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Previous Year Agricultural

Questions Terminologies

Agriculture
Concepts, Type
& Pattern

Crop:
Distribution &
Pattern Rainbow
( India & World ) Revolution
 Index

Topic Page No.

1. Types of Agriculture...........................................................................................................................1
2. Systems & Patterns in Agriculture.............................................................................................6
3. OTHER CONCEPTS RELATED TO FARMING.....................................................................7
Hydroponics:
Aeroponics :
Biofertilizer:
Conservation Agriculture:
No tillage farming:
Agro Forestry:
Integrated farming system
Precision Farming:
Xeriscaping:
Climate resilient agriculture systems:
Biochar:
Climate Smart Agriculture:
Organic Farming:
Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZNBF):
Vertical farming:
Contract farming:
Corporate Farming:
Miyawaki:
4. INDIAN AGRICULTURE : A Broad Perspective.....................................................................14
5. Rainbow Revolution..................................................................................................................17
6. GREEN REVOLUTION..........................................................................................................18
7. White Revolution.............................................................................................................................19
8. BLUE REVOLUTION.............................................................................................................23
9. RAINBOW REVOLUTION.........................................................................................................25
10.CROPS : SOME RELATED CONCEPTS..................................................................................26
Mono-Cropping
Multiple Cropping
Inter-cropping
Row intercropping
Strip-intercropping
Parallel cropping
 Synergistic Cropping
Multistorey cropping
Sequential Cropping
Alley cropping
Relay cropping
Ratoon cropping
Crop Rotation
11. Cropping Pattern......................................................................................................................34
12.Cropping Zones........................................................................................................................36
13.Prelims Questions....................................................................................................................65
 1

Agriculture
Types of Agriculture

1. Nomadic Herding : It is based upon the rearing of animals on natural pastures.

This practice is performed by the people of semiarid and arid regions. This is a subsistence
type of activity.
Herding is the practice of caring for roaming groups of livestock over a large
area. Herding developed about 10,000 years ago, as prehistoric hunters domesticated wild
animals such as sheep and goats. Hunters learned that by controlling animals they
once pursued, they could have reliable sources of meat, milk and milk products,
and hides for tents and clothing.
Many animals naturally live and travel together in groups called herds. Goats, sheep,
and llamas, for instance, live in herds as a form of protection. They move from
one fertile grassland to another without an organized direction and this activity is also
known as transhumance

2. Subsistence Agriculture : It is the cultivation of small and scattered holdings

with the help of draught animals and family members with primitive techniques. It is
practiced by majority of farmers across the world.
 2

Subsistence agriculture is one in which the farming areas consume all, or nearly so, of the
products locally grown. It can be grouped in two categories —
2.1 Primitive Subsistence Agriculture or shifting cultivation
2.2 Intensive Subsistence Agriculture.
2.1 Primitive Subsistence Agriculture or Shifting agriculture:
• It involves clearing of forest land by felling and burning and then growing crops.
• The land is abandoned in 2-3 years after the fertility of the soil is lost.
• It is practiced by nearly 250 millionpeople, especially in North East India and in the
tropical rain forests of South America, Central and WestAfrica, and Southeast Asia.
• different names of slash and burn agriculture or shifting cultivation” of Indian
states and other countries in the World.

Terms used for shifting cultivation in different parts of the World

Country Shifting Cultivation Name
1. Myanmar Taungya
2. Sri Lanka Chena
3. Thailand Tamrai
4. Java, Indonesia and Malaysia LadangHumah
5. Philippines Caingin
6. UgandaZambiaZimbabwe Chetemini
7. Brazil Roka
8. Venezuela Konuko
9. Mexico andCentral America Milpa
10.Vietnam , Laos Ray
11. Guatemala Echalin
12.Madagascar Tavi
13.Yucatan and Guatemala Milpa
14.Mexico Comile
15.Western Africa Logan
16.Equatorial African Countries Fang
17.Congo /Zaire river Valley) Masole

Terms used for shifting cultivation in different parts in India

State/Region Shifting Cultivation Name
1. North-eastern India Jhum
2. Andhra Pradesh Podu
3. Kerala Kumari
4. South-eastern Rajasthan Batra
5. Chhattisgarh Bastar District Deepa
7. Madhya Pradesh / Bundelkhand Region Vevar and Dahiyaar
6. Southern States Zara and Erka
8. Odisha Kaman, Vinga and Dhavi
 3

2.2 Intensive Subsistence Agriculture-

• This type of agriculture is largely found in densely populated regions of monsoon
Asia. Areas of Intensive Subsistence Farming Basically, there are two types of
intensive subsistence agriculture.
(a) Intensive subsistence agriculture dominated by wet paddy cultivation: This
type of agriculture is characterised by dominance of the rice crop. Land holdings
are very small due to the high density of population. Farmers work with the help of
family labour leading to intensive use of land. Use of machinery is limited and most of
the agricultural operations are done by manual labour. Farm yard manure is used
to maintain the fertility of the soil. In this type of agriculture, the yield per unit area is
high but per labour productivity is low.

(b) Intensive subsistence agriculture dominated by crops other than paddy: Due
to the difference in relief, climate, soil and some of the other geographical factors, it is
not practical to grow paddy in many parts of monsoon Asia. Wheat, soyabean, barley
and sorghum are grown in northern China, Manchuria, North Korea and North Japan.
In India wheat is grown in western parts of the Indo-Gangetic plains and millets are
grown in dry parts of western and southern India. Most of the characteristics of this
type of agriculture are similar to those dominated by wet paddy except that irrigation
is often used. The Europeans colonised many parts in the world and they introduced
some other forms of agriculture such as plantations which were mainly profit-oriented
large scale production systems.
3. Plantation agriculture:
• It was introduced in India by Britishers and involves growing and processing of a
single crop purely meant forsale.
• Examples include plantations of Tea, Rubber, Coffee, Cocoa etc. ? Practiced mainly
in Assam, sub-Himalayan, West Bengal, Nilgiri, Annamalai and Cardamom Hills.
 4

Fig.- Major plantation crop

4. Livestock Ranching : Under this system of farming, the major emphasis is laid on
rearing animals. Unlike nomadic herding, the farmers live a settled life. This type of
farming has developed on a commercial basis in areas of the world where large plots
of land are available for animal grazing, such as the low rainfallareas of North America,
South America and Australia.

5. Commercial Grain Farming :

• This type of farming is a response to farm mechanization and is the major type
of farming in the areas withlow rainfall and population.
• These crops are prone to the vagaries of weather and droughts, and monoculture
of wheat is the general practice.
 5

Fig.- World agriculture regions

Prairies, steppes, and temperate grasslands of South America, Australia &New Zealand
are the main areas forthis type of farming.
 6

Systems & Patterns in Agriculture

Farming Systems
Basics
• Farm is a piece of land with specific boundaries, where crop and livestock enterprises
are taken up under common management.
• Farming is the process of harnessing solar energy in the form of economic plant and
animal products
• System is a set of components which are interdependent and interacting
1. Wetland Farming
• Wet land: soils flooded or irrigated through lake, pond or canal and land is always in
submerged condition
• Wetland farming: is the practice of growing crops in soils flooded through natural
flow of water for most part of the year
2. Garden Farming
• Garden land: soils irrigated with ground water sources
• Garden land farming: Growing crops with supplemental irrigation by lifting water
• From underground sources.
3. Dryland Farming
• Dry land: soils purely depends rainfall for moisture
• Dry land farming: is the practice of crop production entirely depending upon
rainfall and the moisture conserved in the soil
• This is practiced in areas where annual rainfall is less than 750mm.
• The crops may face moisture stress frequently due to erratic distribution or failure of
monsoon
4. Rainfed Farming
• Crop production in areas where rainfall is more than 750mm (i.e assured rainfall
areas).
• Here moisture stress will be minimum. Soil conservation is given more importance
5. Mixed Farming
• Mixed farming is defined as a system of farming on a particular farm which includes
crop production, raising livestock, poultry, fisheries, bee keeping etc. to sustain and
satisfy as many needs of the farmer as possible.
• Subsistence is important objective of mixed farming. While higher profitability
without altering ecological balance is important in farmingsystem.
• Advantages
* It offers highest return on farm business, as the by- products of farm are properly
utilized
* The crop by-products such as straw, fodder etc. is used for feeding of livestock
and in return they providemilk; Manures available from livestock to maintain soil
fertility.
* It provides work throughout year; Efficient utilization of land, labour, equipment
and other resources.
* It helps in supplying all the food needs of the family members.
 7

6. Specialized Farming
• The farm in which 50% or more income of total crop production is derived from a
single crop is called specialized farming
7. Diversified Farming
• A diversified farming has several production enterprises or sources of income but no
source of income equal as much as 50% of the total income. It is also called as general
farming.

OTHER CONCEPTS RELATED TO FARMING

1. Hydroponics: Hydroponics is the technique of growing plants using a water-

based nutrient solution rather than soil, and can include an aggregate substrate,
or growing media, such as vermiculite, coconut coir, or perlite. Hydroponic production
systems are used by small farmers, hobbyists, and commercial enterprises.
At its core, hydroponics is a method of growing plants. But instead of using soil,
hydroponics depends on a water-based nutrient-rich solution. The idea may seem like
a novel “hack”, but has actually been around for thousands of years and helped to
enable population growth as the availability of arable land decreases.
2. Aeroponics : It is the process of growing plants in the air or mist environment
without soil or an aggregate medium.
In the aeroponic system, plants are not contained in any solid material such as Rockwool
or soil. Instead, plant roots are hung in the air in a grow chamber in a closed-loop
system. The roots are sprayed with nutrient-rich water or fine, high-pressure mist
containing nutrient-rich solutions at certain intervals.
3. Biofertilizer: Biofertilizer can be defined as biological products containing living
microorganisms that, when applied to seed, plant surfaces, or soil, promote growth by
several mechanisms such as increasing the supply of nutrients, increasing root biomass
or root area and increasing nutrient uptake capacity of the plant.
Based on type of microorganism, the bio-fertilizer can also be classified as
follows:
• Bacterial Biofertilizers: e.g. Rhizobium, Azospirilium, Azotobacter, Phosphobacteria.
• Fungal Biofertilizers: e.g. Mycorhiza
• Algal Biofertilizers: e.g. Blue Green Algae (BGA) and Azolla.
• Actinimycetes Biofertilizer: e.g. Frankia.
4 Conservation Agriculture: Conservation Agriculture (CA) is a farming system that
can prevent losses of arable land while regenerating degraded lands. It promotes
maintenance of a permanent soil cover, minimum soil disturbance, and
diversification of plant species. It enhances biodiversity and natural biological
processes above and below the ground surface, which contribute to increased water
and nutrient use efficiency and to improved and sustained crop production.
CA principles are universally applicable to all agricultural landscapes and land uses
with locally adapted practices. Soil interventions such as mechanical soil disturbance
are reduced to an absolute minimum or avoided, and external inputs such as
agrochemicals and plant nutrients of mineral or organic origin are applied optimally and
in ways and quantities that do not interfere with, or disrupt, the biological processes.
CA facilitates good agronomy, such as timely operations, and improves overall land
husbandry for rainfed and irrigated production. Complemented by other known good
practices, including the use of quality seeds, and integrated pest, nutrient, weed and
 8

water management, etc., CA is a base for sustainable agricultural production

intensification. It opens increased options for integration of production sectors, such as
crop-livestock integration and the integration of trees and pastures into agricultural
landscapes.
Principles of Conservation Agriculture:
• Minimum mechanical soil disturbance
• Permanent soil organic cover
• Species diversification
5. No tillage farming: No till farming is the practice of planting crops without tilling
the soil. Also known as “no till planting” and “zero tillage”
Conventional Tilling
Tilling the soil, also known as tillage, is the conventional way of preparing the soil for
planting by digging, stirring, and turning it over. Typically, the soil is turned over with an
implement to a depth of several inches or more, which usually requires two or more
passes over the field. Tilling kills unwanted plants and buries mulch, leaving behind a
barren soil. Conventional tilling is more time-consuming and can even lower the quality
of the soil, causing soil compaction, and leading to soil erosion.
No Till Farming
No till planting makes sense because there are less steps involved, thus your productivity
is higher. The soil does not have to be tilled. Instead, the seeds are planted through the
remains of previous crops by planters or drills that cut a V-slot (seed furrow), place the
seeds, and close the furrow.
Some of the benefits of no till farming include:
• Lower fuel and labor costs
• Higher crop yields
• Less soil erosion
• Fewer passes across the field
• Less evaporation of soil moisture
• Increased water going into the soil (increased infiltration)
• More fertile soils
• More resilient soils
• Higher soil quality and productivity
6. Agro Forestry: Agroforestry is a collective name for land-use systems and
technologies where woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos, etc.) are
deliberately used on the same land-management units as agricultural crops and/or
animals, in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence. In agroforestry
systems there are both ecological and economical interactions between the
different components. Agroforestry can also be defined as a dynamic, ecologically based,
natural resource management system that, through the integration of trees on farms and
in the agricultural landscape, diversifies and sustains production for increased social,
economic and environmental benefits for land users at all levels. In particular, agroforestry
is crucial to smallholder farmers and other rural people because it can enhance their food
supply, income and health.Agroforestry systems are multifunctional systems that can
provide a wide range of economic, sociocultural, and environmental benefits.
 9

