averse to that necessary
and laudable change, whereby he might regain paradise and renew
communion with his Maker. This and much more I was led to open
to the auditory, in the demonstration of the spirit, showing the way
of man’s return; whereby many minds present were humbled and
contrited, and solid satisfaction and comfort afforded to my own.
On fourth day, I attended a marriage at Bethpage. It was, I think, a
solid instructive season. On fifth day attended our own meeting
which was held in silence. The rest of the week I was busily
attentive to my usual avocations.
First day, the 30th. I attended Westbury meeting, wherein my mind
was opened into a view of man’s primitive state, the manner and
means of his fall, and the way whereby he only can be restored, all
which I had largely to spread before the meeting. In addition to this,
I had also to caution Friends, particularly the youth, against letting
their minds out in their own will and wisdom, into a search and
pursuit after forbidden knowledge, particularly that of the origin of
evil, which in the present day is a subject of much conversation and
inquiry. For man in the beginning was forbidden the knowledge of
good and evil, and that command is as binding and obligatory in the
present day as it was in the primitive state; therefore all those who
presume in their own wills and creaturely wisdom, independent of
the teaching of the spirit of God, to know good and evil, do thereby
desert God, and so become dead to the divine life; and this is man’s
fall, and leads to Deism and Atheism.
I was much engaged in the course of this week in endeavouring to
arrange and settle some difficulties in the neighbourhood, and in
regulating some of my own temporal affairs. Sat our meeting on fifth
day in silence.
First day, the 6th of 4th month. Sat our meeting to-day in silence. In
the afternoon at the fourth hour, we had a meeting appointed by a
Friend from abroad, who was accompanied by another Friend in the
ministry, both of whom appeared in public testimony.
Most of this week I was occupied about home. Attended our
preparative meeting on fifth day, which being the time of answering
our queries to go forward to the yearly meeting, I was led to make
several remarks to Friends to stir them up to more faithfulness, in
order that we might profit by the queries, and be prepared to
answer them with more clearness and propriety, according to truth
and justice.
First day, the 13th. Sat our meeting to-day in silence. This week our
monthly meeting was held, at which the state of society as
represented by the answers to the queries from our preparative
meetings was attended to, and a summary thereof forwarded to the
quarterly meeting to be held the following week. This order of
reading and answering the queries quarterly, if rightly attended to,
and Friends were generally kept lively in spirit, and were zealously
engaged for the promotion of truth, would, I believe, be productive
of much good to the society: but alas! there are so many who seem
lulled asleep in the lap of the world, and their minds clothed with so
much indifferency, that it is to them but a dead lifeless form. Surely
these reap little or no advantage from their right of membership
among us.
Sixth day. Was our preparative meeting of Ministers and Elders, in
which nothing transpired worthy of notice.
First day, the 20th. Our meeting to-day, as well as at some former
times, has been rather heavy and dull. In the course of this week I
attended our quarterly meeting, held at this time at New-York. It
was in general rather a low time, although not without some
manifestations of divine favour: therefore we had no cause for
murmuring but rather of rejoicing, in that we were not cast off and
forgotten.
First day, the 27th. Sat our meeting again in silence. My present
allotment is to be mostly at home, generally engaged in temporal
concerns for myself and others. But, I trust, instead of increasing my
love to the world and the things of it, I am fast weaning from it, and
my love continually increasing and strengthening to higher and
better objects; as my attention to the world and its cares arises from
necessity and duty, and not from love, except that I love to do my
duty in all respects to God my Creator, and man my fellow creature,
believing that there is no real Christianity without it.
Our fifth day meeting was quiet and solemn, wherein I had to
remind Friends that it was not enough to say with Peter, when
queried of by his Master whether he loved him, “yea Lord,” for this is
no more than every professor is ready to say, although they may be
quite void of any true sense thereof; but we must come to know him
and love him in such manner, as when brought to a full trial of our
faith and love, we can say as Peter did in his third answer: “Lord
thou knowest all things, thou knowest that I love thee.” For this is
the situation of mind which prepares to be at his disposal, and to
endure hardness for his sake in the Christian warfare.
First day, the 4th of 5th month. My mind was led into an interesting
view and reflection on the following gracious invitation of our Lord:
“Come unto me, all ye that labour and are heavy laden, and I will
give you rest. Take my yoke upon you, and learn of me: for I am
meek and lowly in heart, and ye shall find rest unto your souls.” As
the subject spread on my mind attended with a degree of life, I was
constrained to communicate the prospect, showing that Christ’s yoke
was nothing less nor more than the revealed will of his, and our,
heavenly Father; which, as it is faithfully submitted to, yokes down
and keeps in subjection every desire and propensity of the human
mind which stands in opposition thereto. So that the creature hereby
knows God’s kingdom to be come, and his will to be done, in earth
as it is done in heaven; and the reward of rest and peace promised
in the closing part of the invitation is experienced.
