The Complete Guide to

Euler's Formula
by Kim Thibault
 The Complete Guide to Euler’s Formula

The Complete Guide to

Euler’s Formula

In the world of complex numbers, as we integrate trigonometric expres-

sions, we will likely encounter the so-called Euler’s formula.
Named after the legendary mathematician Leonhard Euler, this powerful
equation deserves a closer examination — in order for us to use it to its
full potential.
We will take a look at how Euler’s formula allows us to express com-
plex numbers as exponentials, and explore the different ways it can be
established with relative ease.
In addition, we will also consider its several applications such as the
particular case of Euler’s identity, the exponential form of complex num-
bers, alternate definitions of key functions, and alternate proofs of de
Moivre’s theorem and trigonometric additive identities.

NOTE
This Euler’s formula is to be distinguished from other Euler’s for-
mulas, such as the one for convex polyhedra.

2
The Complete Guide to Euler’s Formula

Table of Contents

1 Introduction, Interpretation and Examples . . . . . . . 4

2 Derivations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1 Derivation Through Power Series . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Derivation Through Calculus . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Derivation Through Polar Coordinates . . . . . 9
3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1 Euler’s Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2 Complex Numbers in Exponential Form . . . . 12
3.3 Alternate Definitions of Key Functions . . . . . 13
3.3.1 Complex Exponential Function . . . 14
3.3.2 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . 14
3.3.3 Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . 15
3.3.4 Complex Logarithm and General Com-
plex Exponential . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.4 Alternate Proofs of De Moivre’s Theorem and
Trigonometric Additive Identities . . . . . . . . 18
4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5 Key Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Table of Contents 3
 The Complete Guide to Euler’s Formula

1 Introduction, Interpretation and

Examples
So what exactly is Euler’s formula? In a nutshell, it is the theorem that
states that

eix = cos x + i sin x

where:

• x is a real number.
• e is the base of the natural logarithm.
• i is the imaginary unit (i.e., square root of −1).

Note
In this formula, the right-hand side is sometimes abbreviated as
cis x, though the left-hand expression eix is usually preferred over
the cis notation.

Euler’s formula establishes the fundamental relationship between trigono-

metric functions and exponential functions. Geometrically, it can be
thought of as a way of bridging two representations of the same unit
complex number in the complex plane.
Let’s take a look at some of the key values of Euler’s formula, and see
how they correspond to points in the trigonometric/unit circle:

• For x = 0, we have e0 = cos 0 + i sin 0, which gives 1 = 1. So far

so good: we know that an angle of 0 on the trigonometric circle
is 1 on the real axis, and this is what we get here.
• For x = 1, we have ei = cos 1 + i sin 1. This result suggests that ei
is precisely the point on the unit circle whose angle is 1 radian.
π
• For x = π2 , we have ei 2 = cos π2 + i sin π2 = i. This result is useful
in some calculations related to physics.
• For x = π, we have eiπ = cos π + i sin π, which means that eiπ =
−1. This result is equivalent to the famous Euler’s identity.

4 1. Introduction, Interpretation and Examples

The Complete Guide to Euler’s Formula

• For x = 2π, we have ei(2π) = cos 2π + i sin 2π, which means that
ei(2π) = 1, same as with x = 0.

A key to understanding Euler’s formula lies in rewriting the formula as

follows:

(ei )x = sin x + i cos x

where:

• The right-hand expression can be thought of as the unit complex

number with angle x.
• The left-hand expression can be thought of as the 1-radian unit
complex number raised to x.

And since raising a unit complex number to a power can be thought of

as repeated multiplications (i.e., adding up angles in this case), Euler’s
formula can be construed as two different ways of running around the
unit circle to arrive at the same point.
(for an animation illustrating this idea, see https://www.desmos.com/
calculator/v1nugr08y5.)

1. Introduction, Interpretation and Examples 5

 The Complete Guide to Euler’s Formula

2 Derivations
Euler’s formula can be established in at least three ways. The first deriva-
tion is based on power series, where the exponential, sine and cosine
functions are expanded as power series to conclude that the formula in-
deed holds.
The second derivation of Euler’s formula is based on calculus, in which
both sides of the equation are treated as functions and differentiated ac-
cordingly. This then leads to the identification of a common property
— one which can be exploited to show that both functions are indeed
equal.
Yet another derivation of Euler’s formula involves the use of polar co-
ordinates in the complex plane, through which the values of r and θ
are subsequently found. In fact, you might be able to guess what these
values are — just by looking at the formula itself!