There are three main types of agroforestry systems:

• Agrisilvicultural systems are a combination of crops and trees, such as alley
cropping or homegardens.
• Silvopastoral systems combine forestry and grazing of domesticated animals on
pastures, rangelands or on-farm.
• The three elements, namely trees, animals and crops, can be integrated in what are
called agrosylvopastoral systems and are illustrated by homegardens involving
animals as well as scattered trees on croplands used for grazing after harvests.
7. Integrated farming system
Integrated farming system is a sustainable agricultural system that integrates livestock,
crop production, fish, poultry, tree crops, plantation crops and other systems
that benefit each other. It is based on the concept that ‘there is no waste’ and ‘waste
is only a misplaced resource’ which means waste from one component becomes an
input for another part of the system.
Objectives of IFS:
• Efficient recycling of farm and animal wastes
• Minimizing the nutrient losses
• Maximizing nutrient use efficiency
• Adoption of efficient cropping systems and crop rotations
• Complementary combination of farm enterprises.
8. Precision Farming: Precision farming is also known as site-specific crop
management. It merges data collection and remote sensing with Global Positioning
Systems (GPS) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to allow farmers to respond
to in-field variability with their crop management.
Farmers can get extremely precise in their crop management while not sacrificing crop
yields. They can vary the amount of seed planted or fertilizer spread to not just sections
of a field but by the square meter and even square centimeter of a field. This means
they can place the precise amount of seed and fertilizer to optimize production based on
field conditions such as soil types and moisture levels.
9. Xeriscaping: Xeriscaping is the practice of designing landscapes to reduce or eliminate
the need for irrigation. This means xeriscaped landscapes need little or no water beyond
what the natural climate provides.
10. Climate resilient agriculture systems:
What is it?
It is an approach that includes sustainbly using existing natural resources through
crop and livestock production systems to achieve long-term higher productivity
and farm incomes under climate variabilities. It wants to transform the current systems,
and has a wider perspective than increased production only. It supports food production
systems at local, regional and global level that are socially, economically and
environmentally sustainable.
Outcome from this:
• Improved access and utilisation of technology
• Transparent trade regimes
• Increased use of resources conservation technologies
• An increased adaptation of crops and livestock to climatic stress
 10

Strategies and technologies for climate change adaptation

• Drought tolerant crops
• Tolerant breeds in livestock and poultry
• Water management: Water-smart technologies like a furrow-irrigated raised bed,
micro-irrigation, rainwater harvesting structure, cover-crop method, greenhouse,
laser land levelling, reuse wastewater, deficit irrigation and drainage management
• Agro-advisory: Response farming is an integrative approach (Help from technical
expert according to local weather)
• Increasing Soil Carbon Stock: Conservation agriculture technologies (reduced
tillage, crop rotations, and cover crops), soil conservation practices (contour farming)
and nutrient recharge strategies
11. Biochar: Biochar is a super charcoal made by heating any biomass – for example,
corncob, husk or stalk, potato or soy hay, rice or wheat straw – without oxygen. All of
the cellulose, lignin and other, non-carbon materials gasify and are burned away. What
remains is pure carbon – 40% of the carbon originally contained in the biomass.
Biochar is mainly used in agriculture to enhance soil fertility, improve plant growth,
and provide crop nutrition. As a result, it improves the overall farming productivity. It
has also gained considerable attention in livestock farming as an animal feed.
The biochar history traces back to an ancient methods of Amazon Indians used to
change infertile, sandy soils into rich and sustainable fields, also noticed as distinctive
dark-colored soils called terra preta or terra preta de indio (Indian black earth). These
soils were found to show significantly higher fertility and are described in many pieces
of literature due to its exceptional richness and impact on increasing the crops yield.
12. Climate Smart Agriculture: Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is an approach that
helps guide actions to transform agri-food systems towards green and climate
resilient practices. CSA supports reaching internationally agreed goals such as the
SDGs and the Paris Agreement. It aims to tackle three main objectives: sustainably
increasing agricultural productivity and incomes; adapting and building resilience to
climate change; and reducing and/or removing greenhouse gas emissions, where possible.
13. Organic Farming: Organic farming system in India is not new and is being followed
from ancient time. It is a method of farming system which primarily aimed at
cultivating the land and raising crops in such a way, as to keep the soil alive and
in good health by use of organic wastes (crop, animal and farm wastes, aquatic
wastes) and other biological materials along with beneficial microbes (biofertilizers) to
release nutrients to crops for increased sustainable production in an eco friendly pollution
free environment.
The key characteristics of organic farming include
• Protecting the long term fertility of soils by maintaining organic matter levels,
encouraging soil biological activity, and careful mechanical intervention
• Providing crop nutrients indirectly using relatively insoluble nutrient sources
which are made available to the plant by the action of soil micro-organisms
• Nitrogen self-sufficiency through the use of legumes and biological nitrogen
fixation, as well as effective recycling of organic materials including crop residues
and livestock manures
 11

• Weed, disease and pest control relying primarily on crop rotations, natural predators,
diversity, organic manuring, resistant varieties and limited (preferably minimal)
thermal, biological and chemical intervention
• The extensive management of livestock, paying full regard to their evolutionary
adaptations, behavioural needs and animal welfare issues with respect to nutrition,
housing, health, breeding and rearing
• Careful attention to the impact of the farming system on the wider environment
and the conservation of wildlife and natural habitats
14. Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZNBF): Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZNBF) means
raising crops without using any fertilizers and pesticides or any other external materials.
The word Zero Budget refers to the zero cost of production of all crops. ZBNF guides
the farmers towards sustainable farming practices thus helps in retaining soil fertility, to
ensure a chemical free agriculture and ensure low cost of production (zero cost) and
thereby enhancing the farmers income.
In short, ZBNF, is a farming method that believes in growing crops in tune with
nature.
The concept was promoted by agriculturist & Padma Shri awardee SubhashPalekar, in
the mid-1990s as an alternative to the Green Revolution’s methods driven by chemical
fertilizers and pesticides and intensive irrigation.
Principles of Zero Budget Natural Farming
• No external inputs
• Soil to be covered with crops 365 days (Living Root)
• Minimal disturbance of Soil
• Biostimulantsas necessary catalysts
• Use indigenous seed
• Mixed cropping
• Integration of trees into the farm
• Water and moisture conservation
• Integrate animals in to farming
• Increase organic residues on the soil
• Pest-management through botanical extracts
• No synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides
Four main elements and models of ZNBF:
• Bijamrita:
The seeds are treated with formulations prepared using cow dung and cow urine
from native cow species.
Benefits: The seeds sown in the field may be affected by fungus and other seed
born/soil borne diseases. The seed treatment using “Bijamrita” protects the seeds
from diseases.
• Jiwamrita/Jeevamrutha:
Jiwamrita is prepared using cow dung and cow urine. It is used as an input for the
plants. It is a fermented microbial culture obtained from cow dung, urine, jaggery,
pulse flour and uncontaminated soil. This fermented microbial culture when applied
 13

to soil, adds nutrients to the soil besides acting as a catalytic agent to promote the
activity of microorganisms and earthworms in the soil.
Benefits: This culture stimulates microbial activity in the soil and enhances nutrient
availability for the plants, protects the crops against soil pathogens and increases
carbon content of the soil.

• Acchadana/Mulching:
Mulching is the process of covering the top soil with crop wastes/organic waste or
with cover crops.
Benefits: Mulching materials decomposes and produces humus which conserves
top soil, increases water retention capacity of the soil, decreases evaporation loss,
encourages soil fauna besides enriching soil nutrient status and controlling weed
growth.

• Waaphasa/Moisture (Soil Aeration): Good aeration is required in the soil for

plant growth and development.
Benefits: Due to the application of Jiwamrita and mulching, the aeration of the soil
increases, thus improves humus content, water availability, water holding capacity
and soil structure which is most suitable for crop growth especially during drought
periods.
15. Vertical farming:Vertical farming is concept in urban ecosystem where to meet the
food demand of city population crops are grown in tubs kept in racks mostly placed
vertically in multi storeyed apartments as high as twenty-five feet. In this ecosystem
crops get their nutrition either ‘hydroponically or aeroponically. For providing lights, tubs
are kept in specialized LEDs of blue and red light, which is the optimal light for
photosynthesis in the most energy efficient way possible.
16.Contract farming:Contract Farming (CF) can be defined as a system for the production
and supply of agricultural and horticultural produce by farmers/primary producers under
advance contracts, the essence of such arrangements being a commitment to provide
an agricultural commodity of a type, at a specified time, price, and in specified
quantity to a known buyer. In fact, CF can be described as a halfway house between
independent farm production and corporate/captive farming and can be a case of a step
towards complete vertical integration depending on the given context. Owing to the
efficiency (coordination and quality control in a vertical system) and equity (smallholder
inclusion) benefits of this hybrid system, it is being promoted aggressively in the developing
world by various agencies. It basically involves four things – pre-agreed price, quality,
quantity or acreage (minimum/maximum) and time.
17. Corporate Farming: Corporate farming is linked to industrial agriculture and the
increasing power of agribusiness in rural economies.
18.Miyawaki:Designed by Akira Miyawaki in the 1980s, these urban forests are grown
using the Miyawaki method. Such forests can be grown in small patches in urban areas
or even in your backyard, and typically make use of native or local seeds and saplings.
 14

INDIAN AGRICULTURE : A Broad Perspective

Facts
• Agriculture sector which accounts for 18.8% of Gross Value Added (GVA) of the
country in 2021-22 has experienced buoyant growth in the past 2 years. It grew at
3.9 per cent in 2021-22 and 3.6 per cent in 2020-21 showing resilience in the face
of COVID-19 shock
• As per Census 2011, about 54.6% of the total workforce of the country is still
engaged in agriculture and allied sector activities
• India is a net exporter of agri-products, and major export destinations include the
USA, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Nepal, and Bangladesh.
• Livestock sector contributed 4.35% of total GVA in 2019-20. Development of
livestock sector has led to improvement in per capita availability of milk, eggs and
meat
GENERAL ISSUES WITH AGRICULTURE SECTOR
• Small and fragmented land holdings: As per the Agriculture Census 2015-16,
the size of average landholding is a mere 1.08 hectares.
• Disguised unemployment: Dependency on agriculture is on the rise due to lack
of alternative employment opportunities and burgeoning population resulting in
disguised unemployment.
• Seeds: Good quality seeds are out of reach of the majority of farmers, especially
small and marginal farmers mainly because of exorbitant prices of better seeds.
• Manures, fertilizers, and pesticides: Excessive use of fertilizers has led to
depletion and exhaustion of soils resulting in their low productivity.
• Irrigation: Irrigated area accounts for nearly 48.8% of the 140 million hectares
(mha) of agricultural land in India. The remaining 51.2% is rainfed. As a result,
much of our agriculture is dependent on monsoon, which is often uncertain,
unreliable, and erratic.
• Mechanization: Little or no use of machines is made in ploughing, sowing,
irrigation, thinning and pruning, weeding, harvesting, threshing, and transporting
the crops. It results in huge wastage of human labor and low yields per capita
labor force.
• Soil erosion: Large tracts of fertile land suffer from soil erosion by wind and
water, leading to infertility.
• Agriculture marketing: In the absence of sound marketing facilities, farmers
have to depend upon local traders and middlemen for the disposal of their farm
produce which is sold at a throw-away price. It is these middlemen and local
traders who dominate the marketing and trading of agricultural produce. They buy
the produce at a lower price from the distressed farmers and sell it at a higher
price to the consumers, thus reaping the majority of the profits and the producer
does not derive similar benefit. The Rural Credit Survey Report remarked that the
producers, in general, sell their produce at an unfavorable place and at an
unfavorable time and usually they get unfavorable terms.
• Debt trap: In the absence of bank credit, farmers, especially small and marginal
ones, are forced to take loans from local moneylenders who often charge very
high interest rates from them. This pushes the farmers into a debt trap as they are
unable to repay the costly loans.
 15