The following part of this week spent principally in my usual
vocations, except attending our preparative meeting on fifth day;
and at the third hour in the afternoon, the funeral of our Friend
Joshua Powell of Westbury, who was taken from us after a short
illness, by a sudden inflammation and mortification in one of his
arms. How true is that saying of the prophet: “All flesh is grass, and
all the goodliness thereof is as the flower of the field; the grass
withereth, the flower fadeth;” just such is man, alive to-day, to-
morrow is dead. This subject very sensibly impressed my mind at
the funeral, and led to an awakening communication, which had a
very reaching effect on the assembly. I hope the word that went
forth will not return void, but prove a blessing to some who were
present.
First day, the 11th. Our meeting to-day was a trying season, but
little felt of the real virtue and life of religion. It seemed as though
we were in a worse condition than the multitude formerly; for there
was a lad found among them with five barley loaves and a few
fishes, which served for the blessing to operate upon and enlarge, so
as to suffice the multitude and leave fragments remaining; but we
were almost, or altogether destitute of any thing for the blessing of
heaven to act upon. Therefore we ought not to murmur, although
we were sent empty away.
Except attending our monthly meeting on fifth day, and assisting
some of my neighbours to settle their business in which a dispute
had arisen, I was principally occupied in my temporal concerns
through the week.
First day, the 18th. A silent meeting to-day. The rest of this week
busily employed preparatory to leaving home to attend our
approaching yearly meeting. Left home early on seventh day
morning, and got into the city seasonably to attend the opening of
the yearly meeting of Ministers and Elders at the tenth hour. On
second day at the same hour, the meeting for discipline opened, and
continued by adjournments until the seventh day following. In the
forenoon of that day at about eleven o’clock it closed, under a
comfortable evidence that the divine presence presided; and which,
with thankfulness and gratitude we have humbly to acknowledge,
has, in gracious condescension, been vouchsafed to us in the several
sittings of our large solemn assembly, in as great, if not greater
degree, than has been witnessed in any previous season: tending to
unite all the rightly concerned members in a living travail, for the
promotion of the cause of truth and righteousness, and the
spreading and exaltation of those precious testimonies given us as a
people to bear for the Prince of Peace.
First day, the 1st of 6th month. Attended our own meeting to-day in
humbling silence. Spent the week at and about home, except
attending the funeral of our ancient Friend Isaac Underhill of
Flushing, on sixth day; on which occasion a meeting was held in
Friends’ meeting-house at that place. It was a very solemn, and, I
trust, a profitable season to some present. My mouth was opened
among them to testify of the things concerning the kingdom of God,
in a large affecting testimony, whereby many hearts were contrited
and made humbly thankful for the present favour, and I was glad in
believing that the Lord is still mindful of his people, and is graciously
disposed to strengthen and support them in the needful time; as
their eye is kept single to him, looking to him only for help and
salvation.
First day, the 8th. Had a comfortable meeting to-day. The testimony
to the power of truth went forth freely to the people, comforting and
contriting many minds present. This is the Lord’s doing and is worthy
of grateful acknowledgments from his people, for such continued yet
unmerited mercy.
On third day I attended a meeting at Bethpage, appointed by our
friends Elizabeth Coggeshall and Ann Shipley of New-York, who were
now among us on a religious visit. It was, I think, a season of great
favour; not only the two women appeared in seasonable and
appropriate testimonies, tending to gather the minds of the people
into a very comfortable solemnity, but also, my heart and mouth
were opened in a large affecting testimony, which found a ready
entrance into the minds of most present, breaking down all
opposition and contriting many hearts by the prevalence of truth,
which ran as oil over all. After this, our friend Elizabeth closed the
service in solemn supplication. It was a day of favour, worthy of
grateful remembrance.
On fifth day I attended our preparative meeting, in which I had
some service for the promotion of truth’s cause. The four other days
of this week, I spent in my usual necessary avocations.
First day, the 15th. Nothing in particular to remark respecting the
exercise of this day.
On the fourth day of this week, our monthly meeting was held, in
which I was led into some close searching exercise, in order to stir
up Friends to more diligence and circumspection, that so their light
might shine forth to the help of others, and their conduct appear
consonant with their profession. In this meeting I found it expedient
and consistent with my duty, to open to Friends a prospect and
concern which had for a considerable time rested on my mind, to
pay a visit in gospel love, to Friends and others in some parts of the
yearly meetings of Philadelphia and Baltimore. The subject obtained
the solid attention of the meeting, and some Friends were appointed
to confer with me on the subject, and, as way opened, prepare an
essay of a certificate for that purpose, and produce it to our next
meeting.