2.1 Derivation Through Power Series

One of the most intuitive derivations of Euler’s formula involves the use
of power series. It consists in expanding the power series of exponential,
sine and cosine — to finally conclude that the equality holds.
As a caveat, this approach assumes that the power series expansions of
sin z, cos z, and ez are absolutely convergent everywhere (e.g., that they
hold for all complex numbers z). However, it also has the advantage of
showing that Euler’s formula holds for all complex numbers z as well.
For a complex variable z, the power series expansion of ez is

z z2 z3 z4
ez = 1 + + + + + ···
1! 2! 3! 4!
Now, let us take z to be ix (where x is an arbitrary complex number). As
z gets raised to increasing powers, i also gets raised to increasing powers.
The first eight powers of i look like this:

i0 =1 i4 = i2 · i2 = 1
i1 =i i5 = i · i4 = i
i2 = −1 (by the definition of i) i6 = i · i5 = −1
i3 = i · i2 = −i i7 = i · i6 = −i

6 2. Derivations
The Complete Guide to Euler’s Formula

(notice the cyclicality of the powers of i: 1, i, −1, −i. We’ll be using

these powers shortly.)
With z = ix, the expansion of ez becomes:

(ix)2 (ix)3 (ix)4

ix
e = 1 + ix + + + + ···
2! 3! 4!
Extracting the powers of i, we get:

x2 ix3 x4 ix5 x6 ix7 x8

eix = 1 + ix − − + + − − + + ···
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7! 8!
And since the power series expansion of ez is absolutely convergent, we
can rearrange its terms without altering its value. Grouping the real and
imaginary terms together then yields:
Å ã Å ã
x2 x4 x6 x8 x3 x5 x7
e = 1−
ix
+ − + − ··· + i x − + − + ···
2! 4! 6! 8! 3! 5! 7!

Now, let’s take a detour and look at the power series of sine and cosine.
The power series of cos x is

x2 x4 x6 x8
cos x = 1 − + − + − ···
2! 4! 6! 8!
And for sin x, it is

x3 x5 x7
sin x = x − + − + ···
3! 5! 7!
In other words, the last equation we had is precisely

eix = cos x + i sin x

which is the statement of Euler’s formula that we were looking for.

2.2 Derivation Through Calculus

Another neat way to establish Euler’s formula is to consider both eix and
cos x + i sin x as functions of x, before differentiating them to find some
common property about them.

2.2 Derivation Through Calculus 7

 The Complete Guide to Euler’s Formula

For that to happen though, one must assume that the functions ez , cos x
and sin x are defined and differentiable for all real numbers x and com-
plex numbers z. By assuming that these functions are differentiable for
all complex numbers, it is also possible to show that Euler’s formula
holds for all complex numbers as well.
First, let f1 (x) and f2 (x) be eix and cos x + i sin x, respectively. Differen-
tiating f1 via chain rule then yields:

f1′ (x) = ieix = if1 (x)

Similarly, differentiating f2 also yields:

f2′ (x) = − sin x + i cos x = if2 (x)

In other words, both functions satisfy the differential equation f ′ (x) =

if (x). Now, consider the function ff21 , which is well-defined for all x
(since f2 (x) = cos x + i sin x corresponds to points on the unit circle,
which are never zero). With that settled, using the quotient rule on this
function then yields:
Å ã′
f1 f1′ (x)f2 (x) − f1 (x)f2′ (x)
(x) =
f2 [f2 (x)]2
if1 (x)f2 (x) − f1 (x)if2 (x)
=
[f2 (x)]2
=0

And since the derivative here is 0, this implies that the function ff12 must
have been a constant to begin with. What is the value of this constant?
Let’s figure it out by plugging in x = 0 into the function:
Å ã
f1 ei0
(0) = =1
f2 cos 0 + i sin 0

In other words, we must have that for all x:

Å ã
f1 eix
(x) = =1
f2 cos x + i sin x

which, after moving cos x + i sin x to the right, becomes the famous for-
mula we’ve been looking for.