• Inadequate storage facilities: In the absence of adequate storage facilities,

farmers are compelled to sell their produce immediately after the harvest at the
prevailing market prices which are bound to be low. Such distress sale deprives
the farmers of their legitimate income. Absence of storage facilities also leads to
post-harvest losses.
• Inadequate transport: One of the main handicaps with Indian agriculture is the
lack of cheap and efficient means of transportation. Even at present, there are
lakhs of villages which are not well connected with main roads or with market
centers. Under these circumstances, the farmers cannot carry their produce to
the main market and are forced to sell it in the local market at a low price.
• Global scenario: Global slump in agricultural prices has led to non-remunerative
pricing for farmers.
What should be policy Agenda for Agriculture
• Policy framework is being reoriented to explicitly bring farmers welfare to the
centre of development agenda.
• Focus on diversification to high value crops and the adoption of emerging technology
are being emphasized
• Reforms in storage, integrated cold chain, warehousing, marketing and processing
• Stable Agri Trade Policy: Major bottlenecks in enhancing agri-exports need to be
removed to make it stable and more rational trade policy
• Necessary sustainability factors, countering the existing stresses on soil, water
and also the larger ecology issues need to be fixed.
• Strategies that help build resilience and capacity to recover from challenges resulting
from natural calamities, as well as to counter the risks that result from manmade
actions, information asymmetry, markets and marketing.
• A suitable architecture for the extension system that will meet the changing demands
of a market led and income-centric agricultural economy needs to be developed.
• For the purpose of meeting the national agenda to doubling farmers’ income, there
is a need to direct the scientific research into areas that can bring income gains in
the comparatively shorter term for all agriculturists, especially for under developed
and poorly resourced farmers. The focus is to move from the ‘Science of
Discovery’ to ‘Science of Delivery’
• The prime objective of agricultural development is being moved from production
centric to income augmentation. This requires a multitude of cross-domain
considerations in bringing a holistic and long lasting strategy to the agricultural
sector.
Indian Agriculture can be divided into 5 Transitory phases:
1. Phase I : Pre-Green Revolution Period (1950-65) which was characterized
by Deficit in food production And the Approach adopted to deal with it was to
design Marketing system to handle deficit, regulate trade and manage food security.
Attempt was made to make food available through imports, and large scale
investment in irrigation and power. Some reforms like enactment of Zamindari
Abolition Act (1950), organisation of agriculture and animal husbandry on
modernscientific lines, were initiated.
2. Phase II: Green Revolution Period (1965-80), India learnt her lesson hard
way and realised how vulnerable a country can become as a consequence of
heavy dependence on imports of key commodities. Self Sufficiency in Food grains,
start of ‘Operation Flood’ were placed in the centre of development agenda. ‘Birth
 16

of twin sisters’ namely CACP (Commission on Agriculture Costs and Prices) and
Food Corporation of India (FCI)
3. Phase III: Post-Green Revolution Period (1980-91) : In this phase, emphasis
was laid on diversification towards high value produce by expanding adoption of
technology to other produces such as commercial horticulture. Coconut
Development Board and National Horticulture Board were established during
this period.
4. Phase IV: Economic Reforms Period (1991-2015) : In the wake of surplus
production of foodgrains, approach was oriented to gaining greater international
market access and Liberalisation of agriculture trade. The functioning of markets
was sought to be improved. India opened up its economy in 1991 – Industry and
service sectors liberalised but not agriculture except a few baby steps. Model
APMC act was enacted. India signed WTO
5. Phase V (2015 onwards) : One nation, One market, One tax, ICT enabled
marketing : The country was Food Secure but there was a problem of plenty.
Approach during this period was towards a National unified market. Electronic
National Agricultural Market (e-NAM), Model APMC Act 2017 allowing for
operation of alternate markets and unified national markets, GST roll out, streamline
inter-state trade, Model contract forming and services Act Agricultural export
policy Gramin agriculture markets (GrAMs)
 17

Rainbow Revolution
GREEN REVOLUTION
The Green Revolution in India was initiated in the 1960s by introducing high-yielding
varieties of rice and wheat to increase food production in order to alleviate hunger and
poverty
Initial Success:
 High yield plants without disease resistivity
 Adaptability, and ability to utilize fertilizers;
 Improved use of soils,
 Adequate fertilizers, and control of weeds and pests; and
 A favourable ratio between the cost of fertilizers (and other investments) to the
price of the produce
Gains of Green Revolution
 Increase in crop production:
 Self-sufficiency of food
 Industrialization: The large-scale mechanization of farms created a demand for
machinery
 Socio-economic condition of the farmers of the Punjab, Haryana &UP
increased.
 Agro industries: Several agricultural products came to be used as raw
materials in various industries giving rise to agro-based industries.
 Employment: The demand for labor force increased rural employment, and the
industrial workforce at the same time.
Criticism
 The ‘Green Revolution’ has turned into a ‘Greed Revolution’. While big farmers
had enough surplus of their own to invest on the new capital-intensive farming,
for the smaller farmers it meant additional dependence on borrowing, generally
from the informal sources at 60 -70 per cent interest. In order to clear the debts,
they had no choice but to sell the firm yield immediately after harvesting when
the prices were relatively much low and bought later in the year for consumption
at higher prices. As a consequence of the agrarian crisis, small and marginal
farmers committed suicide since 1990s.
 Excessive use of chemical fertilisers has turned the verdant lands poisonous. Water
mining has dried the aquifers leading to the expansion of desert, and chemical
fertilisers and pesticides have played havoc with the environment and human health.
With inputs prices climbing up year after year and the output prices remaining
static farmers, specially marginal and small farmers, have become a victim of the
same economic policies that projected them as the country’s heroes.
 Agriculture has turned not only unsustainable but economic unviable. The Green
Revolution model was never designed to solve the problems of hunger and famine,
which is primarily shaped by inequity in access to food. All it gave was more on
wheat, which did not even form the staple diet of the majority of Indians at that
time. Moreover, it did not make India self-sufficient in food, but only in wheat
 18

and rice, and that too at the cost of the rest of our plate. Ironically, the self-
sufficiency in two cereals came at the cost of another form of dependence ~ the
import of rock phosphate for fertiliser and petroleum for irrigation pumps and
tractors.
 Depending on these non-renewable and fast depleting resources has made
agriculture a carbon-emitting sector impacting the climate. Chemical fertiliser
and pesticides are polluting the environment and contaminating food. The Green
Revolution in Punjab was a landmark event in the 1960s and 1980s. Now the
state is in the news again due to the high incidence of cancer caused by
contamination of food and waterbodies. Agriculture in India is now beset with
paradoxes. The country leads world production of milk and buffalo meat and is
second to wheat, sugar, fruit and vegetables.
 Tragically, India also leads in the world in the number of farmer suicides. This is
a symptom of the agrarian crisis. While the crop yields have increased over
time, farm incomes have stagnated or have declined. High dependence on
purchased external inputs ~ seeds, fertilisers, pesticides and irrigation water ~ is
coupled with increased indebtedness, which means that Indian farmers are
experiencing a loss of agency and deskilling. The conventional approach opened
before the distressed farmers is more technology. Any agriculture is unnatural.
There is no agriculture in Nature, even if it is 80 per cent organic. It is still
unnatural.
 All types of agriculture are a cultivated system that causes the destruction,
depletion and devastation to the biosphere and its natural resources to meet the
rapacious needs of the social order based on power, greed, profit and exploitation,
which deprives a majority of the world’s people of their basic necessity of life
and human dignity. However, agriculture is absolutely necessary If it is to be
sustainable, then it should be as near an approximation to Nature and governed
by laws that operate in and govern Nature. In the words of Mahatma Gandhi,
‘Earth (Nature) provides enough to satisfy every man’s need, but not for every
man’s greed.’
Bringing Green Revolution to Eastern India
The programme of “Bringing Green Revolution to Eastern India (BGREI)” was launched
in 2010-11 to address the constraints limiting the productivity of “rice based cropping
systems” in eastern India comprising seven (7) States namely; Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, Odisha, Eastern Uttar Pradesh (Purvanchal) and West Bengal. The
programme is now a sub-scheme of Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana.
Objectives
 To increase production & productivity of rice and wheat by adopting latest crop
production technologies;
 To promote cultivation in rice fallow area to increase cropping intensity and
income of the farmers;
 19

 To create water harvesting structures and efficient utilization of water potential;

and
 To promote post harvest technology and marketing support.
Evergreen Revolution addresses:
 The ecological foundations (soil health, biodiversity, water, renewable energy) of
agriculture
 Conservation and enhancement of biodiversity in general, and the agro biodiversity
in particular
 Linking livelihood security with ecological security
 A “bottom-up” participatory approach in achieving productivity in perpetuity
without ecological harm
 Community-centered approaches for conservation and sustainable use of Natural
resources especially water with social and gender equity
 Technological and knowledge empowerment of the resource poor, largely
illiterate, and unskilled rural women and men to embark on a path of sustainable
livelihoods
Strategies for evergreen green revolution
 Technological breakthrough: Technological breakthrough by way of HYVs,
hybridization, tissue culture, genetic engineering, etc.
 Adequate infrastructural support in terms of irrigation, credit, market, road,
delivery services, etc.
 Micro Irrigation System for judicious use of water in agriculture.
 Organic farming for making agriculture environment friendly
 Precision farming
 Eco Agriculture which brings together agriculture development and conservation
of biodiversity as explicit objective on the same landscape
White Revolution
In 1970, India set in motion the ‘White Revolution’, the world’s biggest dairy development
program, led by Dr. Verghese Kurien. ‘Operation Flood’, as it is otherwise known,
transformed the dairy-deficient nation into the global leader in milk production. For the
millions living in rural India, milk farming became the largest source of employment and
income.
 Between 1961 and 1970, total milk production had barely moved from 20.4
million tons to 20.8 million tons. Instead, the country relied on large scale imports
to meet its requirements.
 From around 20 million tons at the outset, milk output had exceeded 70 million
tons by the end of the operation. India was able to double its per capita milk
consumption, leaving behind an era of milk rationing and aid dependence.
Objectives
 The main objectives of the cooperative society are the procurement,
transportation, storage of milk at the chilling plants.
 To provide cattle feed.
 The production of wide varieties of milk products and their marketing
management.
 The societies also provide superior breeds of cattle (cows and buffaloes), health
services, veterinary, and artificial insemination facilities.
 20

 To provide extension service.

 The technology of the White Revolution is based on an extensive system of
cooperative societies.
 Milk after being collected at a village collection centre, is promptly transported
to the dairy plant at the milk chilling centre.
 Timing of collection is maintained by the village society, truck operators, and the
quick transport to the dairy plants.
 The chilling centres are managed by producer’s cooperative unions to facilitate
the collection of milk from producers who live at some distance from the chilling
centres and thus, the middlemen are eliminated.
Phases of the White Revolution
Phase I (1970 – 81)
 During this period, the Dairy Development Programme was set up in ten states
to provide milk to the cosmopolitan cities, i.e. Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, and
Chennai.
Phase II (1981 – 85)
 During this phase, the dairy development programme was extended in the states
of Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan. In this phase, within 25
contiguous milk shed areas [in 155 districts] a cluster of milk producers’ union
was established. The Research Institute at Hyderabad developed a vaccine
called ‘Raksha’ to control cattle diseases. The programme also involved the
improvement in milk marketing in 144 more cities of the country. The Dairy
Cooperative societies were set up in 35000 villages and the membership exceeded
36 lakhs.
Phase III (1985 – 2000)
 A number of cooperative societies were set up in most of the major states of the
country and the number of cooperatives went up by 1,35,439 with a membership
of 14 million. The following table 9.16 shows the spurt in milk production in
India.
Achievement
 White Revolution is as important to dairy development as Green Revolution has
been to grain production. Its outcome is based on the improvement in cattle
breeding and the adoption of new technology.
 Today, India has earned the first position in milk production in the world.
 Some of the important achievements of the White Revolution are as under:
 The White Revolution made a sound impact on rural masses and encouraged
them to take up dairying as a subsidiary occupation.
 India has become the leading producer of milk in the world. The milk production
that was about 17 million tonnes in 1950-51 rose to over 112 million tonnes in
2009-10. The production of milk has gone up by more than six times when
compared with that of the Pre–Independence situation.
 The per capita availability of milk per day at present is about 263 gm as against
125 grams before the white Revolution.
 The import of milk and milk production has been reduced substantially.
 21

 White Revolution is as important to dairy development as Green Revolution

has been to gram production. Its outcome is based on the improvement in
cattle breeding and the adoption of new technology.
 Today, India has earned the first position in milk production in the world.
 The small and marginal farmers and the landless labourers have been especially
benefitted from the White Revolution. About 14 million farmers have been
brought under the ambit of 1,35,439 village-level dairy cooperative societies.
 To ensure the success of the Operation Flood Program, research centres have
been set up at Anand, Mehsana, and Palanpur (Banaskantha). Moreover, three
regional centres are functioning at Siliguri, Jalandhar, and Erode.
 Livestock Insurance Scheme was approved in February 2006 and in 2006-07
on a pilot basis in 100 selected districts across the country. The scheme aims at
protecting the farmers against losses due to the untimely death of animals.
 To improve the quality of livestock, extensive cross-breeding has been launched.
 For ensuring the maintenance of disease-free status, major health schemes have
been initiated.
 The government implemented livestock insurance on a pilot basis in 2005-06.
Problems And Prospects
 Some of the important problems of the ‘white Revolution is as under.
 Collection of milk from remote areas is expensive, time-consuming, and not
viable economically.
 In most of the villages, the cattle are kept under unhygienic conditions.
 There are inadequate marketing facilities. The marketing infrastructure needs
much improvement.
 The breeds of cattle are generally inferior.
 The extension service programme is not effective.
GRREN REVOLUTION & WHITE REVOLUTION
What is White Revolution?
 Started with the motive of increasing milk production
 Today, India is the world’s largest producer of milk
 The Green Revolution is referred to as the process of increasing agricultural
production by incorporating modern tools and techniques.
Green Revolution
 The Green Revolution within India led to an increase in agricultural production,
especially in Haryana, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh. Major milestones in this
undertaking were the development of a high-yielding variety of seeds of wheat
and rust-resistant strains of wheat.
 22

The varied purposes of the two Revolutions –

Problems with the Green Revolution:

 Retardation of agricultural growth :
 due to inadequate irrigation cover
 shrinking farm size
 failure to evolve new technologies
 inadequate use of technology
 declining plan outlay, imbalanced use of inputs
 weaknesses in credit delivery system.
 Regional inequalities: only to wheat-growing areas.
 Crop & Farmer disparity
Significance of White Revolution:
 Helped in reducing malpractice by traders and merchants.
 Eradicating poverty and made India the largest producer of milk and milk
products.
 Operation Flood empowered the dairy farmers with control of the resource
 The revolution also reduced regional and seasonal price variations ensuring
customer satisfaction
 Improved the living standards of the rural people and led to the progress of the
rural economy.
Way forward:
1. Inclusion and equity in governance: The increase in the incomes and wealth
of the workers and small asset owners in the enterprise must be the purpose of
the enterprise,
2. Social side of the enterprise: The metrics of performance must be used, and
many ‘non-corporate’ methods of management learned and applied to strengthen
the social fabric of the organisation.
3. Local system solutions: The resources in the local environment (including
local workers) must be the principal resources of the enterprise, rather than
‘global (or national) scale’ solutions.
4. Practical and useable science: Science should be developed
 23

5. Sustainable transformations: Transformation should be brought through a

steady process of evolution, not by drastic revolution.
Conclusion:
The essence of democratic economic governance is that an enterprise must be of the
people, for the people, and governed by the people too.