First day, the 22d. Whilst sitting in our meeting to-day, my mind was
led into a view of the great and singular advantages that would
accrue to the children of men, from their having right and just ideas
of religion, the want of which was the principal cause of all the
distress and misery that fell to their lot, both here and hereafter. The
subject spread, and, as I communicated, opened to a large field of
doctrine, which had a very reaching effect upon the assembly, and a
very precious solemnity was spread over the meeting; for which my
heart was made truly glad, with that gladness that hath no sorrow
with it.
The rest of the week I was busily employed in the care of my
temporal concerns, which nevertheless has no tendency, if kept
within right bounds, to prevent internal religious exercises, and
spiritual meditations and soliloquies. Sat our fifth day meeting in
silence.
First day, the 29th. I sat our meeting to-day in a sense of great
weakness, in which I realized the truth of David’s testimony: “Verily
every man at his best estate is altogether vanity.”
Except attending in silent meditation our fifth day meeting, and the
funeral of the only daughter of my brother Samuel, on seventh day, I
was engaged as usual during the week, in my family cares; which
indeed is an arduous task, if rightly performed, and every
department duly cared for in its right season, consistent with our
moral and religious duty. The funeral mentioned above was a solemn
one, in which I was largely led forth to testify of the things
concerning the kingdom of God; opening the way of life and
salvation to the people, in the demonstration of the spirit. The
assembly were generally solemnized by the efficacy of the power
which attended, and truth raised into victory over all. Such favours
are truly worthy of deep heart-felt gratitude and thanksgiving to the
God and Father of all our sure mercies, who is over all, worthy for
ever.
First day, the 6th of 7th month. Soon after I took my seat in our
meeting to-day, my mind was opened into a view of the great need
man stands in of a Saviour, and that nothing can give him so full and
lively a sense thereof, as a true sight and sense of his own real
condition; by which he is not only brought to see the real want of a
Saviour, but is also shown thereby, what kind of a Saviour he needs.
For it must not only be one, who is continually present, but who is
possessed of a prescience sufficient to see, at all times, all man’s
enemies, and every temptation that may or can await him; and have
power sufficient to defend him from all, and at all times. Therefore,
such a Saviour as man wants, cannot be one without him, but must
be one that is always present, just in the very place man’s enemies
assault him, which is within, in the very temple of the heart: as no
other Saviour but such an one, who takes his residence in the very
centre of the soul of man, can possibly produce salvation to him:
hence, for man to look for a Saviour or salvation any where else,
than in the very centre of his own soul, is a fatal mistake, and must
consequently land him in disappointment and errour.
I was led forth to communicate largely to the people on the subject;
and on the blessed effects that do, and will result to all those who
find such a Saviour, and who, in humility and sincerity of heart,
follow him faithfully in the way of his leadings. It was a solemn
season, and a day thankfully to be remembered.
I was taken up principally the rest of this week, except attending our
preparative meeting on fifth day, in my hay harvest. It is a laborious
season; and is made much more so by reason of there being so few
faithful labourers, among those who offer themselves as such. Most
of them are more anxiously careful how they may obtain the highest
wages, than to be engaged honestly to strive justly to earn them.
This makes the care and oversight of such business rather irksome
and unpleasant, which otherwise would be agreeable and often
delightful.
First day, the 13th. I sat our meeting in silence. This week I was
mostly taken up in caring for and assisting in, my hay harvest. For
by the fertility of the season, our fields have brought forth
plenteously. On fifth day our monthly meeting was held, in which
Friends united with the concern I had laid before them at the
preceding monthly meeting, to pay a visit in gospel love to Friends
and others, in some parts of the yearly meetings of Philadelphia and
Baltimore. A certificate was prepared for the purpose, leaving me at
liberty to proceed therein, as way should open.
First day, the 20th. A solemn, and, I trust, a profitable meeting to-
day, in which the gospel was preached freely in the demonstration of
truth, and a precious covering was felt to spread over the assembly;
and sweet peace clothed my mind at the conclusion. Surely the Lord
is a bountiful and rich rewarder of all his faithful servants, who serve
him, not for reward, but for the sake of that love wherewith he
loveth them, and which he so abundantly sheddeth abroad in their
hearts, that they are thereby drawn to love him above all; and in
and under the influence of this precious love, they are led and
constrained to serve and worship him freely for his own sake,
because he is worthy, and not for any reward to themselves,
because they are altogether unworthy; and because that precious
love wherewith he hath loved them, and with which he hath filled
their hearts, hath banished and dispelled therefrom every germ of
self-love, and all kind of selfishness. Nevertheless, of his own rich
bounty and free will, without any real merit on our part, he
abundantly and plenteously bestoweth his blessings upon all his
faithful servants and children, whereby their love to him is
continually increased, until he becomes their all in all, their alpha
and omega, and they are brought into the possession of that perfect
love that casteth out all fear; and in which they are enabled
continually to worship and adore Him who liveth for ever, and who
only is everlastingly worthy of all blessing and praise.
