Introduction

As an archipelago country, Indonesia has a coastline that reaches

81,000 km in length. Supported by an astronomical location that
places Indonesia on the equator, it makes Indonesia gets
sufficient sunlight and rainfall, making it possible for many plants
to grow here, especially mangroves. Mangrove forests are the
main ecosystem that supports important life in coastal and
marine areas. Considering the many benefits produced by
mangrove forests as a transitional ecosystem between land and
sea, it is very important to maintain their sustainability. As is
known, mangrove forests have various functions, such as a
producer of organic materials, a shelter for various types of
animals, a spawning place for various types of fish and shrimp, a
coastal protector from abrasion, a producer of wood, firewood,
charcoal and tannin (Soejardwo , 1979).
However, excessive use of mangrove forests by the community
causes critical land in coastal areas. There is degradation of
mangrove forests due to logging of mangrove forests that exceed
their sustainability limits. This land is converted into various
economic activities such as expanding agricultural areas,
aquaculture, building docks and so on. Over-exploitation as above
can be found especially in Aceh, Sumatra, Riau, South Sulawesi,
Bali, East Kalimantan and the North Coast of Java especially is the
coastal area of the Kepulauan Seribu Utara.
Along with increasing population growth and the economic needs
of the surrounding community as well as regional development,
disruption of surrounding resources has also become a target.
This condition certainly causes damage and decline in the
potential of natural resources, especially mangrove forests and
other natural wealth. Based on the thoughts above, this paper
tries to describe the existing conditions of the aquatic
environment, problems and potential in Kepulauan Seribu Utara.
Thus, in the future strategic planning can be carried out to
manage these coastal resources.

Formulation of the problem

In this paper, the problem needs to be formulated as below:
1. What is the condition of water areas in Kepulauan Seribu Utara
generally and the condition of mangrove forests in particular?
2. What are the potentials and uses in the study area?
3. What problems exist in the study area?
4. How to analyze the potential for more appropriate use?

Objective
1. Know the condition of water areas in general in the North
Seribu Islands and the condition of mangrove forests in particular
2. Know the potential and utilization in the study area
3. Know the problems in the study area

Literature review
Overview of Indonesian Mangroves
Generally, mangroves can be found throughout the Indonesian
archipelago. The largest mangroves are in Papua which is around
1,350,600 ha (38%), Kalimantan 978,200 ha (28%) and Sumatra
673,300 ha (19%) while the area of mangroves in North Sumatra
is 7300 ha. In these areas and other areas, mangroves grow and
develop well on beaches that have large, protected rivers.
Although mangroves can grow in other environmental systems in
coastal areas, the most rapid development is recorded in these
areas. (Noor et al., 2006)
So far in Indonesia there have been recorded at least 202 types of
mangrove plants, including 89 types of trees, 5 types of palms, 19
types of climbers, 44 types of ground herbs, 44 types of epiphytes
and 1 type of fern. Of the 202 types, 43 types include true
mangroves which consist of tree species and several types of
shrubs, while other types are found around mangroves and are
known as associated mangrove species. Throughout the world,
Saenger, et al (1983) recorded as many as 60 types of true
mangrove plants. Thus, it can be seen that Indonesia has a high
diversity of species. (Noor et al., 2006) General Condition of the
Mangrove Ecosystem Mangroves are plants typical of tropical
areas that only grow well at temperatures from 190 C to 400 C
with a fluctuation tolerance of no more than 100 C. Various types
of mangroves that grow on the shoreline and spread out into the
sea water zone, constitute a unique ecosystem. Distinctive
because it survives in two transition zones between land and
ocean, while other plants are unable to survive. A collection of
various types of trees that seem to front the coastline are
collectively called mangrove forests. Mangrove forests provide
protection for various organisms, both land and aquatic animals,
to live and reproduce (Irwanto, 2006).