BLUE REVOLUTION
Also known as Neel Kranti Mission, the Blue Revolution in India was launched around
1985 by Dr Arun Krishnsan and Dr Hiralal Chaudhari, who are also known as the fathers
of the Blue Revolution. During the launch of the seventh five-year plan in 1985 – 1990,
under the sponsorship of the fish farmers Development Agency (FFDA), the Blue
Revolution was launched by the central government. In addition to this endeavour, in the
year 1992 to 97, whilst the launch of eighth five-year plan, the intensive Marine fisheries
program was launched that led to the establishment of fishing harbours in cities like Kochi,
Porbandar, Port Blair, Visakhapatnam, Tuticorin, etc.
Facts about Indian Fisheries Resources
 There are more than 1800 species of fish found in the sea and inland waters of
India of which a very few are commercially important.
 India is the world’s second largest fish producer with exports worth more
than 47,000 crore rupees.
 Fisheries are in fact India’s single largest agriculture export with a growth
rate of 6 to 10 percent in the last five years in comparison the growth rate of
the farm sector in the same period is around 2.5 percen
 The important sea fish species include catfish, herring, mackerels, perches, mullets,
Indian salmon, shellfish, eels, anchovies, and dorab. Similarly, the main freshwater
fish includes catfish, loaches, eels, herrings, feather backs, mullets, carps, prawns,
murrels, and anchovies.
 The geographic, base of Indian marine fisheries has 8118 km coastline, 2.02
million sq of Exclusive Economic Zone including 0.5 million sq km of the
continental shelf, and 3937 fishing villages.
 There are 189 traditional fish landing centres, 59 minor fishing harbours, which
serve as bases for about 2,80,000 fishing craft consisting of 1, 81,000 non –
motorised traditional craft and 54.000 mechanized boats.
 About 65 percent (2018-19) of the country’s total fish production comes from
inland fisheries
Salient Features of the Blue Revolution Scheme:
 Providing suitable linkages and convergence with the ‘Sagarmala Project’ of the
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
(MGNAREGA), Ministry of Shipping, National Rural Livelihoods Mission
(NRLM), Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY), etc.
 The Blue Revolution scheme concentrates mainly on enhancing the production
and productivity of aquaculture and fisheries both from the inland and marine
sources.
 Promoting and encouraging the economically backward sections like the
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Women, and their co-operatives to take
up fishing.
 24

 The Blue Revolution Scheme encouraged entrepreneurship development, private

investment and better leveraging of institutional finance.
Importance of Blue Revolution in the Context of India?
 Blue economy is a term used for describing an aquatic or water based economy.
 It can help ensure prosperity of farmers by providing additional income and
more employment
 It is an instrument for realising the target of doubling farmers’ income by 2022.
 With the help of ‘blue economy’, India could transform from a $2.7 trillion
economy to a $10 trillion economy.
 Fishing is a primary source of livelihood for several communities in India. In the
recent years, mariculture is also growing with the production of mussels, oysters,
etc.
 Mariculture is the cultivation of marine organisms in the open-ocean or enclosed
spaces filled with sea water.
 The peninsular region of India is covered on all 3 sides by ocean. There is
tremendous fresh water resources as well.
 Blue Revolution is a tool for promoting fishing which is an activity closely allied
with farming.
 It helps realise the aquaculture potential as an environment friendly instrument
for the socio economic development of rural India.
 Aquaculture is a solution accepted worldwide for food and nutritional security.

Some of the major outcomes of the Blue Revolution in India are mentioned below:
 Currently, the Indian Fisheries Sector reached a production of 4.7 million tonnes
of fish from a limit of 60,000 tonnes including 1.6 million tonnes of fish from
freshwater aquaculture.
 India is recorded to achieve an average annual growth of 14.8% as compared
to the global average percentage of 7.5 in the production of fish and fish products.
 The fisheries sector has become India’s largest agricultural export item over the
last five years with a growth rate of 6% – 10%.
 India has become the world’s second-largest producer of fish with exports worth
more Rs. 47,000 crore rupees.
 The fisheries and aquaculture production contributes 1% and 5% to India’s
GDP and Agricultural GDP respectively.

Blue Revolution 2.0/ Neel Kranti Mission The focus of the Blue Revolution 2.0 is on
development and management of fisheries. This covers inland fisheries, aquaculture, marine
fisheries including deep sea fishing, mariculture and all activities undertaken by the National
Fisheries Development Board

Pradhan Manthri Matsya Sampada Yojana:

 It was announced in the interim Budget of 2019-20.
 It aims to increase the production in the fisheries sector to 15 million ton/year by
2020 and to 20 million ton/year by 2022-23.
 It is a scheme under the Department of Fisheries and it aims to realise a robust
fisheries management framework.
 25

 The purpose of the scheme is to address critical gaps in the value chain such
as infrastructure modernisation, traceability, production, productivity, post-harvest
management, quality control, etc.
 It intends to make India hotspot for fisheries and aquatic production through
appropriate policy measures, marketing and infrastructure support.
 It aims to bring fishermen under the ambit of farmer welfare programs and social
security schemes.
RAINBOW REVOLUTION
The multiple colors of the Rainbow Revolution indicate multiple farm practices such as
“Green Revolution (Foodgrains), White Revolution (Milk), Yellow Revolution (Oilseeds),
Blue Revolution (Fisheries); Golden Revolution (Fruits); Silver Revolution (Eggs), Round
Revolution (Potato), Pink Revolution (Meat), Grey Revolution (Fertilizers)” and so on.
Thus, the concept of Rainbow revolution is an integrated development of crop cultivation,
horticulture, forestry, fishery, poultry, animal husbandry, and food processing industry. The
concept of Rainbow revolution in agriculture is a step towards sustainability. India has
already achieved resilience in agriculture (including the horticultural sector) through
effective agricultural technology generation and suggests that the country is now on the
threshold of a “rainbow revolution” that will ensure both household nutrition security and
prosperity for its people.
 26

CROPS : SOME RELATED CONCEPTS

Basics
• Crops: A crop is a plant or animal product that can be grown and harvested
extensively for profit orsubsistence. Crops may refer either to the harvested parts
or to the harvest in a more refined state.
• Cropping pattern refers to the proportion of area under different crops at any given
point of time in a unitarea.
• Crop Arrangement:
* Temporal Arrangements (time) refers to the yearly sequence of growing different
crops on a piece ofland.
* Spatial Arrangements (space/land) refers to the arrangement of crop/s on a piece
of land in variouspatterns.
• Crop diversification refers to the addition of new crops or cropping systems to
agricultural production on a particular farm considering the different returns from
value-added crops with complementary marketing opportunities
• Crop rotation Crops are changed in the field from year to year according to a
planned sequence rather than the same crop being grown in the same field again
and again.
• Cropping System is a broader term than cropping pattern and includes the sum
total of all crops and the practices used to grow those crops on a field or farm. It
comprises of all components, such as water, soil, technology etc. required for the
production of a particular crop and the interrelationships between them and the
surrounding environment.
• Cropping Intensity: It refers to number of crops cultivated in a piece of land per
annum.
• Gross Cropped Area: It is the total area sown once as well as more than once in
a particular year.
Factor Affecting Cropping Pattern
• Agronomic/Technical
* Climate and soil type (irrigation, topography, fertility, drainage etc.);
* Availability of required inputs (fertilizer, chemical, credit, tractors etc.);
* Plant/seed of high genetic quality;
* Management techniques and quality managers;
* Abundance of labour.
• Economic
* Flow of market signals and communication and information systems, Ex: regarding
prices in the market, supply- demand etc;
* Venture capital and entrepreneurship;
* Transparency of input and output prices;
* Information on export standards, market demand and relative profitability;
* Efficient marketing systems
 27

• Government Policy
* Non-distortionary policy to avoid discrimination among crops. (eg. MSP Policy);
* Efficient research and extension programmes, without any bias for major crops
or
* against high value crops;
* Contract-farming opportunities;
* Rural credit;
* Off-farm employment opportunities;
* Marketing systems including quality standards;
* Involvement of the private sector.
Classification of Crops
Based on End Usage
(1) Food Crops
* The crops which are grown as food for the producer’s family or for the producer’s
own livestock.
* Generally, produced at small scale (subsistence level) | Ex: wheat, rice, jowar
etc.
(2) Cash Crops
* The crops that are especially used for profit rather than consumption by a family.
* They can be consumed directly or processed into other products, such as sugar
and biofuel.
* They consist of foods like tobacco, tea, coffee, cardamom, fruits and vegetables,
grains, etc.
* They are sold, but some are not edible. Cotton and tobacco are examples of
nonedible cash crops.
(3) Plantation Crops
* It refers to those crops which are usually cultivated as a single crop on an
extensive scale in a large contiguous area, owned and managed by an Individual
or a company.
* These plantation crops are of high value commercial crops of greater economic
importance. The crops include tea, coffee, rubber, cocoa, coconut, arecanut, oil
palm, cashew, cinchona etc.
(4) Horticulture crops
* The science and art of growing and caring for plants, especially flowers, fruits,
and vegetables.
* The word horticulture comes from Latin and means “garden cultivation”
* Whereas agronomy (a branch of agriculture) refers to the growing of field crops,
horticulture refers to small-scale gardening.
* All food crops can be cash crops but not all cash crops can be food crops. Food
crops can be eaten by someone somewhere and so have a cash value. Food
crops can be sold, which would make them cash crops as well
 28

Based on Season

(1) Kharif Crop:

* The crops grown in monsoon months from June to Oct-Nov;Require warm, wet
weather at major period of crop growth, also required short day length for
flowering. Ex: Cotton, Rice, Jowar, bajara.
(a) Northern States: Rice, Cotton, Bajra, Maize, Jowar, Tur
(b) Southern States: Rice, Maize, Ragi, Jowar, Groundnut

(2) Rabi Crop:

* The crops grown in winter season from Oct to March month. Crops grow well in
cold and dry weather. Require longer day length for flowering. Ex: Wheat, gram,
sunflower etc.
(a) Northern States: Wheat, Gram, Rapeseeds and Mustard, Barley
(b) Southern States: Rice, Maize, Ragi Groundnut, Jowar

(3) Zaid Crop:

* The crops grown in summer month from March to June. Require warm-dry
weather for major growth period and longer day length for flowering.
Ex:Groundnuts, Watermelon, Pumpkins, Gourds.
(a) Northern States: Vegetables, Fruits, Fodder
(b) Southern States: Rice, Vegetables, Fodder
Based on Climate

(a) Tropical Climate Crop: They grow well in warm & hot climate. Ex:Rice, sugarcane,
Jowar etc

(b) Temperate Climate Crop: They grow well in cool climate. Ex:Wheat, Oats, Gram,
Potato etc

Based on Agronomics

1. Cereals
* They are cultivated grasses grown for their edible starchy grains. Larger grains
used as staple food are cereals.
* Ex: Rice, wheat, maize, barley and oats. The important cereal of world is rice.

2. Millets
* They are also annual grasses of the group cereals. But they are grown in less
area or less important area whose productivity and economics are also less.
* These are staple food of poor people. In India pearl millet is a staple food in
Rajasthan
- Major millets (based on area production and productivity and grain size)
* Sorghum /Jowar; Pearl Millet /Bajra/cumbu; Finger millet or ragi, etc
- Minor millets (based on area production and productivity and grain size)
* Fox tail millet; Little millet; Common millet; Barnyard millet; Kodomillet, etc
 29

3 Pulses or Grain Legumes

* Major source of protein in Indian diet; economically, pulses are cheapest source
of protein.
* It is cultivated to enrich the soil, to utilize the residual moisture and to give
revenue in a shorter period.
* Ex: Red gram; Black gram; Green gram; Cowpea; Bengal gram; Horsegram;
Dewgram; Soyabean; Peas, etc

4 Oil Seed Crops

* These crops are cultivated for the production of oil.
* Either for edible orindustrial or medicinal purpose. They containfat.
* Groundnut or peanut; Sesamum or gingelly; Sunflower; Castor; Linseed or flax;
Niger; Safflower; Rapeseed & Mustard; 45 – 50% oil content is present in
these seeds.
* Sugar Crops: Juice extracted from Sugar stem used for jaggery orsugar
* Number of by products like Molasses, bagasse, press-mud;
* Molasses used for alcohol and yeast formation; Bagasse for paper making and
fuel;
* Press- mud used for soil amendment; Trash (green leaf + dry foliage)- the waste
is used for cattle feed;
* Sugar beet: Tuber for extraction of sugar
- Tubers and tops are used as a fodder for cattle feed.