8 2.2 Derivation Through Calculus

The Complete Guide to Euler’s Formula

2.3 Derivation Through Polar Coordinates

Yet another ingenious proof of Euler’s formula involves treating exponen-
tials as numbers, or more specifically, as complex numbers under polar
coordinates.
Indeed, we already know that all non-zero complex numbers can be ex-
pressed in polar coordinates in a unique way. In particular, any number
of the form eix (with real x), which is non-zero, can be expressed as:

eix = r(cos θ + i sin θ)

where θ is its principal angle from the positive real axis (with, say, 0 ≤
θ < 2π), and r is its radius (with r > 0). We make no assumption about
the values of r and θ, except the fact that they are functions of x (which
may or may not contain x as variable). They will be determined in the
course of the proof.
(However, what we do know is that when x = 0, the left-hand side is 1,
which implies that r and θ satisfy the initial conditions of r(0) = 1 and
θ(0) = 0, respectively.)
For what it’s worth, we’ll begin by differentiating both sides of the equa-
tion. By the definition of exponential, differentiating the left side of the
equation with respect to x yields ieix . After differentiating the right side
of the equation, the equation then becomes:
dr dθ
ieix = (cos θ + i sin θ) + r(− sin θ + i cos θ)
dx dx
We’re looking for an expression that is uniquely in terms of r and θ. To
get rid of eix , we substitute back r(cos θ + i sin θ) for eix to get:

dr dθ
ir(cos θ + i sin θ) = (cos θ + i sin θ) + r(− sin θ + i cos θ)
dx dx
Once there, distributing the i on the left-hand side then yields:
dr dθ
r(i cos θ − sin θ) = (cos θ + i sin θ) + r(− sin θ + i cos θ)
dx dx
Equating the imaginary and real parts, respectively, we get:
dr dθ
ir cos θ = i sin θ + ir cos θ
dx dx

2.3 Derivation Through Polar Coordinates 9

 The Complete Guide to Euler’s Formula

and
dr dθ
−r sin θ = cos θ − r sin θ
dx dx
What we have here is a system of two equations and two unknowns,
where dr/dx and dθ/dx are the variables. We can solve it in a few steps.
First, by assigning α to dr/dx and β to dθ/dx, we get:

r cos θ = (sin θ)α + (r cos θ)β (I)

−r sin θ = (cos θ)α − (r sin θ)β (II)

Second, by multiplying (I) by cos θ and (II) by sin θ, we get:

r cos2 θ = (sin θ cos θ)α + (r cos2 θ)β (III)

−r sin2 θ = (sin θ cos θ)α − (r sin2 θ)β (IV)

The purpose of these operations is to eliminate α by doing (III) – (IV),

and when we do that, we get:

r(cos2 θ + sin2 θ) = r(cos2 θ + sin2 θ)β

Since cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1, a simpler equation emerges:

r = rβ

And since r > 0 for all x, this implies that β — which we had set to be
dθ/dx — is equal to 1.
Once there, substituting this result back into (I) and (II) and doing some
cancelling, we get:

0 = (sin θ)α
0 = (cos θ)α
dr
which implies that α — which we have set to be dx — must be equal to
0.
From the fact that dr/dx = 0, we can deduce that r must be a constant.
Similarly, from the fact that dθ/dx = 1, we can deduce that θ = x + C
for some constant C.
However, since r satisfies the initial condition r(0) = 1, we must have
that r = 1. Similarly, because θ satisfies the initial condition θ(0) = 0,
we must have that C = 0. That is, θ = x.

10 2.3 Derivation Through Polar Coordinates

The Complete Guide to Euler’s Formula

With r and θ now identified, we can then plug them into the original
equation and get:

eix = r(cos θ + i sin θ)

= cos x + i sin x

which, as expected, is exactly the statement of Euler’s formula for real

numbers x.

3 Applications
Being one of the most important equations in mathematics, Euler’s for-
mula certainly has its fair share of interesting applications in different
topics. These include, among others:

• The famous Euler’s identity

• The exponential form of complex numbers
• Alternate definitions of trigonometric and hyperbolic functions
• Generalization of exponential and logarithmic functions to com-
plex numbers
• Alternate proofs of de Moivre’s theorem and trigonometric addi-
tive identities

3.1 Euler’s Identity

Euler’s identity is often considered to be the most beautiful equation in
mathematics. It is written as

eiπ + 1 = 0

where it showcases five of the most important constants in mathematics.

These are:

• The additive identity 0

• The unity 1
• The Pi constant π (ratio of a circle’s circumference to its diameter)
• The base of natural logarithm e

3. Applications 11
 The Complete Guide to Euler’s Formula

• The imaginary unit i

Among these, three types of numbers are represented: integers, irra-

tional numbers and imaginary numbers. Three of the basic mathemati-
cal operations are also represented: addition, multiplication and expo-
nentiation.
We obtain Euler’s identity by starting with Euler’s formula

eix = cos x + i sin x

and by setting x = π and sending the subsequent −1 to the left-hand

side. The intermediate form

eiπ = −1

is common in the context of trigonometric unit circle in the complex

plane: it corresponds to the point on the unit circle whose angle with
respect to the positive real axis is π.