The mangrove ecosystem is an ecotone area between marine and
terrestrial communities, so it has its own characteristics. The
mangrove community is very different from the marine
community, but is not significantly different from the land
community where there are freshwater swamps as an
intermediate zone. Chapman (1976) classified mangrove
vegetation into: major mangroves, minor mangroves and
associated plants. Major mangrove plants (true mangroves) live
entirely in tidal areas, can form pure stands, adapt to salinity
through penematophores, viviparous embryos, filtration and salt
excretion mechanisms, and are taxonomically different from land
plants. Minor mangroves are distinguished by their inability to
form pure stands, while association plants are plants that are
tolerant to salinity and can interact with major mangroves.
Mangrove forests are formed due to protection from waves, fresh
water input, sedimentation, tidal water flows, and warm
temperatures. Internal processes in this community such as
energy fixation, organic material production and nutrient cycling
are strongly influenced by external processes such as fresh and
tidal water supply, nutrient supply and sediment stability. The
main factors that influence mangrove communities are salinity,
soil type, and resistance to water currents and sea waves. These
factors vary along the transect from the seashore to the
mainland, so that under natural conditions, human intervention is
very limited in forming vegetation zonation (Giesen , 1993).
Mangrove Zoning The mangrove ecosystem is very complicated,
because there are many factors that influence each other, both
inside and outside its growth and development. Based on where
they grow, mangrove areas are divided into several zones, which
are called the dominant vegetation types (Arief, 2003). Mangrove
vegetation typically shows a zonation pattern. Zoning in the
mangrove ecosystem can be seen as a succession process and is
the result of the ecosystem's reaction to forces coming from
outside. This condition occurs because of the role and ability of
mangrove plant species in adapting to the environment in coastal
areas. The zonation of plants that form the mangrove component
produces varied patterns that indicate different environmental
conditions at each research location (Department of Forestry,
1994). The zoning that occurs in mangrove forests is influenced
by several factors, including the frequency of inundation, salinity,
dominance of plant species, tidal water movements and the
openness of the mangrove forest location to wind and waves, as
well as the distance of plants from the coastline (Arief, 2003 ).
According to (Odum, 1972) the structure of the mangrove
ecosystem can be broadly divided into three types of formation,
namely: 1. Coastal Mangrove: This type is influenced by dominant
sea water over river water. The horizontal structure of this
formation from sea to land is starting from pioneer plants
(Sonneratia alba), followed by a mixed community of Soneratia
alba, Avicennia sp, Rhizophora apiculata, then a pure Rhizophora
sp community and finally a mixed community of Rhizophora–
Bruguiera. If inundation continues, you will find a pure Nypa
fructicans community behind the last mixed community. (Munisa,
2003) 2. Estuary Mangrove: In this type, the influence of sea
water is as strong as the influence of river water. Estuarine
mangroves are characterized by a thin layer of Rhizophora sp. At
the edge of the channel, followed by a mixed community of
Rhizophora – Bruguiera and ending with a pure community of
Nypa sp. 3. River mangroves: In this type, the influence of river
water is more dominant than sea water, and develops on river
banks which are relatively far from the estuary. Mangroves are
often associated with land communities. Bengen (2002) stated
that the types of trees that make up mangrove forests, in
Indonesia, if traced from the sea to the land, can be divided into 4
zones, namely: Fire Zone – Prepat (Avicennia – Sonneratia)
Located at the outermost/farthest or closest to the sea, the
condition of the muddy soil is rather soft (shallow), with a slightly
sandy substrate, little organic matter and a rather high salt
content. This zone is usually dominated by api-api (Avicennia sp.)
and prepat (Sonneratia sp.), and is usually associated with
mangrove species (Rhizophora sp). Mangrove Zone (Rhizophora)
Usually located behind fires and prepats, the ground is soft (deep)
muddy. In general, it is dominated by mangroves (Rhizophora sp.)
and in some places it is found associated with other species such
as tanjang (Bruguiera sp.). Bare Zone (Bruguiera) Located behind
the mangrove zone, some distance from the sea close to land.