5 Starch Crops or Tuber Crops

* Potato; Tapioca or cassava; Sweet potato, etc

6 Fibre Crops
* Epidermal hairs of seed coats are the economic portion; Lint (cappas- seed) has
industrial value (fibre);
* Stalk is of fuel nature, garment purpose, seed for cattle feed and Oil is edible;
* Cotton
* Karunganni; Uppam cotton; American cotton or Cambodium cotton; Egyptian
cotton or Sea island cotton
* Stem Fibres
* Jute; Mesta; Sun hemp; Sisal hemp, etc

7. Narcotics
* Stimulates Nervous System- Tobacco; Betelvine; Arecanut, etc

8. Forage and Fodder Crops

* The entire vegetative part is used as green fodder;
* The stalks and leaves are the major economic portion for hay making;
* Hay is cut into pieces and mixed with concentrated animal feed and is fed to
animals.
 30

9. Grasses
* Napier grass; Para grass; Bermuda grass; Guinea grass; Rhodes grass, etc
10. Legumes
* Lucerne (Alfalfa); Egyptian clover (Bersemm); Indian clover (Fodder senji);
Sirato; Stylo; Subabul, etc
11. Plantation Crops
* Tea (leaf); Coffee (seed); Rubber (milk exudation); Cocoa (Seed).
12. Spices and Condiments
* Products of crop plants are used to flavor taste and sometime color the fresh
preserved food. Ex: ginger, garlic, chili, cumin onion, coriander, cardamom, pepper,
turmeric etc.
* Medicinal plants include cinchona, isabgoli, opium poppy, senna, belladonna,
rauwolfra, iycorice.
* Aromatic plants such as lemon grass, citronella grass, palmorsa, Japanese mint,
peppermint, rose, jasmine, henna etc.
Based on Duration of Crops
(a) Seasonal crops: A crop completes its life cycle in one season. Ex: rice, Jowar,
wheat, etc.
(b) Two seasonal crops: Crops complete its life cycle in two seasons. Ex: Cotton,
Turmeric, Ginger.
(c) Annual crops: Crops require one full year to complete its life cycle. Ex: Sugarcane.
(d) Biennial crops: Crops requires two year to complete its life cycle Ex: Banana,
Papaya.
(e) Perennial crops: Crops live for several years. Ex: Fruit crops, mango, guava etc.

Based on Cultural Method/Water

(i) Rain fed: Cultivation of crop mainly based on the availability of rain water. Ex:
Jowar, Bajara, Mung etc.
(ii) Irrigated crops: Crops cultivated with the help of irrigation water. Ex: Chili,
sugarcane, Banana, papaya etc.
Based on Root System
A. Tap root system: The main root goes deep into the soil. Ex: Tur, Grape, Cotton
etc.
B . Fiber rooted: The crops whose roots are fibrous shallow & spreading into the
soil. Ex: Cereal crops, wheat, rice etc. Based on Economic Importance
C. Cash crop: Grown for earning money. Ex: Sugarcane, cotton.
D. Food crops: Grown for raising food grain for the population and & fodder for
cattle. Ex: Jowar, wheat, rice tc.
 31

Based on No. of Cotyledons

A cotyledon is a significant part of the embryo within the seed of a plant, and is defined as
“the embryonic leaf in seed-bearing plants, one or more of which are the first to appear
from a germinating seed.” The number of cotyledons present is one characteristic used by
botanists to classify the flowering plants.

(i) Monocots or monocotyledons: Having one cotyledon in the seed. Ex: all cereals
& Millets.

(ii) Dicots or dicotyledonous: Crops having two cotyledons in the seed. Ex: all
legumes & pulses and almost all the trees.
Based on length of photo period required for floral initiation
Photoperiodism: The effect of light on plant. Most plants are influenced by relative
length of the day & night, especially for floral initiation, depending on the length of photoperiod
required for floral ignition, plants are classified as:
(a) Short-day plants: Flower initiation takes place when days are short less
than ten hours. Ex: rice, Jowar,green gram, black gram etc.
(b) Long day’s plants: require long days are more than ten hours for floral initiation.
Ex: Wheat, Barley, etc.
(c) Day neutral plants: Photoperiod does not have much influence for phase
change for these plants. Ex: Cotton, sunflower, etc.
Cropping Systems
About:

• The cropping system of a region is a cumulative result of long-term agricultural

practices, social customs and traditions, physical conditions, Government policies,
monetary considerations and historical factors.

• The change in land use pattern and cropping pattern is vastly affected by irrigation
expansion, infrastructure development, penetration of rural markets, development
and spread of short duration and drought resistant crop technologies, rapid
urbanization.

• The higher cultivable area has been achieved by bringing large acreage of
uncultivable land into cultivation.
Mono-Cropping

• It refers to growing of only one crop on a piece of land year after year.

• It may be due to climatic and socio-economic conditions or due to specialisation of

a farmer in growing a particular crop.

• Ex: Groundnut or cotton or sorghum are grown year after year due to limitation of
rainfall, while in canal irrigated areas, under a waterlogged condition, rice crop is
grown as it is not possible to grow any other crop.

• Sole cropping: One crop variety grown alone in a pure stand at normal density.

• Monoculture: Repetitive growing of the same sole crop in the same land.
 32

Multiple Cropping
• It is the practice of growing two or more crops in the same field within a given
year.
• It is the intensification of cropping in time and space dimensions, i.e. a greater
number of crops within year and a greater number of crops on same piece of land
in any given period.
• Growing of two or more crops simultaneously intermingled without row arrangement
is known as mixed cropping.
• It is a common practice in most of dryland tracts in India.
• The objective is subsistence farming; to meet the family requirement of cereals,
pulses and vegetables.
• Ex: Sorghum, Bajra and cowpea are mixed and broad-casted in rainfed conditions
(with low rainfall situations) to avoid complete crop failures and with ascertaining
the minimum yields.
Inter-cropping
• Base crop: The primary crop which is planted/ sown at its optimum sole crop
population in an intercropping situation.
• Intercrop: This is a second crop planted in between rows of base crop with a
view to obtain extra yields with intercrop without compromise in the main crop
yields
Requirements:
• The timing of peak nutrient demands of component crops should not overlap.
• Competition for light should be minimum among the component crops.
• The difference in maturity of component crops should be at least 30 days.
Ex: Maize + Cowpea (1:1); Sorghum + Red gram (2:2); Groundnut + Red gram (6:1);
Potato + Mustard (3:1); Wheat + Mustard (8:1)
Row intercropping
• Growing two or more crops simultaneously where one or more crops are planted in
rows.
• It is a variation in space dimension.
• Ex: maize + green gram (1:1), maize + black gram (1:1), groundnut + red gram(6:1).
Strip-intercropping
• Two or more crops are planted in the same field in alternate strips.
• Strips are wide enough to permit independent cultivation but narrow enough for
The crops to interact.
• Ex: groundnut + red gram (6:4) strip.
Parallel cropping
• Growing of two crops simultaneously which have different growth habits and no
competition among themselves
• Ex: Black gram with maize; Soybean with cotton
Synergistic Cropping
• Yields of both crops are higher than of their pure crops on unit area basis
• Ex: Sugarcane + Potato
Multistorey cropping
• Cultivation of more than two crops of different heights simultaneously on a pieceof
land in any certain period
 33

• Ex: Coconut + Pepper + cocoa + pineapple

Sequential Cropping
• It can be defined as growing of two or more crops in a sequence on same piece of
land in a farming year.
The succeeding crop is planted after the preceding crop has been harvested. There
is no competition
• Its various types are:
* Double Cropping: Growing two crops on the same land in a year in
sequence. Ex: rice’!cotton
* Triple Cropping: Growing three on the same land in a year in sequence.
Ex: Triple cropping: rice’!rice’!pulses
* Quadruple: Growing four crops on the same land in a year in sequence.
Ex:tomato’!ridgegourd’!amaranthus greens’!baby corn.
Alley cropping
• It is a system in which food crops are grown in alleys formed by hedge rows of
trees or shrubs.
• The essential feature of the system is that hedge rows are cut back at planting and
kept pruned during cropping to prevent shading and to reduce competition with
food crops.
• The space between two rows called alleys; The intercrops are raised in the alley
space
• Ex: cotton,sorghum, blackgram | Ex: Subabul raised at 6 m row spacing;
Relay cropping
• In a long duration base crop, growing two sets of inter-crops one after another is
calledrelay intercropping
• Ex: Redgram- base crop 180 days; Groundnut/onion/coriander-I set of intercrops;
Samai/thenai/panivaragu- 2nd set of intercrops
Ratoon cropping
• Ratooning is a method of harvesting a crop which leaves the roots and the lower
parts of the plant uncut to give the ratoon or the stubble crop. Crop regrows out of
roots or stalks after harvest of crops.
• Benefit: The crop matures earlier in the season+ It can also decrease the cost of
preparing the field and planting.
• Ratooning is most often used with crops which are known to give a steady yield
for three years under most conditions eg sugarcane, banana, pineapple.
• However, this method cannot be used endlessly as the yield of the ratoon crop
decreases after each cycle.
• Ex: Sugarcane (8 ratoons in Cuba)
• Banana- one plant crop followed by two ratoon crops normally
• Sorghum and Lucerne fodder- many ratoons 1St cutting 70 DAS and thereafter
every 35-40 days
• Pineapple crop is extensively ratooned.
Crop Rotation
• The practice of growing of different crops on a piece of land is a pre- planned
succession.
 34

• The principle behind is to utilise the available resources to the fullest extent in order
to harvest the maximum in a unit land without affecting the soil health. Ex: Rice-
Red Gram –Banana
• Practical examples of effective crop rotation:
* Leguminous crops should be grown before non-leguminous crops Because
legumes fix atmospheric Nitrozen into the soil and add organic matter to the
soil.
* Crops with tap roots (deep rooted like cotton) should be followed by those
which have fibrous (shallow rooted crops like sorghum or maize) root system.
This facilitates proper and uniform use of nutrients from the soil.
* More exhaustive crops should be followed by less exhaustive crops Because
crops like potato, sugarcane, maize etc. need more inputs such as better
tillage, more fertilizers, greater number of irrigations etc.
* Selection of crop should be based on need or demand
* Crops of same family should not be grown in succession Because they act as
alternate hosts for insect pests and diseases
* The selection of crops should suit farmers financial conditions
* The crop selected should also suit to the soil and climatic condition

Cropping Pattern

About
• Cropping pattern refers to the proportion of area under different crops at any given
point of time in a unitarea.
Factors
1. Geographical factors
* Soil
(a) Soil conditions: soil pH, salinity, ground water table, soil topography and soil
texture
(b) Soil pH: tea grows in acidic soil where coconut needs alkaline soil to grow
well
(c) Salinity: Crops do not grow well in saline soil. So, we need to develop saline
tolerant varieties for saline area. But few crops like tomatoes and broccoli
may grow in moderately saline water
* Ground water table: Shallow rooted crops do not grow well in that area where
water table is low
* Soil topography: Sesame, pineapple, zinger, turmeric etc., grows well in that land
which are not underflood water but pulses, oil seeds grows well in those land where
little flood water comes usually
(a) Soil texture: Sweet potato, groundnut, water melon grows well in sandy land
but rice needs clay or sandy clay soil
(b) Soil water: Rice needs more soil water than any other crops
* Terrain
(a) Slope also determine nature of crop| Example: Tea in hilly areas whereas,
rice and jute in plains
 35

* Climate
(a) Humidity: Some crops like tea grow well in high humidity.
(b) Day length: Potato grows well in short day length whereas wheat, onion
need long day length.
(b) Rainfall: Tea needs heavy rainfall whereas barley and chickpea grow in
arid climate.
(c) Temperature: In temperate countries wheat grows well whereas in sub-
tropical area rice is grows well.
2. Infrastructural facilities
* Irrigation, transport, storage, trade and marketing, post-harvest handling and
processing etc.
3. Social factors- Land Tenancy, Size of land holdings, Size of fields, etc
* Financial condition: Poor farmer cannot grow expensive crops like
sugarcane, Banana etc. (high initial cost)
* Transport problem: Poor communication as well as conveyance facility
* Market price: Good market price influence the farmer to grow more crops
as well as diversify the set ofcrops to be grown (+technology + storage,
etc.)
* Food habit: The crops that are not present in the food habit in a locality are
usually not grown at thatlocality
* Storage facility: Where there is no storage facility, farmers of that locality
usually do not grow vegetables(short life)
* Attitude of farmer: Sometimes farmers do not want to adopt modern
technology
4. Economic factors
* MSP: Minimum Support Price provided to farmers for production of crops
Demand based cropping pattern:Cotton cultivation in Vidarbha, Maharashtra,
Rice in Punjab and Jute in West Bengal
5. Technological factors
* If there is no extraction facility, farmer will not cultivate oil seeds
* If there is no shelling facility farmer will not go for corn cultivation.
* Enhanced varieties, cultural requirements, mechanization, plant protection,
access to information, etc. arethe factors involved.
6. Areal factors
* It is determined on the basis of areal strength of individual crops.
* The first, second and third ranking crops of an areal unit may be called as
the dominant crops of that unit.
* These crops, if occupying more or less the same percentage of the total
cropped area, shall be competing for area with each other and the farmer
will decide which crop may fetch him more profit in a given year under the
prevailing rainfall and demand, supply and commodity price condition.
* Or in the determination of cropping patterns of an area, the minor crops
(crops occupying insignificantproportion of the total cropped area) are
eliminated.
7. Relative yield: With respect to the size of the field + other important factors
(input cost, etc.)
 36