3.2 Complex Numbers in Exponential Form

At this point, we already know that a complex number z can be expressed
in Cartesian coordinates as x + iy, where x and y are respectively the
real part and the imaginary part of z.
Indeed, the same complex number can also be expressed in polar coor-
dinates as r(cos θ + i sin θ), where r is the magnitude of its distance to
the origin, and θ is its angle with respect to the positive real axis.
But it does not end there: thanks to Euler’s formula, every complex num-
ber can now be expressed as a complex exponential as follows:

z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) = reiθ

where r and θ are the same numbers as before.

To go from (x, y) to (r, θ), we use the formulas
√
r = x2 + y 2
θ = atan2(y, x)

(where atan2(y, x) is the two-argument arctangent function with atan2(y, x) =

arctan( xy ) whenever x > 0.)

12 3.2 Complex Numbers in Exponential Form

The Complete Guide to Euler’s Formula

Conversely, to go from (r, θ) to (x, y), we use the formulas:

x = r cos θ
y = r sin θ
The exponential form of complex numbers also makes multiplying com-
plex numbers much easier — much like the same way rectangular coor-
dinates make addition easier. For example, given two complex numbers
z1 = r1 eiθ1 and z2 = r2 eiθ2 , we can now multiply them together as fol-
lows:
z1 z2 = r1 eiθ1 · r2 eiθ2
= r1 r2 ei(θ1 +θ2 )

In the same spirit, we can also divide the same two numbers as follows:

z1 r1 eiθ1
=
z2 r2 eiθ2
r1
= ei(θ1 −θ2 )
r2

NOTE
To be sure, these do presuppose properties of exponent such as
ez1 +z2 = ez1 ez2 and e−z1 = e1z1 , which for example can be estab-
lished by expanding the power series of ez1 , e−z1 and ez2 .

Had we used the rectangular x + iy notation instead, the same division

would have required multiplying by the complex conjugate in the numer-
ator and denominator. With the polar coordinates, the situation would
have been the same (save perhaps worse).
If anything, the exponential form sure makes it easier to see that multiply-
ing two complex numbers is really the same as multiplying magnitudes
and adding angles, and that dividing two complex numbers is really the
same as dividing magnitudes and subtracting angles.

3.3 Alternate Definitions of Key Functions

Euler’s formula can also be used to provide alternate definitions to key
functions such as the complex exponential function, trigonometric func-

3.3 Alternate Definitions of Key Functions 13

 The Complete Guide to Euler’s Formula

tions such as sine, cosine and tangent, and their hyperbolic counterparts.
It can also be used to establish the relationship between some of these
functions as well.

3.3.1 Complex Exponential Function

To begin, recall that Euler’s formula states that

eix = cos x + i sin x

If the formula is assumed to hold for real x only, then the exponential
function is only defined up to the imaginary numbers. However, we can
also expand the exponential function to include all complex numbers —
by following a very simple trick:
df
ez = ex+iy (= ex eiy ) = ex (cos y + i sin y)

NOTE
Here, we are not necessarily assuming that the additive property
for exponents holds (which it does), but that the first and the last
expression are equal.

In other words, the exponential of the complex number x + iy is simply

the complex number whose magnitude is ex and whose angle is y. Inter-
estingly, this means that complex exponential essentially maps vertical
lines to circles.
(for an animation illustrating this point, see https://www.desmos.com/
calculator/hntpdkicjn.)

3.3.2 Trigonometric Functions

Apart from extending the domain of exponential function, we can also
use Euler’s formula to derive a similar equation for the opposite angle
−x:
e−ix = cos x − i sin x

This equation, along with Euler’s formula itself, constitute a system of

equations from which we can isolate both the sine and cosine functions.