The muddy conditions are quite hard, some distance from the
coastline. In general, it grows with the tanjang species (Bruguiera
sp.) and in some places is associated with other species. Nipah
Zone (Nypa fructicant) This zone is located furthest from the sea
or closest to land. This zone contains water with very low salinity
compared to other zones, the soil is hard, less influenced by tides
and most of it is on the banks of rivers near the sea. In general, it
grows nipah species (Nypa fructicant) and several other palm
species.
Mangrove Plant Adaptations The evolutionary process causes
mangrove species to have several distinctive biological
characteristics as a form of adaptation, which is mainly aimed at
overcoming fluctuating salinity, anaerobic and unstable mud
conditions, as well as for reproduction. Salinity Most plants have a
very low tolerance for salinity, so they are unable to grow in or
near sea water. This happens because most living creature tissues
are more fluid than sea water, as a result water from within plant
tissues can escape due to the osmosis process, so that plants dry
out, wither and die. This harsh environment causes the diversity
of mangrove forests to tend to be lower than that of tropical rain
forests in general (Efendi, 1999). Mangrove plants grow best in
freshwater and seawater environments in a balanced ratio (1:1).
High salinity is basically not a prerequisite for the growth of
mangroves, it has been proven that several mangrove species
can grow well in freshwater environments. On Christmas Island,
Bruguieracylindrica grows for thousands of years in freshwater
lakes, while in the Bogor Botanical Gardens B. sexangula grows
for hundreds of years in freshwater environments. The cessation
of the spread of mangroves into freshwater environments appears
to be due to their inability to compete with other species, thus
developing adaptations to grow in salt water, where other plants
are unable to survive (Gosalam, 2000). Adaptation to salinity
generally takes the form of excretory glands to remove excess
salt from the tissue and ultrafiltration to prevent the entry of salt
into the tissue. Mangrove plants can prevent more than 90% of
salt from entering through a filtration process in the roots. The
absorbed salt is quickly excreted by salt glands in the leaves or
stored in the bark and old leaves that are about to fall (Nybakken,
1993). Some mangrove plants such as Avicennia, Acanthus and
Aegiceras have salt secretion organs. The salt concentration in
the fluid is usually high, about 10% of seawater. Some of the salt
is released through the salt glands and then evaporated by wind
or rain. This can be felt by tasting the leaves of mangrove plants
or other parts (Nybakken, 1993). Mangrove plants such as
Bruguiera, Lumnitzera, Rhizophora, and Sonneratia do not have
salt excretion organs. For this reason, the cell membrane on the
root surface is able to prevent the entry of most salts and
selectively absorb certain ions through the ultrafiltration process.
However, this does not always happen perfectly, the excess salt
that is absorbed is removed through transpiration through the
stomata or stored in the leaves, stems and roots, so that
mangrove plant leaves often have very high salt levels (Nontji
1993). Respiratory root Mangrove plants have special adaptations
to grow in soft, salty and oxygen-deficient soil, which most plants
cannot. Oxygen supply to roots is very important for growth and
nutrient absorption. Because mangrove soil is often anaerobic,
some mangrove plants form special pneumatophore structures
(breathing roots). The roots that rise above the ground are filled
with spongy parenchyma tissue (aerenchyma) and have many
small pores in the bark so that oxygen can enter and be
transported to the root system underground. These roots also
function as a support structure for the tree in soft mud soil.
Mangrove plants have different forms of respiratory roots (Sikong,
1987). Horizontal roots that spread widely, where
pneumatophores grow vertically upwards, are anchors for hooking
into the mud. There are four types of pneumatophores, namely
support roots (stilt, prop), peg roots (snorkel, peg, pencil), knee
roots (knee, knob), and plank roots (ribbon, plank). Types of peg
roots, knee roots and plank roots can be combined with support
roots at the base of the tree. Meanwhile, the supporting roots will
lift the base of the stem above the ground (Sikong, 1987) Support
roots (support). In Rhizophora, long, branching roots emerge from
the base of the stem. This root is known as a prop root and will
eventually become a stilt root if the stem it supports is lifted until
it no longer touches the ground. Support roots help keep the tree
upright because they have a wide base to provide support in soft,
unstable mud. Also helps aeration when exposed at low tide
(Kartawinata 1979).