(a) Imbalance in pattern of food grain: Change in consumption pattern; Race for
remunerative returns; Sowingof one type of crops
(b) Government Policies: MSP; Promotion of cash crops; Nature of policy, crop
insurance schemes and facilities to influence farmer to grow a particular crop of a
certain area
(c) Production Inputs: It is the direct regulator of cropping pattern of region. If
there are no available inputs,farmer will not go for production.
(d) Role of man: The role of man in the cultivation of certain crops in a region is also
quite important. Man, by histechnological advancement, can ameliorate the physical
limits

Cropping Zones

Wheat Zone
• This region covers the entire north-western India including the state of Punjab,
Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan.
• The majorsub-regions are:
* Wheat-Maize-Sugarcane: This region comprises a great part of wheat
regions, covering West Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu.
* Wheat-Jowar-Bajra in Indus Plain covering Punjab and Haryana.
* Wheat-Jowar-Bajra in Vindhyan scarp land and Malwa Bundelkhand plateau.
Rice zone
• Rice is considered as the major crop in the vast region stretching from lower
Gangetic plain to Brahmaputra valley in the east and the circum-coastal alluvial
tracts of the peninsula region.
• Though rice displays overall dominance, considering the secondary importance of
other crops, this region may be subdivided into following zones:
* Rice-Jute-Tea: This association of crops occurs in far east, near Assam
Valley, northwest Bengal and lower Gangetic plains.
* Rice-Pulses-Millets-: This association occurs in the western section of the
former zone, covering central Bihar, eastern Madhya Pradesh and eastern
Uttar Pradesh.
* Rice-Millets: This zone comprises the entire Andhra Pradesh, southern Orissa
and some parts of Tamil Nadu.
* Rice-Coffee-Spices: This zone is found in the southern extremity of Kerala
and Tamil Nadu.
Jowar Bajra Zone
• This crop combination is practised in drought prone region (rainfall 50-100 cm).
* Jowar-Cotton in Maharashtra.
* Jowar-Cotton-Oilseeds-Millets in Karnataka and Maharashtra.
* Jowar-Wheat in entire Rajasthan, Haryana and some parts of Uttar Pradesh.
* Bajra-Jowar-Pulses in Rajasthan desert and semi-desert areas.
Cotton Zone
• It predominates in the black cotton soil (regur) region in the North West India.
• It covers the Deccan trap region and Gujarat plain.
• The different sub-regions are
 37

• Cotton-Jowar-Bajra grows in close association with one another in the

Maharashtra and Western Madhya Pradesh
• Cotton-Oilseeds combination developed in Gujarat
• Cotton-Pulses-Rice region developed in Narmada banks and Eastern Gujarat.
Millet- Maize Zone
• The cultivation of millet, maize and ragi are found in close association with
other major cereals like bajra, wheat, rice etc.
• Maize cultivation dominates in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh. In
Himachal Pradesh, Maize- Barley-wheat combination has developed,
particularly in the foothills of the Himalayas. Some parts of the Aravalli
have the peculiar crop combination of Maize-CottonOilseeds-Millets-Wheat.
Ragicultivation predominates in South of Karnataka.
• Maize has wide adaptability and compatibility under diverse soil and climatic
conditions.
• It is cultivated in sequence with different crops under various agro-ecologies
of the country
Fruit & Spice Zone
• This is the smallest region among the different crop regions.
• High-altitude hilly areas come under the territory of this region. The ‘Duns’
and valleysin Himalayas, foothills of Nilgiri, Annamalai, Palni and Cardamom
hills in Tamil Nadu and Kerala may be classified as fruit and spice region.
Here, the dominant agricultural activity is fruit orchards and plantations.
Others
• Plantation and Other Commercial Crops Crops under this category include
sugarcane, tobacco, potato, jute, tea, coffee, coconut, rubber and other crops,
such as spices and condiments.
• Some of them are seasonal, some annual and some perennial. Most of them
require specific environmental conditions and from the point of view of
cropping patterns, they are concentrated in some particular regions. Besides,
certain horticultural crops, such as apple, mango and citrus, are important.
• In the case of plantation-crops, intercropping with pulses and fodder crops is
common.
• Spices and condiments are generally grown on fertile soils. Chillies are rotated
with
• jowar, whereas onion, coriander, turmeric and ginger are grown as mixed
crops with other
• seasonal crop
 38

Fig.- Crop combination region

Distribution of Crops: World & India

Cereals (Rice, Wheat, Maize, Barley, Oats)
RICE (Oriza Sativa)
Conditions
• Humid and moist conditions, field should by submerged in water during growing
period and drained dry before the crop is harvested.
• Temperature: 20o to 27o C
• Rainfall: 80" to 120"
• Soils: Heavy clay or loamy
• Labour: Intensive
Distributions
• China (Double Cropping)-Chang Jiang (Yangtze), Xi River (Si Kiang), Sichuan
(Szechwan)
• India-Punjab, West Bengal, Northeastern part.
 39

• Bangladesh-Ganga Delta.
• Japan-North Honshu.
• Indonesia, Taiwan, Malaysia, Korea.
• Brazil
• U.S.A.-Louisiana, California, Texas, South Carolina.
• Africa-Egypt (Nile Delta and Valley).
• Europe-North Italian Plain, Ebro Basin of Spain, Rhone Delta of France and some
regions in Balkans; Russia.

Fig.- main rice production region in world

Indian Rice
Staple food crop of India; Kharif Crop; Aus, Aman and Boro are varieties of rice in Kharif,
Rabi and Zaid seasons Staple food crop of India; India is the second largest producer after
China.
Climatic Conditions
• High temperature (above 25° C); High Humidity with average rainfallabove 100
cm.
Soil
• Heavy clay and clay loams. Also grown in alluvial red and lateritic soils.
Distribution
• Northeastern region-Assam, West Bengal, South Bihar, Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura
and Orissa.
• Northern Region-Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana and western U.P.·
• Central Region-Madhya Pradesh, Parts of Andhra Pradesh (Telangana) and
Karnataka·
• Southern Region-Deltaic Tracts of the Godavari, Krishna, Kauvery and Tambraparni
and non-deltaic rain-fed areas of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
 40

Fig.- main rice production regions in India

WHEAT
Conditions
• Warm and moist during early stages of growth and sunny and dry during later
stages and harvest.
• Temperature: 15. 5o C, 100 forest-free days
• Rainfall: 15 to 40"
• Soil: chernozem or black soil
• Labour: Large scale where manual cultivation is done.
• Topography: Undulating temperate grasslands.
• Characteristics:
(a) Most important and most valuable of all cereals
(b) Concentrated mainly in the mid-latitude grass and regions of temperate zone.
• Winter wheat: Sown in late autumn of early winter and harvested in early summer.
• Spring wheat: Sown in spring and harvested in late summer and late autumn.
• Hard wheat: Low moisture content best suited for bread making.
 41

Distribution
• Soft wheat: higher moisture content more suited for making bakeries.
• China
• U.S.A. –White wheat-California, Washington, Oregon, Idaho;
• Hard red spring wheat-North and South Dakota, Montana and Minnesota;
• Hard red winter wheat-Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, Oklahoma, N.Texas;
• Soft red winter wheat-Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania.
• Canada-Prairie provinces-Saskatchewan, Alberta, Manitoba.
• Australia-Murray Darling River Basin, Swanland, Western Australia.
• Europe-France (Paris Basin), Turkey, Germany, Italy (Lombardy Plain), Romania
(Lower Danube Basin), Hungary (Pustaz), Sweden (Scania), U.K. (East Anglia).
• CIS-Spring wheat-Kazakstan, W.Siberia, Urals, Volga region.
• Ukraine-Winter Wheat
• Argentina-Wheat Crescent of the Pampas. (Rosario to Bahia Blanca).
• New Zealand-Canterbury Plain, South Island.
• India-Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh.

Indian Wheat
Climate conditions
• Cool and moist climate during growing period and dry warm climate during harvest.
• Temp.-(winter) 10o to 15oC, (Summer) 21o to 26oC.
• Rainfall-15 to 75 cm.
• Light winter showers increase the yield.
Soil
•
Well-drained loams and clayey loams-ideal, also grown in sandy loams, in black
and alluvial soils.
• Irrigation is essential for good yield in all types of soils.
Distribution
• Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.
• The Ganga-Satluj plains in the northwest and black soil region of the Deccan
 42

MAIZE
(Zea mays)- Dent corn (Widely grown), Flint Corn (Hard), Sweet Corn (Contains Sugar),
Pop Corn (Human consumption), Flour Corn, Waxy Corn (for making adhesives), Pod
Corn (Rarely Grown)
Condition
• Temperature: 18o to 27o C during the day and 14o C during the night.140 frost-
free days
• Annual Rainfall: 63.5 to 114.5 cm and 25 to 45 inches.
• Soil: Nitrogen rich soil, well drained
• Temperate: Podzols
• Tropics: Red Soils
• Topography: Undulating lowlands with well-drained plains.
Characteristics
• Known as Indian corn which originate in America.
• Animal feed: World’s 70-90% corn production.
• Corn belt of USA is a highly developed mixed farming region.
 43

Distribution
• U.S.A-Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota.
• China-S. Manchuria to Northern Plain
• Brazil-S.E. Brazil-Minas Gerais, Sao Paulo, Rio Grande, pasara.
• Europe-France, Romania, Italy.
• S. Africa-Maize Triangle of Southern Transvall and Orange Free State.
• Mexico

Fig. main maize producing regions in the world

Indian Maize
Used as Food and fodder crop; Production of crop increased due to use of HYV seeds,
fertilisers and irrigation; Rich in protein
Climatic Condition
• Temp.- 21o to 27o CRainfall- 75 cm( 50-100 cm rainfall)
• Requires four and a half frost free months in a year.
Soil
• Grown on less fertile soil
• rows well in old alluvial soil
Distribution
• U.P., Bihar, Rajasthan, M.P., Punjab, J & K, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh and Andhra
Pradesh, Other Producers-orissa, Karnataka and West Bengal
 44

Fig.- Maize production regions in India

BARLEY
BARLEY (Hordeum Vulgare)
Conditions
• Cool winter and low rainfall.
• Frost at flowering and hailstorms at grain development stage completely damage
the crop. Rains at harvest also make grains unfit for malting.
• Soils: Well-drained and moderately rich loams.
Climatic Condition
• Temp. - 10o to 15o C
• Rainfall-75 to 100 cm.
Characteristics
• Grown in a wide range of climatic, topographical and soil environment
• More tolerant to dry conditions and will ripen at low temperature.
• It can be grown in Semi Arctic regions, Semi-Arid, High Altitudes steep Hill Slope
and light loamy soils.
Soil
• Light clay and alluvium soil (Generally grown on less fertile soil)
 45

Distribution
• Europe: CIS, France, Turkey, Denmark, Germany, Poland and Spain.U.S.A.,
Canada, Argentina, Australia.
Distribution
• Bihar, North eastern U.P., Haryana Punjab Rajasthan

Fig. main barley producing regions in the world

 46

Beverage (Tea, Coffee, Cocoa)

TEA (Camellia Spp.) Small-leaved China Tea (Sinensis) Large-Leaved Assam Tea
(assamica) Paraguay tea (Yerbamate)
Conditions
• Warm summer with greater frequency of rainfall.
• Temperature: 13o to 24o C (Ideal-21oC).
• Rainfall: 125 to 205 c,
• Convert – 205 cm
• Grown on highlands because Tea cannot tolerate stagnant water.
• Soils: Acidic soil without Calcium and rich in Iron and Manganese. Well-drained,
deep and friable loam.
• Labour: Intensive because mechanization is not possible.
• It is believed to have originated in Yangtze valley of China.
Distribution
• China (Green Tea)-Change Jiang (Yangtze), Sichuan basin.
• Taiwan (Oolong Tea) around Taihoku.
• Sri Lanka (Black Tea).
• India (Black Tea)-Assam-Khasi Hills, Brahmaputra and Surma Valleys, Darjeeling,
Kerala-Nilgiri Hills and Western Ghats.
• Japan (Green Tea)-Eastern Slopes of Japanies Alps in Southern Slopes specially
Shizuoka Prefecture
• Indonesia-Volcanic mountain of western Java, Northern Highlands of Sumatra.
• Bangladesh (Black Tea)-Chittagong and Silhet.
• Malaysia (Black Tea)
• Kenya- Narobi, Malavi, Mozambique, Uganda.

Fig. Tea producing regions of the world

Indian Tea·
• Plantation Crop·
• Tea is a labour-intensive industry; It requires abundant, cheap and skilled labour.·
 47

• One of the major foreign exchange earners of India.