14 3.3 Alternate Definitions of Key Functions

The Complete Guide to Euler’s Formula

For example, by subtracting the e−ix equation from the eix equation, the
cosines cancel out and after dividing by 2i, we get the complex exponen-
tial form of the sine function:
eix − e−ix
sin x =
2i
Similarly, by adding the two equations together, the sines cancel out and
after dividing by 2, we get the complex exponential form of the cosine
function:
eix + e−ix
cos x =
2
(for a video illustrating these derivations, see https://www.youtube.
com/embed/LE2uwd9V5vw?start=180.)
sin x
On the other hand, the tangent function is defined to be cos x , so in terms
of complex exponentials, it becomes:
eix − e−ix
tan x =
i(eix + e−ix )
If Euler’s formula is proven to hold for all complex numbers (as we did
in the proof via power series), then the same would be true for these
three formulas as well. Their presence allows us to switch freely between
trigonometric functions and complex exponentials, which is a big plus
when it comes to calculating derivatives and integrals.

3.3.3 Hyperbolic Functions

In addition to trigonometric functions, hyperbolic functions are yet an-
other class of functions that can be defined in terms of complex exponen-
tials. In fact, it’s through this connection we can identify a hyperbolic
function with its trigonometric counterpart.
For example, by starting with complex sine and complex cosine and
plugging in iz (and making use of the facts that i2 = −1 and 1/i = −i),
we have:
ei(iz) − e−i(iz)
sin iz =
2i
−z
e − ez
=
Å 2i ã
ez − e−z
=i
2

3.3 Alternate Definitions of Key Functions 15

 The Complete Guide to Euler’s Formula

= i sinh z

ei(iz) + e−i(iz)
cos iz =
2
z −z
e +e
=
2
= cosh z
From these, we can also plug in iz into complex tangent and get:
sin iz i sinh z
tan(iz) = = = i tanh z
cos iz cosh z
In short, this means that we can now define hyperbolic functions in
terms of trigonometric functions as follows:
sin iz
sinh z =
i
cosh z = cos iz
tan iz
tanh z =
i
But then, these are not the only functions we can provide new definitions
to. In fact, the complex logarithm and the general complex exponential
are two other classes of functions we can define — as a result of Euler’s
formula.

3.3.4 Complex Logarithm and General Complex Ex-

ponential
The logarithm of a complex number behaves in a peculiar manner when
compared to the logarithm of a real number. More specifically, it has an
infinite number of values instead of one.
To see how, we start with the definition of logarithmic function as the
inverse of exponential function. That is:
eln z = z ln(ez ) = z
Furthermore, we also know that for any pair of complex numbers z1 and
z2 , the additive property for exponents holds:
ez1 ez2 = ez1 +z2

16 3.3 Alternate Definitions of Key Functions

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Thus, when a non-zero complex number is expressed as an exponential,

we have that:
z = |z|eiϕ = eln |z| eiϕ = eln |z|+iϕ
where |z| is the magnitude of z and ϕ is the angle of z from the positive
real axis. And since logarithm is simply the exponent of a number when
it’s raised to e, the following definition is in order:

ln z = ln |z| + iϕ

At first, this seems like a robust way of defining the complex logarithm.
However, a second look reveals that the logarithm defined this way can
assume an infinite number of values — due to the fact that ϕ can also
be chosen to be any other number of the form ϕ + 2πk (where k is an
integer).
For example, we’ve seen from earlier that e0 = 1 and e2πi = 1. This
means one could define the logarithm of 1 to be both 0 and 2πi — or
any number of the form 2πki for that matter (where k is an integer).
To solve this conundrum, two separate approaches are usually used. The
first approach is to simply consider the complex logarithm as a multi-
valued function. That is, a function that maps each input to a set of
values. One way to achieve this is to define ln z as follows:

{ln |z| + i(ϕ + 2πk)}

where −π < ϕ ≤ π and k is an integer. Here, the clause −π < ϕ ≤ π

has the effect of restricting the angle of z to only one candidate. Because
of that, the ϕ defined this way is usually called the principal angle of z.
The second approach, which is arguably more elegant, is to simply define
the complex logarithm of z so that ϕ is the principal angle of z. With that
understanding, the original definition then becomes well-defined:

ln z = ln |z| + iϕ

For( example,
π)
under this new rule, we would have that ln 1 = 0 and ln i =
ln ei 2 = i π2 . No longer are we stuck with the problem of periodicity
of angles!
However, with the restriction that −π < ϕ ≤ π, the range of complex
logarithm is now reduced to the rectangular region −π < y ≤ π (i.e., the
principal branch). And if we want to preserve the inverse relationship
between logarithm and exponential, we’d also need to do the same to
the domain of exponential function as well.