In the course of this week was our quarterly meeting, which was
held at this time at Westbury. It was a season of exercise to all who
were concerned for the promotion of right order in the Church; and
much counsel, reproof, and admonition, were communicated, under
right influence, to stir up the negligent and refractory members to
more faithfulness and attention to their several duties, and a more
full submission to the manifestations of divine grace in their own
minds, that they may be thereby strengthened to arise, and shake
themselves from the dust of the earth, and separate themselves
from those hindering and annoying things, which divert and turn
them aside from their Christian duty, and those things in which their
best interest consists. The meeting for worship was likewise a
favoured season. Many very important truths of the gospel were
clearly opened in the demonstration of the spirit; and the meeting
closed under a thankful sense of the unmerited mercy; and the living
among us separated to their several homes with grateful hearts.
I laid before this meeting my prospect of a religious visit as
aforementioned, and received the unity and concurrence of the
men’s and women’s meetings; and an endorsement thereof was
made on my certificate. Being now left at liberty, and separated to
the work whereunto I believed myself called by the Holy Spirit, and
knowing my own insufficiency, and that of myself I can do nothing,
all that remains for me is to cast my care wholly on him, in full faith,
who hath called me; and, as I abide in the patience and in a full
submission to his heavenly will, he that putteth his servants forth,
will in his own right time go before them and make way for them,
without which there is no way; and will make darkness light before
them, and not forsake, but safely carry them through and over all
the opposition and discouragements, that either men or devils may
or can cast in the way, to the exceeding praise of his grace, and to
the glory and exaltation of his great and excellent name, who is over
all, God blessed for ever.
First day, the 27th. My mind while sitting in our meeting to-day, was
led into a view of the great necessity there was of more faithfulness
and attention to the inward principle of divine truth, or inward
teacher in the mind, as professed by us as a people. For want of
this, many were led into divers errours and deficiencies, which in
their tendency not only led to great weakness, but to the
encouragement of evil doers in their evil practices; a sight and sense
of which had for some time been a cause of much exercise to my
mind. The subject became very impressive, insomuch that I found it
necessary to spread it before the meeting in a large arousing
testimony; laying before the auditory the great danger many were in
for want of a living concern to work out, through the assistance of
divine grace, their salvation while the day of visitation was
lengthened out. For nothing short of a full submission to the
operation of divine truth on their minds could fit and prepare them
for the awful approaching season, when the pale-faced messenger
shall arraign us before the judgment seat of Him, whom we can
neither awe nor bribe, to give an account of the deeds done in the
body, whether good or evil. A solemn weight spread over the
meeting and many minds appeared to be deeply humbled. May the
exhortation be fixed in their remembrance, as a nail in a sure place
that may not be moved, is the fervent desire of my mind.
The rest of this week I was busily employed in endeavouring so to
arrange my temporal matters, that when I leave home on the
prospect before me, I may feel my mind at full liberty therefrom, and
that no occasion may be given, through the medium of any of my
temporal engagements, for the enemies of truth to gainsay or find
fault, to the disadvantage or reproach of the great and dignified
cause I was about to embark in. For I have been led to believe some
who have gone out on this solemn embassy, for want of this care
have given too much occasion for censure, and have thereby
wounded the cause they have proposed to promote, and brought
much exercise on the minds of the faithful.
On fifth day at our meeting, my mind was deeply bowed in
commemoration of the Lord’s continued mercies, and that indeed it
might be said of us as it was of Israel formerly, that it was of the
Lord’s mercies we were not consumed; and I was made thankful in
believing, that there was a small remnant who were preserved
faithful to his name and cause, and who were the salt of the society,
and for whose sake he would not utterly cast us off nor forsake us.
Surely it is of his unmerited mercy that we are not swallowed up in
the mass of the people, and numbered among the unstable
multitude who have no sure and solid foundation to rest their hopes
upon, but are trusting in a ceremonial religion, of man’s invention;
all which in the day of trial will fail them, and afford no succour to
the soul.
First day, the 3d of 8th month. My mind was brought under exercise
in our meeting to-day, in a view of the great want of diligent
attention to the light within, or that measure of the spirit given to
every one of God’s rational creatures to profit withal; even those
who were so far convinced as to acknowledge its excellence, yet
were almost daily neglecting its reproofs, and turning aside from its
teachings; by which their understandings became darkened, and
they were left in a dwarfish unstable condition, without any solid
ground of hope. The subject spread, and my mind was led into a
large arousing testimony, setting forth the danger of such a state,
and the fatal consequences that would naturally and certainly follow
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