Climatic Condition
• Ideal temperature- 20°-30° Requires warm and moist frost-free climate all through
the year.
• Frequent showers (150-300 cm) evenly distributed over the year ensure continuous
growth of tenderleaves.
Soil
• Acid soil without Calcium and rich in Iron and Manganese. Well-drained, deep and
friable loam.
• Grows well in tropical and sub-tropical climates endowed with deep and fertile
well-drained soil, rich in humus and organic matter.
Distribution
• Northeast India-Darjeeling in West Bengal, Sadiya in Assam, Brahmaputra valley,
Surma valley, Dooars in the Himalayan foothills.
• North India-Terai rgion in U.P., Himachal Pradesh, Bihar.South-West India-Kerala,
Tamil Nadu and Karnataka tea areas are located in Nilgiris, Cardamom, Palni and
Anamalai hills.
 48

COFFEE
Conditions
• Temperature 14o to 26o C Growth rapid during hot rainy season.
• Rainfall-40 to 80 inces.Upland areas (2000 ft. to 6000 ft.).Shelter from direct
sunlight specially for young plants.
• Soils: Sandy loam to clay loam, well-drained, rich in organic matter. Virgin soil,
newly cleared forests give best yield. Terra Roxa of Brazil is most suitbale.
• Labour: IntensiveMechanisation is not possible.
Characteristics
• Arabica-Least hardy, finest Coffee for flavor, most important in World Trade;
• Robusta-Poor quality, disease resistant, survive in arid conditions;
• Liberia-sturdy and disease resistan, moderate quality, low and coffe.
Brazil-One of the important coffee’s producer and Sao Paulo is the coffee trade
centre with Santos as export port.
Fazendas: State farms of Brazil.
Distribution
• South America
• Brazil (Arabica)-Sao Paulo, Riberao Preto, Santos, Rio de janeiro.
• Columbia-Slopes of Andes, Medellin, Manizales and Tolima.Ecuador, Vanezuela,
Peru.
• Central American States-Mexico, El. Salvador, Guatemala, Costa Rica.
• Asia-Malaysia, Vietnam, Philippines.
• India-Western Ghats.
• African Countries (Robusta and Liberica)-Kenya around Nairobi, Uganda,
Angola (Arabic), Ivory Coast, Zaire and Cameroon.

Fig.- Coffee producing regions of the world

Indian Coffee·
• The Arabica variety initially brought from Yemen is produced in the country.·
• India produces about 4% of world coffee production; Arabica variety is popular.·
• Almost 50% of Indian production is exported.
 49

Climatic Condition
• Temp.-15 to 28o C
• Rainfall-150 to 200 cm, well distributed throughout the year.
• Prolonged drought damages the crop.
Soil
• Rich well-drained friable loams.
Distribution
• Initially, its cultivation was introduced on the Baba Budan Hills and even today its
cultivation is confined tothe Nilgiri in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

SUGARCANE (Saccharum Officinarum)

Conditions
• Climate: Hot climate with abundant rainfall, dry sunny season during
harvest.Temperature-21o to 27o C throughout the year.
• Rainfall-50"
• Soil: Well-drained, Medium heavy soil, Red loamy soil, Limon or loess soil of
northern Europe and in India Black cotton and numerous Mechanization is often
used throughout in developed countries.
Characteristics
• Perennial crop but not produced from many years to maintain the fertility of soils.
• Grown as monoculture crop.
• Sugar mill must be near the field.
Distribution
• Asia-India, Pakistan, Taiwan China (Si-Kiang Basin), S.E. Asia (Thailand),
Philippines (Island of Panay, Negros, Cebu, Luzon), Indonesia (Eastern and Central
Java), Malaysia, Latin America and Caribbean-Brazil, Cuba (Matanzas, east of
Havana to Holguin), Mexico, Columbia, Argentina, Peru, Ecuador, Dominican
Republic, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Barbados.
• U.S.A. – Louisiana, Hawaii.Other-Mauritius, Fiji, S. Africa (Natal).

Fig.- Sugarcane and sugar beet producing regions of the world

 50

Indian Sugarcane·
• Needs manual labour for its cultivation; Perishable.
Climatic Condition
• Temp. 20 to 26o C
• Rainfall- 75-100 cm
• Frost damages the crop and short cool dry winter season during ripening and
harvesting is good for the crop.
• Sea winds increase the yield.
Soil
• Deep, rich, loamy soils are ideal; black soil is also suitable.
Distribution
• Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu
and Karnataka.
GRAPES
Conditions
• Climate: Sunny summers and warm wet winters are ideal for viticulture. Growing
season 170 days, cannot stand very cold season, prolonged droughts are harmful
and required plenty of sunshine.
• Slopes are preferred for good drainage.
• Temperature- 21o to 24o C.
• Rainfall-30 or 40"
• Soil: Fairly deep well-drained Calcareous soil.
• Labour: Skilled patient and numerous labour force.
Distribution
Mediterranean countries:
• Italy-Asti from the Piedmont centred at Turin; Chianti from the Arno and Tiber
basins, and Marsala from the island of Sicily
• France- Champagne from Paris Basin; Burgundy and Beaujolais from the upper
Rhone and Saone valleys; Cognac (brandy), Clarets and Sauternes from the Basin
of Aquitaine.
• Spain- Sherry from Jerez da le Frontera, near Cadiz; and Malaga from port of
Malaga; Valencia and Andalusia, and in the river basins of he Ebro, Douro, Tagus,
Guadiana and Guadalquivir.
• Portugal-Port wine from Oporto and the Douro basin.Greece, Germany (Freiburg),
Hungary (Tokay), Algeria, Britain
• U.S.A.- California (San Joaquin Valley)
• South America-Chile (around Santiago or Argentina (Mendoza and San Juan).
• Africa-Cape Province in South Africa.
• Australia-South Australia (around Adelaide), Murray Darling Basin of Victoria
and New South Wales
 51

Fig. Grapes and wine producing regions in the world

Industrial Crops
TOBACCO (Genus0Nicotina), (Varieties-Virginia tobacco, Turkish or Oriental tobacco,
Cigar tobacco)
Conditions
• Climate: Warm temperate sub-tropical or tropical climate.
• Temperature-> 18o to 21o C.
• Rainfall-Moderate 100cmFrost-free 120 to days.
• Soil: Fertile soil with lime, potash, and humus.
• Labour: Large and intensive labour.
Distributions
• China, U.S.A, India, Brazil, CIS, Turkey, Japan, Bulgaria, South Korea and Greece.
• Cuba (Cigar Tobacco), Greece and Turkey (Turkish Tobacco), Zimbabwe (Virginia
Tobacco), Indonesia (Special Tobacco)

Fig. Tobacco producing regions in the world

 52

RUBBER (Hevea Brasiliensis) Native of Brazil

Conditions
• Climate: Require constant high temperature and heavy rainfall evenly distributed
throughout the year.
• Temperature-21o to 27o C
• Rainfall-80 to 100"
• Soil: Deep, friable, well-drained, loamy soil. Alluvial soil is also suitable.
• Labour: Cheap, efficient and fairly skillful labour.
Distribution
• Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Sri Lnaka, India, Liberia, Nigeria, Brazil
 53

Fig. Natural rubber producing regions in the world

Indian Rubber
• Equatorial Crop, but under special conditions it’s also grown in tropical and
subtropical areas.
• Important industrial raw material; India is 3rd largest producer in world.
Climatic Condition
• Temp.-Above 21o C
• Rainfall-200 to 300cm
• Harmful: Dry spell and low temperature. Daily rainfall followed by strongsun is
very useful.
Soil
• Rich well-drained soil varying from laterite to fine alluvium or clayey loams.
Distribution
• Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra, Assam, West Bengal and
Andaman Nicobar.
COCONUT (Cocos Nucifera)
Conditions
• Climate: High temperature and rainfall-evenly distributed throughout the year;
Frost and low humidity adversely affect the crop; requires plenty sunshine.
• Temperature-27o C
• Rainfall-100-225 cm (40 to 90 inches).
• Soil: Well-drained soil, red loam, laterite, alluvial and sand soil. Long period stagnant
water is harmful.
• Labour: Intensive
Distributions
• Coconut-India, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia countries and the Pacific Island, West
Africa and Tropical Latin America.
• Copra-Commercial product of the coconut, which is used in the making of soap
margarine, cooking oil and candles. Philippines, Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka,
Malaysia, Mexico, Papua New Guinea, Mozambique, New Hebrides and Fiji.
 54

Fig. Coconut producing regions in the world

Indian Coconut
Climatic Condition
• High temperature and sufficient rainfall.
Soil
• Light well-drained soil.
Distribution
• Kerala, Karnatak, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Assam, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal,
Goa, Daman and Diu, Andaman Nicobar.
 55

GROUNDNUT (Arachis hypogoea) (Native of Brazil)

• Climate : Grown throughout the tropics and extended to the sub-tropical countries
between 45oN and 35oS and up to an altitude of 10m.
• Temperature: Warm Temperature.
• Rainfall- (20 to 50 inches) 50 cm-125 cm. Rainfall Distributed well during the
flowering and pegging of the crop. Cannot stands frost, long and severe drought
or water stagnation.
• Soil: Wide variety of soil-best yield on sandy loam and loamy soil. Black soil with
good drainage is also suitable.
• Labour : Intensive.
• India-Deccan region and Punjab.
• China-North China Plain.
• Others- U.S.A., Sudan, Senegal, Indonesia, Argentina, Myammar, Nigeria, Zaire,
Brazil.

Fig. Groundnut producing regions in the world

Indian Groundnut
Climatic Condition
• Temp.- 20o to 25o C
• Rainfall-75 to 85 cm
• Dry weather is required during harvesting period.
Soil
• Light soil, well-drained sandy loams rich in organic matter.
Distribution
• Karnataka, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, M.P,
Punjab, U.P.
 56

SOYABEAN (Glynine max) (Leguminous crop)

• Climate: Warm temperate to cool temperate crop.
• Temperature-21oC.
• Rainfall-40’’
• Soil: Moisture-retentive soils are ideal.
• Labour: Extensive
• China-North China Plain and Manchuria.
• U.S.A- Corn Belt.
• South America- Argentina, Brazil. Indonesia, Japan.CIS
 57

Fig. Soyabean producing regions of the world

Industrial Fibers
COTTON (Four varieties of species Gossypium-G. hirsutum (most widely grown, middle
staple cotton). G. barbadense (long staple cotton), G. arboretum and G. herbaceum)
Condition
• Climate: Warm climate with moderate rainfall, plenty of sunshine during growing
period but cooler condition during harvest.
• Temperature-21-27oC. 200 frost-free days.
• Rainfall- Moderate to light rainfall 20" to 40". Rain just before the harvest damages
the crop.
• Soil: Well-drained soil (cannot tolerate water logging), black cotton soil (regur in
India) and medium black soil; alluvial soild when irrigated.
• Labour: Large, cheap, and skilled labour force.
Distribution
• U.S.A-New England, Atlantic Coast and piedmont, Tennessee Valley, Mississippi
flood-plain, Black Waxy Prairies, North west Texas and Oklahoma, Southern Texas.
• CIS-Uzbekistan, West of Caspian Sea in Azerbaijan and Armenia.
• China-The great plain of northern China, along Hwang Ho, Wei He valleys;
Szechwan and Yangtze valley.
• India-Central and southern Deccan (Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra),
Upper Ganges Valley.
• Pakistan-Valley of Indus, Punjab and Sindh. Egypt, Brazil, Mexico, Peru, Columbia,
Nicaragua.
Varieties of cotton
• Long staple cotton (3.5 to 6.5 cm of length)-Best quality cotton which grown in
Egypt, U.S.A., (Georgia and Florida), Sudan and Peru; Medium staple cotton
(2.2 cm to 3.2 cm in length)-U.S.A. and CIS: Short staple cotton (less than
2.2cm)-Most interior grade mostly grown in Asia-India, Pakistan.
 58

Indian Cotton
Climatic Condition
• Temp.- 21o to 30o C
• Rainfall-50 to 75 cm
Soil
• Black cotton soil (regur) and also mixed red and black soil.
Distribution
• Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Punjab, U.P, Bihar and Rajasthan.
 59

Indian Jawar
Climatic Conditions
• Temp.- 27o to 32o C
• Rainfall-30 to cm
• Excessive moisture or prolonged droughts are harmful.
Soil
•
Black clayey loams-ideal but grown in wide variety soils ranging from heavy and
light alluvium to red, grey, and yellow loams and even sandy loams.
Distribution
• Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, M.P., Karnataka, Gujarat and Rajasthan.

Indian Bajra
Climatic Conditions
• Temp-25o to 35o C
• Rainfall-less than 50 cm
Soil
• Light sandy soils and shallow black and red upland gravelly soils.
 60

Distribution
• Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, U.P., Haryana and Andhra Pradesh.