Stake root. In Avicennia and Sonneratia, pneumatophores are
upright branches from horizontal roots that grow underground. In
Avicennia the shape is like a pencil or peg and is generally 20 with
a maximum height of 30 cm, while in Sonneratia it grows more
slowly but can form masses of wood up to 3 m high, mostly 50 cm
high. In Botany Bay, Sidney you can find Avicennia marina with
pneumatophores more than 28 m high, although most are only
about 4 m high (Harianto 1999). Knee roots. In Bruguiera and
Ceriops horizontal roots grow slightly below the surface of the soil,
and regularly and repeatedly grow vertically up and then back
down, so that they are shaped like bent knees. The part above the
ground (knee) helps with aeration and provides a place to survive
in unstable mud. Lumnitzera forms small knee roots whose shape
is a combination of knee roots and peg roots (Kartawinata 1979).
Root board. In Xylocarpus granatum the horizontal roots grow
wider vertically upwards, so that the roots are flat and resemble
planks. This structure is formed starting from the base of the
stem. These roots also curve like a snake that is moving and
undulating. The vertical exposure facilitates aeration and the wide
distribution of roots helps it stand in unstable mud (Widodo 1987).
Reproduction system Mangroves are seed-producing plants
(spermatophytes), and their flowers are often showy. Mangrove
seeds are relatively larger than the seeds of most other plants
and often germinate while still attached to the parent tree
(viviparous). When they fall, mangrove seeds will usually float for
a certain period of time and then sink. The length of the floating
period varies depending on the type. The seeds of some types of
mangroves can float for more than a year and remain viable.
When floating, the seeds are carried by currents to various places
and will grow if they are stranded in a suitable area. The speed of
seed growth depends on climate and soil nutrients (Kompas,
2000). In the Rhizophoraceae family the seeds are elongated
propagules; when ripe it will fall into the water and remain
dormant until it is stuck in safe soil, spreads roots and begins to
grow, for example Rhizophora, Ceriops and Bruguiera. Some
mangroves use conventional methods (normal seeds) for
reproduction, such as Heritiera littoralis, Lumnitzera, and
Xylocarpus (Arobaya 2006). Mangrove Diversity The mangrove
community consists of plants, animals and microbes, but without
the presence of mangrove plants, the area cannot be called a
mangrove ecosystem. The mangrove ecosystem is a system
consisting of various plants, animals and microbes that interact
with the environment in the mangrove habitat (National Mangrove
Strategy, 2003). Mangrove plants in Indonesia consist of 47
species of trees, 5 species of shrubs, 9 species of herbs and
grasses, 29 species of epiphytes, 2 species of parasites, as well as
several species of algae and bryophytes. Mangrove forest
formations consist of four main genera, namely Avicennia,
Sonneratia, Rhizophora, and Bruguiera (Nybaken, 1993), there are
also Aegiceras, Lumnitzera, Acanthus illicifolius, Acrosticum
aureum, and Plucheaindica. On the border of mangrove forests
and freshwater swamps, Nypa fruticans and several types of
Cyperaceae grow (Setyawan, 2002). The Role of the Mangrove
Forest Ecosystem Mangroves are usually located in river mouths
or estuarine areas so they are the final destination for organic
particles or mud deposits carried from upstream areas due to
erosion. Thus, the mangrove area is a fertile area, both land and
water, because nutrient transport always occurs due to tides.
Mangroves have various functions. Its physical function is to
maintain stable beach conditions, protect coastal cliffs and river
cliffs, prevent abrasion and sea water intrusion, and act as a trap
for pollutants. The biological function of mangroves is as a habitat
for fish, shrimp and crab seeds to live and find food, as a source
of diversity of aquatic and non-aquatic biota such as birds,
snakes, monkeys, bats and orchids, as well as a source of
germplasm. The economic function of mangroves is as a source of
fuel (wood, charcoal), building materials (beams, boards), as well
as textile materials, food and medicine (Gunarto, 2004).