3.3 Alternate Definitions of Key Functions 17

 The Complete Guide to Euler’s Formula

But then, because the complex logarithm is now well-defined, we can

also define many other things based on it without running into ambiguity.
One such example would be the general complex exponential (with a
non-zero base a), which can be defined as follows:
z df
az = eln(a ) = ez ln a

NOTE
Here, we are not assuming that the power rule for logarithm holds
(because it doesn’t), but that the first and the last expression are
equal.

For example, using the general complex exponential as defined above,

we can now get a sense of what ii actually means:
ii = ei ln i
π
= ei 2 i
= e− 2
π

≈ 0.208

3.4 Alternate Proofs of De Moivre’s Theo-

rem and Trigonometric Additive Iden-
tities
The theorem known as de Moivre’s theorem states that
(cos x + i sin x)n = cos nx + i sin nx
where x is a real number and n is an integer. By default, this can be
shown to be true by induction (through the use of some trigonometric
identities), but with the help of Euler’s formula, a much simpler proof
now exists.
To begin, recall that the multiplicative property for exponents states that
(ez )k = ezk
While this property is generally not true for complex numbers, it does
hold in the special case where k is an integer. Indeed, it’s not hard to

18 3.4 Alternate Proofs of De Moivre’s Theorem and Trigonometric Additive Identities

The Complete Guide to Euler’s Formula

see that in this case, the mathematics essentially boils down to repeated
applications of the additive property for exponents.
And with that settled, we can then easily derive de Moivre’s theorem as
follows:
n
(cos x + i sin x)n = (eix ) = einx = cos nx + i sin nx
In practice, this theorem is commonly used to find the roots of a complex
number, and to obtain closed-form expressions for sin nx and cos nx. It
does so by reducing functions raised to high powers to simple trigono-
metric functions — so that calculations can be done with ease.
In fact, de Moivre’s theorem is not the only theorem whose proof can
be simplified as a result of Euler’s formula. Other identities, such as the
additive identities for sin(x + y) and cos(x + y), also benefit from that
effect as well.
Indeed, we already know that for all real x and y:
cos(x + y) + i sin(x + y) = ei(x+y)
= eix · eiy
= (cos x + i sin x)(cos y + i sin y)
= (cos x cos y − sin x sin y)
+ i(sin x cos y + cos x sin y)
Once there, equating the real and imaginary parts on both sides then
yields the famed identities we were looking for:
cos(x + y) = cos x cos y − sin x sin y
sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y

4 Conclusion
As can be seen above, Euler’s formula is a rare gem in the realm of mathe-
matics. It establishes the fundamental relationship between exponential
and trigonometric functions, and paves the way for much development
in the world of complex numbers, complex functions and related theory.
Indeed, whether it’s Euler’s identity or complex logarithm, Euler’s for-
mula seems to leave no stone unturned whenever expressions such sin,
i and e are involved. It’s a powerful tool whose mastery can be tremen-
dously rewarding, and for that reason is a rightful candidate of ”the most
remarkable formula in mathematics”.

4. Conclusion 19
 The Complete Guide to Euler’s Formula

5 Key Formulas
Description Statement
Euler’s formula eix = cos x + i sin x
Euler’s identity eiπ + 1 = 0
Complex number z = reiθ
(exponential form)
Complex exponential ex+iy = ex (cos y + i sin y)

eix − e−ix
Sine sin x =
(exponential form) 2i
eix + e−ix
Cosine cos x =
(exponential form) 2
eix − e−ix
Tangent tan x =
(exponential form) i(eix + e−ix )
sin iz
Hyperbolic sine sinh z =
(exponential form) i

Hyperbolic cosine cosh z = cos iz

(exponential form)
tan iz
Hyperbolic tangent tanh z =
(exponential form) i

Complex logarithm ln z = ln |z| + iϕ

General complex exponential az = ez ln a
De Moivre’s theorem (cos x + i sin x)n = cos nx + i sin nx
Additive identity of sine sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
Additive identity of cosine cos(x + y) = cos x cos y − sin x sin y

20 5. Key Formulas
The Complete Guide to Euler’s Formula

Additional Resources

• Definitive Guide to Learning Higher Mathematics: A standalone

10-principle framework for tackling higher mathematical learning,
thinking and problem solving
• Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols: A comprehensive
collection of the most notable symbols in mathematics, presented
in concise format with corresponding examples and LaTeX codes
• Ultimate LaTeX Reference Guide: A definitive reference guide
on the LaTeX language, with the commands, environments and
packages most LaTeX users will ever need

Additional Resources 21