Indian Ragi
Climatic Conditions
• Tem-20o to 30o C
• Rainfall- 50 to 100 cm
Soil
• Red light black and sandy loams and also well-drained alluvial loams.
Distribution
• Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and U.P.Others-Maharashtra, Orissa,
and Bihar.
 61

Indian Jute
• Used for making gunny bags, mats, ropes, yarn, carpets etc.
• Jute getting replaced by synthetic fibres due to low cost and durability of artificial
fibres.
Climatic Condition
Soil
Distribution
• Temp-above 26o C
• Rainfall- 120-150 cm
• Average humidity-80 to 90%
• Alluvial soil, also grown in clayey and sandy soil.
• West Bengal, Assam, Bihar, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, and Maharashtra and Kerala
(coastal areas).
 62

Other crops/fruits of india-

Pulses
• About- Major source of protein in a vegetarian diet; Major Pulses: Tur (arhar),urad,
moong, masur, peas and gram.
• Climatic Conditions less moisture and survive even in dry conditions; Gram prefers
20°-25°temperature and 40-50 cm rainfall.
• Extra
o Major pulse producing states in India are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
o Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Karnataka.
o India is the largest producer and consumer.
o Leguminous plants-Help in restoring fertility.
 63

Millets
About-
• Jowar, bajra and ragi are important millets in India; Have highnutritional value.
Climatic Conditions
• Jowar is a rain-fed crop mostly grown in the moist areas which hardly needs
irrigation. (Kharif- 26°-33° C;Rabi- above 16°C).
• Bajra grows well on sandy soils and shallow black soil (Temperature- 25°- 30° C;
rainfall- 40-50 cm).
• Ragiis a crop of dry regions and grows well on red, black, sandy, loamy and shallow
black soils (Temperature- 20°-30° C; rainfall- 50-100 cm).
Extra
• Major Jowar producing States were Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
and Madhya Pradesh.
• Major Bajra producing States were: Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat
and Haryana.
• Major ragi producing states are: Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andra, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Sikkim,Jharkhand and Arunachal Pradesh.
• Alternative to rice; India leads world production in millets.
Gram
About
• Rabi crop; best grown on loamy soil.
Climatic Conditions
• Temp: 20-25°c; Rainfall 40-50 cm.
Extra
• Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Maharashtra
• Most important of all pulses; Single or mixed crop with wheat, barley, linseed or
mustard.
Tur
About
• Kharif crop chiefly; Dry crop mixed with other kharif crops
Climatic Conditions
• Temp: 20-25°C; Rainfall 40-50 cms
Extra
• Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka.
• most important millet of India; Seldom grown as single crop.
Seasmum
• About: Rabi crop
• Climatic Conditions: Temp: 21-23°c; Rainfall: 45- 50cms; Soil: Well drained light
loam
• Extras: Odisha, Rajasthan, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh
Mustard
• About: Rabi crops
• Climatic Conditions: Cool climate is suitable
 64

• Extras: Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh; Single crop or mixed with wheat, barley and
gram
Linseed
• About: Rabi Cool; Dry crop
• Climatic Conditions: Temp:20°c; Rainfall:75cms; Soil: Clayey, black, Alluvial
• Extras: Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh& Maharashtra
Castor Seed
• About: Almost whole area of castor seed is rain-fed Kharif crop (north) Rabi crop
(South)
• Climatic Conditions Temp: 20-25°c; Rainfall: 50- 75cms;Soil: Sandy loams (peninsula)
& Alluvial (Satluj- Ganga plains)
• Extras: Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan;
Pepper
• About: Tropical crop
• Climatic Conditions: Temp: 10-30°c; Rainfall: 200- 300cms; Soil: Loamy
• Extras: Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu; The plant progresses as a vine and needs
support of other trees
Cardamom
• Climatic Conditions: Temp: 15-32°c; Rainfall: 150- 300cms; Soil: Red, Laterite and
Loamy
• Extras: Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu; Shade loving plant and grown under
shadetrees Used inAyurveda
Chillies
• Climatic Conditions: Temp: 10-30°c; Rainfall: 60- 125cms; Soil: Black and Loamy
• Extras: Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Odisha
Turmeric
• About: Tropical crop; Soil: Sandy or loamy
• Producing States: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu;
• Extras: King of spices; Used: Condiment, Healing remedy, Textile Dye
Ginger
• About: Tropical and sub- tropical crop
• Climatic Conditions: Temp: 10-25°c; Rainfall: 125- 250cms; Soil: Sandy, clayey,
Loamy; Red and Laterite
• Producing States: Kerala, Meghalaya, Sikkim, West Bengal, Odisha and Mizoram
Origin: China
Cashew nut
• Climatic Conditions: Temp: 16-25°c; Rainfall: 50-350cms; Soil: Laterite (West coast)
and Sandy (Eastcoast)
• Extras: Goa, Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh & Maharashtra
Mango
• Climatic Conditions: Temp: 20-30°c; Rainfall: 75-250cms; Soil: prefer rich clayey
loams
• Extras: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Odisha, Kerala, Tamil
Nadu,Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka
 65

Apple
• About: Temperate fruit crop
• Climatic Conditions: Temp: 21-24°c; Rainfall: 100-125cms; Soil: Loamy, Rich in
organic matter
• Extras: Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Arunachal Pradesh
Banana
• About: Tropical and sub- tropical crop and sub-tropical crop
• Climatic Conditions: Temp: 20-30°c; Rainfall: >150cms; Soil: Well drained, Rich in
moisture and Humus
• Extras:
o Spread all over India, Peninsular India provide ideal conditions Tamil Nadu
and Maharashtra
o Fruit ripens very quickly; Refrigerated boats to ship from tropics to US/EU
market
o Banana producing regions nearest to major markets have trade advantage
Orange
• Climatic Conditions: Soil: Textured sand loams, well- drained; Root penetration up
to 2-4meters is best
• Extras:
o Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal- Darjeeling, Himachal Pradesh- Kangra valley,
o Meghalaya- Khasi and Jaintia hills, Andhra Pradesh- Hyderabad and
Aurangabad, Karnataka- Kodagu district, Kerala- Wayanad, Tamil Nadu-
Nilgiri, MaharashtraNagpur and Pune.
o Orange orchards are rain-fed grown at height of 600- 1500m

PRELIMS QUESTIONS
AGRICULTURE

1. Among the following states, which one has the most suitable climatic conditions
for the cultivation of a large variety of orchids with minimum cost of production,
and can develop an export oriented industry in this field ? (2011)
(a) Andhra Pradesh.
(b) Arunachal Pradesh.
(c) Madhya Pradesh.
(d) Uttar Pradesh.

2. The lower Gangetic plain is cahrac-terised by humid climate with high

temperature throughout the year. Which one among the following pairs of crops
is most suitable for this region ? (2011)
(a) Paddy and cotton.
(b) Wheat and jute.
(c) Paddy and jute.
(d) Wheat and cotton.
 66

3. Among the following, which one is the least water-efficient crop?

(a) Sugarcane
(b) Sunflower
(c) Pearl millet
(d) Red gram

4. A state in India has the following characteristics : (2011)

1. Its northern part is arid and semi-arid.
2. Its central part produces cotton.
3. Cultivation of cash crops is predominant over food crops.
Which one of the following states has all of the above characteristics ?
(a) Andhra Pradesh.
(b) Gujarat.
(c) Karnataka.
(d) Tamil Nadu.

5. Consider the following crops of India : (2012)

1. Groundnut
2. Sesamum
3. Pearl millet
Which of the above is/are predomi-nantly rainfed crop/crops?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

6. Consider the following pairs : (2014)

Region Well-known for the
production of
1. Kinnaur : Areca nut
2. Mewat : Mango
3. Coromandel : Soya bean
Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None

7. Consider the following crops (2013)

1.Cotton
2. Groundnut
3. Rice
4.Wheat
Which of these are Kharif crops?
(a) 1 and 4
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) 2, 3 and 4
 67

8. Which of the following is the chief characteristic of ‘mixed farming’? (2012)

(a) Cultivation of both cash crops and food crops
(b) Cultivation of two or more crops in the same field
(c) Rearing of animals and cultivation of crops together
(d) None of the above

9. Consider the following crops of India : (2012)

1. Cowpea
2. Green gram
3. Pigeon pea
Which of the above is/are used as pulse, fodder and green manure?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

10. Which of the following is/are the advantage /advantages of practising drip
irrigation? (2016)
1. Reduction in weed
2. Reduction in soil salinity
3. Reduction in soil erosion
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) None of the above is an advantage of practising drip irrigation

11. Which of the following practices can help in water conservation in agriculture?
(2017)
1. Reduced or zero tillage of the land
2. Applying gypsum before irrigating the field
3. Allowing crop residue to remain in the field
Select the correct answer using the code given below :
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

12. With reference to the circumstances in Indian agriculture, the concept of

“Conservation Agriculture” assumes significance. Which of the following fall
under the Conservation Agriculture? (2018)
1. Avoiding the monoculture practices
2. Adopting minimum tillage
3. Avoiding the cultivation of plantation crops
4. Using crop residues to cover soil surface
5. Adopting spatial and temporal crop sequencing/crop rotations
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 3 and 4
(b) 2, 3, 4 and 5
(c) 2, 4 and 567
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 5
 68

13. With reference to organic farming in India, consider the following statements:
(2018)
1. The National Programme for Organic Production’ (NPOP) is operated under the
guidelines and directions of the Union Ministry of Rural Development.
2. The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority’
(APEDA) functions as the Secretariat for the implementation of NPOP.
3. Sikkim has become India’s first fully organic State.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

14. What is/are the advantage/advantages of zero tillage in agriculture ? (2020)

1. Sowing of wheat is possible without burning the residue of previous crop.
2. Without the need for nursery of rice saplings, direct planting of paddy seeds in the
wet soil is possible.
3. Carbon sequestration in the soil is possible.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

15. In the context of India, which of the following is/are considered to be practice(s)
of eco-friendly agriculture ? (2020)
1. Crop diversification
2. Legume intensification
3. Tensiometer use
4. Vertical farming
Select the correct answer using the code given below :
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 3 only
(c) 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

16. How is permaculture farming different from conventional chemical farming?

1. Permaculture farming discourages monocultural practices but in conventional chemical
farming, monoculture practices are pre dominant.
2. Conventional chemical farming can cause increase in soil salinity but the occurrence
of such phenomenon is not observed in permaculture farming.
3. Conventional chemical farming is easily possible in semi-arid regions but
permaculture farming is not so easily possible in such regions.
4. Practice of mulching is very important in permaculture farming but not necessarily
so in conventional chemical farming.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 and 3
(b) 1, 2 and 4
(c) 4 only
(d) 2 and 3
 69

17. With reference to the cultivation of Kharif crops in India in the last five years,
consider the following statements: (2019)
1. Area under rice cultivation is the highest.
2. Area under the cultivation of jowar is more than that of oilseeds.
3. Area of cotton cultivation is more than that of sugarcane.
4. Area under sugarcane cultivation has steadily decreased.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

18. With reference to pulse production in India, consider the following statements
:
1. Black gram can be cultivated as both kharif and rabi crop.
2. Green-gram alone accounts for nearly half of pulse production.
3. In the last three decades, while the production of kharif pulses has increased, the
production of rabi pulses has decreased.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) l only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

19. In India, the use of carbofuran, methyl parathion, phorate and triazophos is
viewed with apprehension. These chemicals are used as (2019)
(a) pesticides in agriculture
(b) preservatives in processed foods
(c) fruit-ripening agents
(d) moisturising agents in cosmetics

20. What are the advantages of fertigation in agriculture ? (2020)

1. Controlling the alkalinity of irrigation water is possible.
2. Efficient application of Rock Phosphate and all other phosphatic fertilizers is possible.
3. Increased availability of nutrients to plants is possible.
4. Reduction in the leaching of chemical nutrients is possible.
Select the correct answer using the code given below :
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 2, 3 and 4 only

21. With reference to chemical fertilizers in India, consider the following statements
: (2020)
1. At present, the retail price of chemical fertilizers is market-driven and not
administered by the Government.
2. Ammonia, which is an input of urea, is produced from natural gas.
3. Sulphur, which is a raw material for phosphoric acid fertilizer, is a by-product of oil
refineries.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
 70

22. Consider the following statements: (2015)

1. The Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme was launched during 1996-97 to
provide loan assistance to poor fanners.
2. The Command Area Development Programme was launched in 1974-75 for the
development of water-use efficiency.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

23. Which one of the following best describes the main objective of ‘Seed Village
Concept? (2015)
(a) Encouraging the farmers to use their own farm seeds and discouraging them to
buy the seeds from others
(b) Involving the farmers for training in quality seed production and thereby to make
available quality seeds to others at appropriate time and affordable cost
(c) Earmarking some villages exclusively for the production of certified seeds
(d) Identifying the entrepreneurs in village and providing them technology and finance
to set up seed companies

24. The crop is subtropical in nature. A hard frost is injurious to it. It requires at
least 210 frost-free days and 50 to 100 centimeters of rainfall for its growth. A
light well-drained soil capable of retaining moisture is ideally suited for the
cultivation of the crop.” Which one of the following is that crop ? (2020)
(a) Cotton (b) Jute
(c) Sugarcane (d) Tea

25. Consider the following States : (2022)

1. Andhra Pradesh 2. Kerala
3. Himachal Pradesh 4. Tripura
How many of the above are generally known as tea-producing States ?
(a) Only one State (b) Only two States
(c) Only three States (d) All four States
***
Answer Key

1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9.

(a) 10. (c) 11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (a) 16. (b) 17. (*)

18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (c) 21. (b) 22. (b) 23. (b) 24. (a) 25. (*)

***